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TYPES OF MANKIND. 





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TYPES OF MANKIND: 



CtjinnlDgiwl Hesearrjifs, 



BASED TTPON THE 



ANCIENT MONUMENTS, PAINTINGS, SCULPTURES, 
AND CRANIA OF RACES, 

AND UPON THEIR 

NATURAL, GEOGRAPHICAL, PHELOLOGICAL, 
AND BIBLICAL HISTORY: 

ILLUSTRATED BY SELECTIONS FROM THE INEDITED PAPERS OF 

SAMUEL GEOEGE MORTON, M,D., 

(LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATUB^VL SCIENCES AT PHILADElPmA,) 
AND BY ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS FROM 

PROF. L. AGASSIZ, LL.D.; W. USHER, M.D.; AND PROF. H. S. PATTERSON, M.D.: 
l--*^'" >: , BY 

J. C. NOTT, M.D., AND GEO. R. GLIDDON, 

UOBILE, ALABAMA, FOBMEBLT U. S. CONSITL AT CAIRO. 



— " Words are things ; and a small drop of ink, 

Falling, like dew upon a thought, produces 

That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think." — BmON 




PHILADELPHIA: 

LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO, 

1854. 



d^' 



r^ 






^^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by 

LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO., 

in the Clerk's OfiSce of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern 
District of Pennsylvania. 



TO THE 

M E M E Y 

OF 

MORTON. 



ANNOUNCEMENT. 



On publishing a work calculated to attract notice in the scientific 
and literary world, it is due to the Authors, the Subscribers, and 
ourselves, to invite comparison between the proposals set forth in 
the First Prospectus pSTew Orleans, Dec, 1852], and their realiza- 
tion in the greatly-enlarged form in which "Types of Mankind" 
now issues from our hands. 

In the first place, that monument, which Dr. I^ott and Mr. 
Gliddon proposed jointly to erect to the memory of Samuel 
Geo. Morton, has become augmented by the contributions of Prof. 
Agassiz, Dr. Patterson, and Dr. Usher. 

Secondly, in lieu of a book projected to contain printed matter 
equivalent to Vol. I. of the Smithsonian Institution, we have the 
satisfaction of presenting our Subscribers with more than double 
the typographical amount originally promised. " Above 200 wood- 
cuts" were guaranteed: the number, herein furnished, runs up to 
Fig, 362. 'So lithographic Plates were contemplated in the first 
announcement, and but one Map. Of the former we now include 
five, whereof one is a colored Tableau ; of the latter two, and both 
are tinted : at the same time that the Tables, &c., are abundantly 
increased in number and variety. Nor in the general execution, 
quality of paper, and minor details, has labor or outlay been spared 
B (vii) 



VUl ANNOUNCEMENT. 

to exceed every promise made, by the Authors or ourselves, from 
the commencement of this undertaking. 

The whole of these addenda are placed before Subscribers at the 
original price of Five Dollars per copy; and it is owing to the 
unexampled and liberal support they have given to our enterprise 
that we are thus enabled to serve them without stint or loss. 

In conformity with the First Prospectus the work is suppUed 
"stitched, with an appropriate cover," to the Subscribers whose names 
are printed in the Alphabetical List: all extra -expenditure having 
been bestowed upon the contents of this volume rather than upon 
its envelope. Non-subscribers who may desire copies of the present 
edition can be supplied with hound volumes alone, and at Seven 
dollars and a half each. 

LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO., 

Publishers. 

Philadelphia, February, 1854. 



PREFACE, 



BY GEO. R. GLIDDON. 



" The subject of Ethnology I deem it expedient to postpone. On this I 
have collected a mass of new materials, which I hope in time to produce ; 
but until they have been submitted to the masterly analysis of my honored 
friend, Samtjbl Geobge Morton, M. D., Philadelphia, a synopsis from my 
hands would be premature." * 

Little did I expect, while penning the above note, that, ere four 
years had ran their course, it would fall to the lot of Dr. ISTott and 
myself to "close ranks" and partially fill the gap left in American 
Ethnology when the death-shot struck down our friend and leader. 
To him the "new materials" were submitted: by him they were 
analyzed with his customary acuteness ; and from him would the world 
have received a series of works superseding the necessity for the 
present volume, together with any public action of my colleague and 
myself in that science so indelibly marked by Morton as his own. 
The 15th of May, 1851, arrested his hand, and left us, with all who 
knew him, to sorrow at his loss: nor, for eleven months, did the 
endeavor to raise a literary monument to his memory suggest 
itself either to Dr. I^ott or to myself. 

" Types of Mankind" owes its origin to the following incidents : — 
After a gratifying winter at !N"ew Orleans, I visited Mobile in April, 
1852 ; partly to deliver a course of Lectures upon " Babylon, Nine- 
veh, and Persepolis," but mainly to renew with Dr. ISTott those 
interchanges of thought which amity had commenced during my 
preceding sojourn, in 1848, at one of the most agreeable of cities. 
Morton and Ethnology, it may well be supposed, were exhaustless 
topics of conversation. Deploring that no one had stepped forward 
to make known the matured views of the father of our cis- Atlantic 
school of Anthropology, it occurred to us that we would write one 
or more articles, in some Review, based upon the correspondence and 

* Hand-book to the Nile; London, Madden, 1849; p. 18, note. 

(ix) 



X PREFACE. 

printed papers of Morton in our several possession. Before doing so, 
however, we conceived it to be due to Mrs. Morton and her home-circle, 
to inquire by letter, if such proceeding would obtain their sanction ; 
and also whether, in Mrs. Morton's opinion, there were among the 
Doctor's manuscripts any that might be eligibly embodied in our pro- 
posed articles. The graceful readiness with which our proffer was met 
is best exemplified by the fact that Dr. l^ott and myself received im- 
mediately, by express from Philadelphia, a mass of Dr. Morton's auto- 
graphs on scientific themes, together with such books and papers as 
were deemed suitable for our purposes. On a subsequent visit to 
Philadelphia, I was permitted to select from the Doctor's shelves 
whatever was held to be appropriate to our studies ; and, while 
this book has been passing through the press, the whole of Dr. Mor- 
ton's correspondence with the scientific world was entrusted to Dr. 
Patterson and myself for mutual reference. But, the unbounded 
confidence with which we have been honored, whilst most precious 
to our feelings, enhances greatly our responsibility. Actuated, indi- 
vidually, by the sole desire to render justice to our beloved friend, 
each of us has executed his part of the task to the best of his ability : 
at the same time we can emphatically declare that, until the pages of 
our work were stereotyped, no member of Dr. Morton's family was 
cognizant of their verbal contents. Thus much it is my privilege to 
testify, in order that, if any of the wiiters have erred in their concep- 
tions of Morton's scientific opinions, the onus of such inadvertence 
may fall upon themselves exclusively. ITevertheless, the singleness 
of purpose and harmony of method with which Dr. l^ott. Dr. Patter- 
son, and myself, have striven to fulfil our pledges, are guarantees 
that no erroneous interpretations, if any such exist, can have arisen 
intentionally. Throughout this volume, Morton speaks for himself. 

The receipt at Mobile of such welcome accretions to our ethno- 
graphical stock prompted a change of plan. In lieu of ephemeral 
notices in a Review, Dr. Nott united with me in the. projection of 
" Tj'pes of Mankind " ; the scope of which has daily grown larger, in 
the ratio of the facilities with which we have been signally favored. 

On the first printed announcement of our intention [New Orleans, 
December, 1852], the interest manifested among the friends of science 
was such, that, by March, I counted nearly 500 subscriptions in 
furtherance of the work. 

Prof Agassiz's very opportune visit to Mobile during April, 
1853, led to a contribution from his own pen that bases the Natural 
History of mankind upon a principle heretofore unanticipated. 
Dr. Usher kindly volunteered a synopsis of the geological and palae- 
ontological features of human history; and Dr. Patterson, fellow- 



• PREFACE. XI 

citizen, professional colleague, and admiring friend of Dr. Morton, 
undertook the biographical Memoir which justifies this volume's 
dedication. The frank concurrence of Messrs. Lippincott, Grambo 
& Co. has removed every obstacle to efiective publication : and thus, 
through the liberality and thirst for information, so eminently 
characteristic of American republicanism, " Types of Mankind," 
invested with abundant signatures, issues into day as one among 
multitudinous witnesses how, in our own age and land, scientific 
works can be written and published without solicitation of patron- 
age from Governments, Institutions, or Societies ; but solely through 
the co-operative support of an educated and knowledge -seeking 
people. 

The departments of our undertaking, respectively assumed by Dr. 
'Nott and myself, having been already set forth (infra, Part in.. 
Essay I., p. 626), repetition is here superfluous. But while, on my 
side, I was enabled to devote nearly twelve months of uninter- 
rupted seclusion (in Baldwin county, Alabama) to my portion of the 
labor, it must not be forgotten, on the other, that my colleague at 
Mobile performed his task under the ceaseless pressure of the severest 
professional duties. In view, therefore, of the amount of Dr. li^ott's 
achievements under such adverse circumstances, the reader who may 
be pleased to criticize the editorship of "Types of Mankind," whilst 
recognizing my colleague's hand in every line of Part I., and his 
frequent suggestions throughout Parts 11. and III., as concerns the 
substance, will act but justly if, as regards modes of expression, 
he should direct any strictures towards myself; whose part it has 
been occasionally to connect the various sections of this work by 
reconstructed sentences, or through a few intercalated paragraphs, 
consequent upon the reception of new "copy" from Dr. l^ott during 
the passage of these sheets through the press. Even at this later 
stage of our enterprise, owing to the distance between Mobile and 
Philadelphia, and to the dire havoc produced by a yellow fever 
simultaneously among our friends around Mobile Bay, I have not 
possessed the advantage of Dr. ;N"ott's revision of "proof-sheets," 
nor had he the time to propose alterations. 

The Preface to my Otia j^gyptiaca assigns sufficient reasons why 
any aspirations of mine towards excellence in English composition 
would be va;n. With myself, style is ever subordinate to matter ; 
but my valued friends, Mr. Redwood Eisher, Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, 
and Dr. Henry S. Patterson, have most obhgingly looked over a 
large portion of the " revises" as they came from the hands of the 
stereotyper. 

I indulge the hope that all those gentlemen who have directly 



XU PREFACE. 

promoted the scientific interests of our work, will find in it due 
acknowledgment of their courtesies. For the free use of the col- 
lection of Egyptological works — the best accessible to the public in 
this country — belonging to the Philadelphia Library Company, Dr. 
Morton's brother-in-law, Mr. John Jay Smith, will accept my sincere 
thanks. 

The Publishers state, on another page, the endeavor made to 
furnish our Subscribers with counter-value for their subscriptions far 
in excess of my original promises ; and with these brief expository 
remarks my pen would stop, did not personal gratitude claim 
expression. 

Those acquainted Avith my earlier life (spent in the Levant until 
the age of thirty-two) may, perhaps, read some portions of this 
volume with feelings of surprise at the range of studies once so alien 
to my vocations, prospects, and ambition. By way of explanation 
let me state, that, whatever may have been the ground-work previ- 
ously laid for the prosecution of self-culture, there was one obstacle 
to progress which would have been insurmountable, when (one among 
the million seeking freedom) I re-landed in the United States (1842), 
but for the friendship of a gentleman who — unlike Pharaoh's chief 
butler that did not " remember Joseph, but forgat him" — had known 
me in illo tempore at Memphis. The munificence of Mr. R. K. 
Haight of New York obviated all difiiculty by placing the necessary 
materials for study at my disposal ; and not content with facilitating 
the attainment of my desires by his encouraging acts at home, Mr. 
Haight, on two occasions, enabled me to seek instruction abroad, at 
the fountain-sources of Paris, London, and Berlin. The pulsations 
of a grateful heart, and the hope that some readers may deem favors 
so magnanimous not uselessly bestowed, are the only reciprocities 
that can at present be tendered to him by 

G. R. G. 

Philadelphia, 1st Jan., 1854. 



POSTSCRIPTUM. 

BY J. C. NOTT. 



I have just received from Philadelphia proof-sheets of the above 
Preface, and hasten to add a few words. 

Above three hundred and sixty wood-cuts, besides many litho- 
graphic plates, adorn this volume, and upon them, to some extent, 
depend its value and success. The reader can well imagine the 



PREFACE. Xm 

immense labor and heavy expense required to prepare a series of 
illustrations of this kind, wherein minute accuracy is so indispensable, 
and where such accuracy can be attained only through long-con- 
tinued and patient industry combined with high artistic skill. So 
great, indeed, were the difficulties to be overcome, that the authors 
could never for a moment have entertained the idea of publishing a 
work like " Types of Mankind," had it not been for the aid gener- 
ously proffered by Mrs. Gliddon, the accomplished lady of my col- 
league. To her amateur pencil are we indebted for the drawings of 
more than three hundred of our wood-cuts, together with those for 
the lithographed Berlin-effigies. 

To say nothing of the outlay which these illustrations must other- 
wise have involved, it would have been impossible for us to obtain, 
here, an equal conformity to originals through hired artists. Mrs. 
Gliddon's hand was stimulated by no mercenary considerations ; and 
we have enjoyed the incalculable advantage of having her near us at 
Mobile, for more than twelve months ; laboring with us and for us : 
ever ready to alter or amend as our caprice, or necessity, might dic- 
tate. Although Mrs. Gliddon was unaccustomed to drawing on 
wood, and notwithstanding that the wood-engravers at Philadelphia 
(compelled, owing to the nature of the case, to carve from her 
drawings alone without recurrence to the originals), may here and 
there have slightly erred, I venture to assert that no scientific work 
in our language presents as long a series of illustrations more reliable 
for faithfulness to originals. 

Many of the heads, however, are given in simple outline, and the 
majority have required reduction ; but persons who are familiar with 
the great works of Rosellini, Champollion, Prisse, Lepsius, Botta, 
Flandin, Layard, Dumoutier, &c., from which these figures have 
been copied, will at once recognize a truthfulness in Mrs. Gliddon's 
designs (viewed ethnologically) which speaks more than the enco- 
miums of an admiring friend. 

Nor is it proper that I should close this Postscript without some 
acknowledgment to her husband. In the first place, it is mere justice 
to state, that Parts 11. and III. are almost exclusively his own work : 
because, although not uninformed on the points therein treated, and 
agreeing in their scientific results, I wish to mention that the materials, 
conception, and execution of these portions of our volume are due to 
him. Of Part I., on the other hand, a faller share of responsibility 
must fall upon myself The special province, which I have attempted 
to explore, is the Natural History proper of mankind ; and I have 
sought to illustrate it through the physical and linguistic history of 
primeval races, as deduced from the time-worn monuments of nations 



XIV PKEFACE. 

by the leading archaeologists of our Bineteenth century. This effort 
has also been much facilitated through the zeal and experience of 
my collaborator, Mr. Gliddon. 

It is with no small gratification I now feel assured that, through 
Dr. Patterson's effective "Memoir," Morton's cherished fame will 
evermore preserve its rightful place among men of science ; and, 
again, that those grand Truths, for which I have long " fought and 
bled," are at last established by the unanswerable "Sketch" of our 
chief naturalist, Prof. Agassiz ; as well as triumphantly confirmed 
through the teachings of scholars who have investigated the records 
of antiquity in Egypt, China, Assyria, India, Palestine, and other 
Oriental countries. 

J. C. N. 

Mobile, Ala., January 12tli, 1854. 



1^ 



CONTENTS. 



PAOS 

FRONTISPIECE — Portrait of Samuel George Morton. [Sleel Engraving.] 

m 

DEDICATION — " To the Memory of Morton" v 

PREFACE — BY Geo. R. Gliddon ix 

Postscriptum — by J. C. Nott xii 

MEMOIR — "Notice of the Life and Scientific Labors of the late Samuel 

Geo. Morton, M.D." — contributed by Prof . Henry S. Patterson, M. D, xvii 

SKETCH — "of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World and their Rela- 
tion to the different Types of Man " — contributed by Prof. L. 
AoAssiz, LL. D. \_With colored lithographic Tableau and Map.'] Iviii 

INTRODUCTION to "Types of Mankind " — by J. C. Nott 49 ^_ 



PART I. 

Chap. I. — Geographical Distribution of Animals and the Races of Men 62 

II. — General Remarks on Types of Mankind 80 

III.- — Specific Types — Caucasian 88 

IV. — Physical History of the Jews Ill 

V. — The Caucasian Types carried through Egyptian Monuments 141 

VI. — African Types , 180 

VII. — Egypt and Egyptians. \_Four lithographic Plal"" "] 210 

VIII. —Negro Types 246 y 

IX. — American and other Types — Aboriginal Races of America 272 

X. — Excerpta from Morton's inedited Manuscripts 298, 

XI. — Geology and PALiEONTOLOGY, in Connection ■with Human Origins — 

contributed by WihLi AW. Usher, M. D 327 ^ 

XII. — Hybridity of Animals, viewed in Connection with the Natural 

History of Mankind — by J. C. Nott 372 

XIII. — Comparative Anatomy of Races — by J. C. Nott 411 

C (XV) 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PART II. 

PASR 

Chap. XIV. — The Xth Chapter of Genesis — Pkeliminaey Remarks 466 

Sect. A. — Analysis or the Hebrew Nomenclature 469 

B. — Observations on the annexed Genealogical Tableau 

OF THE "Sons op Noah" 551 

Genealogical Tableau 552 

C. — Observations on the accompanying "Map of the 

World" 552 

Lithographic tinted Map, exhibiting the Countries more or 

less known to the ancient Writer of Xth Genesis 552 

D. — The Xth Chapter of Genesis modernized, in its Nomen- 
clature, TO DISPLAY POPULARLY, AND IN MODERN 

English, the Meaning of iis ancient Writer 553 

XV. — Biblical Ethnography: — 

Sect. E. — Terms, universal and specific 557 

F. — Structure of Genesis I., II., and III 561 

G. — Cosmas-Indicopleustes 566 

CosMAs's Map [wood-cut] 569 

n. — Antiquity of the Name "ADaM" 572 

PART III. — Supplement — by GtEO. R. Gliddon. 

Essay I. — ARCHiEOLOGicAL Introduction to the Xth Chapter of Genesis 575 

11. — Paljeographic Excursus on the Art of Writing 628 

Table — " Theory of the Order of Development in Human Writings" ... 630 

III. — Mankind's Chronology : — 

Introductory G53 

Chronology — Egyptian 667 

Chinese 689 

Assyrian 697 

Hebrew 702 

Hindoo 715 

APPENDIX I. — Notes and References to Parts I. and II 717 

II. — Alphabetical List of Subscribers to "Types op Mankind"... 731 



MEMOIR 



THE LIFE AND SCIENTIFIC LABORS 



SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 



BY HENRY S. PATTERSON, M. D., 

IMERITCS PROFESSOR OP MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS IN THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF 

PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE ; FELLOW OF THE COLLEGE OP PHYSICIANS ; RECORDING 

SECRETARY OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OP THE STATE OP PENNSYLVANIA. 



"When the authors of the present work, pressed with the lahor of 
preparing for the printer their abundant materials, first siiggested 
that I should assist them by furnishing a notice of the scientific life 
of our deceased friend and leader in Ethnology, I hesitated somewhat 
to undertake the task, feeling that the selection, dictated by their 
partial friendship, might by others be deemed inappropriate, and 
myself considered deficient in those relations which would warrant 
the assumption of the office. Subsequent reflection, however, con- 
vinced me that an acquaintance of fifteen years, approaching to inti- 
macy, — frequent professional and social intercourse, — my position in 
the Medical Faculty, that was founded mainly by his labors, — devo- 
tion in a great degi^ee to the same studies, — community of sentiment 
in regard to the topics of most interest to both, — that all these com- 
bined to constitute a sufficient reason why I should freely'accept the 
duty assigned me. I do it cheerfully, for to me it is a grateful duty 
and a source of pleasure, thus to be allowed to bear testimony to the 
worth and services of the great and good man whom we all had so 
much cause to love and honor. His life I do not propose to write. 
There is but little in the quiet daily walk of any civilian, to furnish a 
theme for biographical narrative. That of Morton was eminently 
placid and regular ; and all that can be said upon it has already been 
Avell and eloquently expressed in the able addresses of Professors 

(xvii) 



XVlll MEMOIE OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

Meigs, "Wood, and Grant.* To Dr. Wood also we are indebted for 
his exposition of Morton's eminent services to medical science, both, 
as a teacher and writer ; a point too frequently overlooked in regard- 
ing him in the more prominent light of a K'aturalist. Passing over 
these topics, my object will be to consider mainly his contiibutions 
to ITatural Science, and especially to Ethnology. As introductory to 
a work upon anthropological subjects, we desire to present Morton 
as the Anthropologist, and as virtually the founder of that school of 
Ethnology, of whose views this book may be regarded as an authentic 
exponent. 

Let me be permitted, however, a few words in relation to the per- 
sonal character and private worth of Morton. At the mention of his 
name there arise emotions which press for utterance, and which it 
would do violence to my feelings to leave unexpressed. If I have 
felt this affection for him, it is only what was shared by all who knew 
him well. What was most peculiar in him was that magnetic power 
by which he attracted and bound men to him, and made them glad 
to serve him. This influence was especially manifested, as I shall 
have occasion to observe again, in the collection of his Cabinet of 
Crania. In looking over his correspondence now, it is surprising to 
see the number of men, so different one from another in every re- 
spect, who in all quarters of tbe globe were laboring without expec- 
tation of reward to secure a cranium for Morton, and to read the 
reports of their varied successes and disappointments. In bis whole 
deportment, there was an evident singleness of purpose and a candor, 
open as the day, which at once placed one at his ease. Combined 
with this was a most winning gentleness of manner, which drew one 
to him as with the cords of brotherly affection. He possessed, more- 
over, in a remarkable degree, the faculty of imparting to others his 
own enthusiasm, and filling them, for the time at least, with ardor 
for his own pursuit. Hence, in a measure,, his success in enlisting 
the numerous collaborators, so necessary to him in his peculiar 
studies. It may be affirmed that no man ever came vsdthin the 
sphere of his influence without forming for him some degree of 

* A memoir of Samuel George Morton, M. D., late President of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, by Charles D. Meigs, M. D. Read Nov. 6th, 1851, and published 
by direction of the Academy : Philada. 1851. 

A Biographical Memoir of Samuel George Morton, M. D., prepared by appointment of 
the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, and read before that body Nov. 3d, 1852, by 
George B. Wood, M. D., President of the College: Philada. 1853. 

Sketch of the Life and Character of Samuel George Morton, M. D. Lecture, introduc- 
tory to a course of Anatomy and Physiology in the Medical Department of Pennsylvania 
College. Delivered Oct. 13th, 1851, by William R. Grant, M. D. Published by request of 
the Class: Philada. 1852 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XIX 

personal attaclament. His circle of attached friends was therefore 
large, and the expression of regret for his untimely loss general and 
sincere. 

It was in London, and while seated at the hospitable board of Dr. 
Thomas Ilodgkin, (to whom I had been introduced by a letter from 
Morton,*) that I first heard the news of his decease. He was the subject 
of an animated and interesting conversation at the moment, (for Dr. H. 
and he had been classmates at Edinburgh,) when a gentleman entered 
with an American newspaper received by the morning's mail, and 
containing the sad intelligence. A cloud came over every counte- 
nance, and every voice was raised in an exclamation of sudden grief 
and regret ; for he was more or less known to all present. My next 
appointment for that day was with Mr. S. Birch, of the Archaeological 
department of the British Museum, who had been a correspondent 
of Morton, and could appreciate his great worth. During tlie da}^, 
Mr. Birch or myself mentioned the melancholy tidings to numerous 
gentlemen, in various departments of that great institution, and 
always with the same repl3^ All knew his name, and felt that in 
his decease the cause of science had suiFered a serious deprivation. 

And this seemed to me his true fame. Outside the walls of this 
noble Temple of Science rolled on the turmoil of the modern 
Babylon, with its world of business, of pleasure, and of care, to 
all which the name of, Morton was unknown, and from which its 
mention could call up no response. Within these walls, however, 
and among a body of men whom a more than princely munificence 
enables to devote themselves to labor like his own, he was uni- 
versally recognized and appreciated, and mourned as a leading 
spirit in their cosmopolite fraternity. But always there was this 
peculiarity to be noticed, that wherever a man had known Morton 
personally at all, he mourned not so much for the untimely extinction 
of an intellectual light, as for the loss of a beloved personal friend. 
Certainly the man who inspired others with this feeling, could him- 
self have no cold or empty heart. On the contrary, he overflowed 

* Among the letters with which Dr. Morton favored me, on my visit to Europe, was one 
to Dr. Alexander Hannay of Glasgow. This he particularly wished me to deliver, and to 
bring him a report of his old friend ; for Dr. H. had been an intimate of his student days, 
although their correspondence had long been interrupted. The letter was written in a 
playful mood, and contained sportive allusions to their student life at Edinburgh, and a wish 
that they might meet again. On reaching Glasgow late in May, I sought Dr. H., and found 
that he had recently deceased. Morton himself, as I afterwards learned, had then also ceased 
to breathe. That letter, so full of genial vivacity and present life, was from the hand of one 
dead man addressed to another ! And should they not meet again ? Rather had they not 
already met where the darkness had become day ! It is a beautiful and consolatory belief, 
and one that the subject of this notice could undoubtingly hold and rejoice in. 



XX MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

with all kindly and gentle aiFeetions. Quiet and unobtrusive in man- 
ners, and fond of the retirement of study, it was only in the privacy 
of the domestic circle that he could be rightly known ; and those that 
were privileged to approach nearest the Sanctum Sanctorum of his 
happy home, could best see the full beauty of his character. That 
sacred veil cannot be raised to the public eye, but beneath its folds 
is preserved the pure memory of one who illustrated every relation 
of life with a new grace that was all his own, and who, in departing, 
has left behind him an impression on all hearts, which not the most 
exacting affection could wish in any respect other than it is. 

The early training of Morton was in strict accordance with the 
principles of the Society of Friends, of which his mother was a mem- 
ber. His school education — whose deficiencies he always mentioned 
with regret, and remedied by sedulous labor in after years — was 
throughout of that character, and had all the consequent merits and 
demerits. It is a system which represses the imagination and senti- 
ments, while it cultivates carefully the logical powers ; and which 
strives to turn all the energies of the pupil's mind toward the useful 
arts, rather than what may be deemed merely ornamental accom- 
plishments. When it carries him beyond the rudiments, it is usually 
into the higher mathematics and mechanical philosophy. Its aim 
is utility, even if necessary at the expense of beauty. It therefore 
does not generally encourage the study of the dead languages, with 
its incidental belles-lettres advantages, and free access to poets and 
rhetoricians. This plan of education I believe to be an unsuitable, 
and even an injurious one for a youth of cold temperament and 
dull sensibilities. When, however, the subject of its operation 
is one of opposite tendencies, so decided as to be the better for 
repression, it may become not only useful, but the best training for 
that particular case. Such I conceive to have been the fact in regard 
to Morton. Endowed by nature with a delicate and sensitive tem- 
perament, with warm affections, a keen sense of natural beauties, a 
fertile imagination, and that nice musical appreciation which made 
him delight in the accord of measured sounds, he had an early passion 
for poetical reading and composition. Even in boyhood he wrote 
very creditable verses ; and his later productions, — for he continued 
to indulge the muse occasionally to the end of his life, although he 
would not publish, — often rose considerably above mediocrity. 

The foUomng lines may answer as an average specimen of his easy 
flow of versification, as well as of his youthful style of thought and 
feeling. They were written on the occasion of a visit to Kilcoleman 
Castle, county Cork, Ireland, where Spenser lived, and is believed to 
have written his immortal poem. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEOEGE MORTOIST. XXI 

LINES 

WRITTEN ON A BLANK LEAF OF SPENSER's " FAERY QUEBNE." 

L 

Through many a winding maze in " Faery Lande" 

Spenser ! I have followed thee along ; 

Aye, I have laughed and sigh'd at thy command, 

And joy'd me in the magic of thy song: 4 

Wild are thy numbers, but to them belong 
The fire of Genius, and poetic skill ; 
'Tis thine to paint with inspiration strong, 
The fate of knight, or dame more knightly still, 
To sway the feeling heart, and rouse it at thy will. 

IL 
And musing still upon the fairy dream, 

1 sought the hall oft trod by thee before ; 
* I bent Die down by Mulla's gentle stream, 

And, looking far beyond, gazed fondly o'er 
Old Ballyhoura, where in days of yore 
Thou watch'd thy flocks with all a shepherd's pride; 
And fancy listened as to catch once more 
Thy Harp's lov'd echo from the mountain side, — 
But ah ! no harp is heard in all that region wide ! 

III. 
The flocks are fled, and in the enchanted hall 
No voice replies to voice ; but there ye see 
The ivy clasp the sad and mould'ring wall, 
As if to twine a votive wreath for thee : 
All — all is desolate, — and if there be 
A lonely sound, it is the raven's cry ! 
Let years roll on, let wasting ages flee. 
Let earthly things delight, and hasten by, 
But thy immortal name and song shaU never die ! 

Had this inherent tendency heen fostei^ed, he would doubtless have 
taken a high rank among our American poets. Certainly he would 
have been another man than we have known him. Perhaps his 
nervous temperament, delicate fibre, acute feelings and ardent sym- 
pathies, might have been developed into the same super-sensitiveness 
we have seen in John Keats and other gifted minds of a constitution 
similar to his own. But the tendency was checked and repressed 
from the outset by his domestic influences, by his teachers, and sub- 
sequently by himself. When he devoted himself to a life of science, 
he was earnest to cultivate that style of thought and composition 
which accorded with his pursuits ; for only by severe mental disci- 
pline, and long-continued efibrt, could he have acquired that can- 



X3ai, MEMOIK OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

tion and rigid accuracy of diction, which characterize his produc- 
tions. His school appears to have heen unsatisfactory to him, 
for he never had a fondness for the mathematics, the main topic of 
study. He was nevertheless of a studious turn, reading industriously, 
and with special interest, all the works on History to which he had 
access. It is probable that in these readings was laid the foundation 
of a taste for those anthropological studies w^hich have since rendered 
hjjpi famous, and in the prosecution of which his extensive historical 
knowledge gave him eminent facilities. 

At the same time probably he imbibed his first fondness for ISTatural 
Science. From his stepfather, (for his mother married again when he 
was thirteen years old,) he derived a taste for and knowledge of 
mineralogy and geology, the first branches to which he turned his 
attention. 

Destined originally for mercantile pursuits, young Morton soon 
found the atmosphere of the counting-house uncjongenial to him. 
He resolved to adopt the medical profession, which was indeed the 
only course open, to one of his tastes, and in his circumstances. The 
Society of Friends, by closing the Pulpit and the Bar against the able 
and aspiring among its youth, has given to Medicine many of its 
brightest ornaments, both in Great Britain and in this country. This 
fact will serve to explain the great success of so many physicians of 
that persuasion, as well as the preponderating influence of the medical 
profession in all Quaker neighborhoods. May not the eminence of 
Philadelphia in medicine be accounted for, in part at least, in the 
same way ? Carlyle has said that to the ambitious fancy of the Scot- 
tish schoolboy " the highest style of man is the Christian, and the 
highest Christian the teacher of such." Hence his ultimate aspira- 
tion is for the clerical position. But to the aspiring youth among 
Friends there is but the one road to intellectual distinction, — 
that is through medicine and its cognate sciences. The medical 
preceptor of Morton was the late Dr. Joseph Parrish, then in the 
height of his popularity. Elevated to his prominent position against 
early obstacles, and solely by force of character, industry, and pro- 
bitv, he was extensively engaged in practice ; and, although uncon- 
nected with any institution, his ofiice overflowed with pupils. His 
mind was practical and thoroughly medical, and so entirely did his pro- 
fession occupy it, that he seemed to me never to allow himself to think 
upon other topics, except religious ones, in which also he was deeply 
interested. A strict and conscientious Friend, he illustrated all the 
best points in that character. As the remarkable graces of his person 
proverbially gave a beauty to the otherwise ungainly garb of his sect, 
and rendered it attractive upon him, so the graces of his spirit, obli- 
terating all that might otherwise have been harsh or angular, contri- 



MEMOIK OF SAxMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXlll 

bated to form a character gentle, kindly, lovely, that made him the 
light of the sick chamber, and a comforting presence at many a dying 
bed. To no member of our profession could the proud title of Opifer 
be more truly applied, for his very smile brought aid to the suiFering, 
and courage to the despondent. The reader will pardon me this 
digression ; but as the Highland clansman could not pass by without ' 
adding another stone to the monumental cairn where reposed his 
departed chief, so can I never pass by the mention of his name with- 
out offering some tribute, however humble, of reverence and respect, 
to the memory of my excellent old master. Such was the teacher 
from whom mainly Morton also received the knowledge of his pro- 
fession ; though, had the influence of Dr. Parrish alone controlled 
his mind, it would have been confined rigorously to the channels of 
purely medical study and investigation. But, in order to provide 
adequate tuition for his numerous pupils. Dr. Parrish had associated 
with himself several young physicians as instructors' in the various 
branches. Among them was Dr. Richard Harlan, then enthusiasti- 
cally devoted to the study of Natural History, between whom anxL 
the young student there was soon established a bond of sympathy in 
congeniality of pursuits. That the friendship thus originated was 
subsequently interrupted, was in no manner the fault of Morton, to 
whom it was always a subject of regret. Harlan has now been dead 
some years, and although by no means forgotten in the world of 
science, he has not been accorded the full measure of his merited 
distinction among American naturalists. An unfortunate infirmity 
of temper, which was not at all calculated to conciliate attach- 
ments, but rather the reverse, deprived him of the band of friends 
who should have watched over his fame, and so his memory has suf- 
fered by default. Yet at one period he was the leading authority on 
this side the Atlantic in certain departments of Zoology. By him 
Morton appears to have been introduced to the Academy of I^atural 
Sciences, in whose proceedings he was afterwards to take such an 
important part. He attained his majority in January 1820, received 
his Diploma of Doctor of Medicine in March, and was elected a 
member of the Academy in April of the same year. He had pro- 
bably taken an active interest in its affairs before this time, although 
not eligible to membership by reason of age ; for in one of his later 
letters now before me, he speaks of it as an institution for which he 
had labored, "boy and man," now some thiiiy years. 

Soon after this last event he sailed for Europe, on a visit to his 
uncle, James Morton, Esq., of Clonmel, Ireland, a gentleman for 
whom he always preserved a high regard and grateful aflection. His 
transatlantic friends seem to have attached but little value to an 

D 



XXIV MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

American diploma, and desired him to possess the honors of the 
University of Edinburgh, then but httle passed beyond the zenith 
of its glory. After spending the summer at his uncle's house, he 
went to Edinburgh, where he heard the last course of lectures, deli- 
vered by the chaste and classical Gregory. The American schools 
not being recognized by the University as ad eundem, he found him- 
self obliged to attend the full term of an under-graduate. This would 
have left him aruple leisure as far as his mere college studies were 
concerned; for the youth who had graduated 'with approbation under 
the tuition of "Wistar, Physick, and James, and their compeers, could 
not have fallen far short of the requisitions of any other Medical 
Faculty in Christendom. But his time was not spent in idleness. 
He sedulously cultivated his knowledge of the classical tongues, 
hitherto imperfect, and he devoted himself to the study of French 
and Italian, both of which languages he learned to read with facility. 
He also attended with great interest the lectures of Professor Jameson 
on Geology, thus confirming and reviving his early fondness for that 
branch of science. After his return to America, he presented to the 
Academy a series of the green-stone rocks of Scotland, and a section 
of Salisbury Craig near Edinburgh, collected by himself at this time. 
In October 1821, he visited Paris, and spent the winter there mainly 
in clinical study. The next summer was devoted to a tour in Italy 
and other portions of the continent, and in the fall he returned again 
to Edinburgh, where, after attendance upon another session, he re- 
ceived the honors of the doctorate. His printed thesis* may be taken 
as a fair exponent of his mental condition and calibre at this period. 
It is very like himself, and yet with a difference from him as we knew 
him later in life. It is quiet and indeed even simple in tone, without 
aifectatiou and without any of the declamation in which young writers 
are so apt to indulge. Its style is clear and sufficiently concise, and 
as a piece of Latinity it is correct and graceful. It takes up the 
subject of bodily pain, and considers it in regard to its causes, its 
diagnostic value, and its efiects, both physical and psychical, leaving 
very little more to be said with regard to it. But it is evident through- 
out that the essay is the production of one who is more ambitious of 
the reputation of the Utterateurth.au of the savant; who writes, — and 
that probably marks the distinction, — with his face turned to his 
auditory rather than to his subject. The sentence marches some- 
times with a didactic solemnity almost Johnsonian, while the fre- 
quency of the poetical references and quotations, — ^Latin and Italian 
as well as English, — and the facile fitness with which they glide into 

* Tentamen Inaugurale de Corporis Dolore, etc.— Edinburgi, m.d.cccxxiii. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXV 

the text, show how familiar they must have been to the mind of the 
author. Indeed Edinburgh was, at the period in question, the prin- 
cipal centre of taste and philosophy, as well as of science, in Great 
Britain ; and it is not likely that one of Morton's literary turn and 
studious habits would miss the opportunity to pasture in either of 
these rich fields. The ethical tone of this production is also worthy 
of note. It is characteristic of the writer, and grew in a great mea- 
sure out of his mental constitution, which, free from all violence of 
passion, was habitually cheerful, hopeful, and kindly. Hence comes 
that beautiful spirit of philosophical optimism, which, perceiving in 
all seeming evil only the means to a greater ultimate good, attains all 
that stoicism proposed to itself, by the shorter way of a cheerful and 
unquestioning resignation to the Divine Will, not because it is omni- 
potent and irresistible, but solely because it is the wisest and best. 
The following extracts will sufiiciently explain my meaning : — 

" Almarerum Parens nil frustra fecit; ne dolor quidem absque suis usibus est; et semper 
cogimur eum agnoscere veluti fidelem quamvis ingratum monitorem, et quoque inter prse- 
sidia vitse nonnunquam numerandum." — (p. 9.) 

"Dolor enim nos nascentes aggreditur, per totam vitam insidiosus comitatur, et quasi 
nunquam satiandus ; adest etiam morientibus, horamque supremam angoribus infestat. 
At ego tamen Dolorem, quanquam invisum, et ab omnibus, quantum fieri potest, ab ipsis 
semotum, non omniao inutilem depinxi, sed potius eum protuli, ad vitam conservandam 
necessarium, a Deo Optimo Maximo constitutum." — (p 37.) 

This conviction animated Morton throughout his life, consoled him 
in suffering, cheered him in sickness, and gave to his deportment much 
of its calm and beautiful equanimity.* 



* The subjoined graceful lines breathe the same spirit. They occur among his MSS. with 
the date of May 1828. I quote them as illustrative of the thought above indicated. 



THE SPIRIT OF DESTINY. 

Spirit of Light ! Thou glance divine 

Of Heaven's immortal fire, 
I kneel before thy hallowed shrine 

To worship and admire. 
I cannot trace thy glorious flight 

Nor dream where thou dost dwell, 
Yet canst thou guard my steps aright 

By thine unearthly spell. 

I listen for thy voice in vain, 

E'en when I deem thee nigh ; 
Yet ere I venture to complain. 

Thou know'st the reason why ; 
And oft when, worldly cares forgot, 

I watch the vacant air, 
I see thee not, — I hear thee not, — 

Yet kn'.w that thou art there. 



XXVI MEMOIE OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

In 1824, he returned to Philadelphia, and conamenced his career as 
a practitioner of medicine. He seems immediately to have resumed 
his place and labors in the Academy of Natural Sciences, which, in 
the next year, was deprived of the active services of some of its most 
efficient members, by the removal of Messrs. Maclure, Say, Troost, 
Lesueur, and others, to ISTew Harmony, whither they went to parti- 
cipate in the benevolent but ill-starred social experiment of Robert 
Owen. It was a pleasant dream of a good heart and a visionary 
brain, and has now faded away fi'om every one but the originator, 
who holds it still in his extreme old age with the same fervor as in 
his ardent youth ; but then it had many firm believers. So enthusiastic 
was Maclure especially in its advocacy, that he declined about this 
period to assist the Academy in the erection of a new Hall, from a 
conviction that, in the reorganization of society, living in cities would 
be abandoned, and their edifices thus left untenanted and useless. One 
cannot imagine a body of more simple-hearted, less worldly, and less 
practical men, than the Philadelphia naturalists who went to recon- 
stitute the fi.'amework of society on the prairies of Indiana ; and it is 
impossible to repress a smile at their Quixotism, even while one heaves 
a sigh for the bitterness of their disappointment. 

They left in 1825, and the first papers of Morton were read in 1827. 
His main interest still seems to have been in Geology. In the year 
mentioned he published an Analysis of Tabular Spar from Bucks 
County, and the next year some Geological Observations, based upon 
the notes of his friend, Mr. Yanuxem. About this time his attention 
was turned to the special department of Palseontology, by an exami- 
nation of the organic remains of the cretaceous formation of l!^ew 
Jersey and Delaware ; and with this his active scientific life may be 
regarded as commencing. 

Some few of the fossils of the l^Tew Jersey marl had been noticed 
by Mr. T. Say, and by Drs. Harlan and Dekay ; but no thorough in- 
vestigation of this interesting topic was attempted until Morton as- 
sumed the task. He labored in it industriously, being assisted in the 
collection of materials by his scientific friends. Three papers on the 
subject were published in 1828, and from this time the series was 
continued, either in Silliman's Journal or the Journal of the Aca- 

And wlien witli heedless step, too near 

I tempt destruction's brink, 
Deep, deep, within my soul I hear 

Thy -voice, and backward shrink. 
The poisoned shaft, by thee controlled, 

Speeds swift and harmless by ; 
But, when the days of life are told, 

Thou smitest — and we die ! 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXVU 

demy, until it closed with the fourteenth paper in 1846. In 1834, 
the results then obtained were collected and published in a volume 
illustrated with nineteen admirable plates.* 

This book at once gave its author a reputation and status in the 
scientific world, and called forth the warm commendations of Mr. 
Mantell and other eminent Palaeontologists. It traces the formation 
in question along the borders of the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico 
from 'New Jersey to Louisiana, following it by the identification of 
its organic remains. The great body of the work is original, scarcely 
any of the species enumerated having ever been noticed before. Sub- 
sequent researches enabled him to add considei'ably to this collection, 
and, among others, to describe a species of fossil crocodile {C. clavi- 
rostris) entirely new and difiering considerably in structure from its 
congeners hitherto known. In regard to the fossils of the cretaceous 
series, he is still the principal authority. 

Nor was he neglectful of the other branches of Natural Science, 
although too well aware of the value of concentrated eflibrt to peril 
his own success, by a too wide difi'usion of his labors. Still he main- 
tained a constant interest in the operation of every department of 
the Academy, and watched its onward progress with solicitude and 
satisfaction. To the Geological and Mineralogical, and especially to 
the Palseontological collection, he was a liberal contributor. Among 
the papers read by him before the Academy was one in 1831 on 
"some Parasitic Worms," another in 1841, on "an Albino Eacoon," 
and a third in 1844, on " a supposed new species of Hippopotamus." 
This animal, which has been called H. minor vel Liberiensis, was en- 
tirely unknown to Zoology until described by Morton, who received 
its skull from Dr. Goheen, of Liberia, and at once recognized its 
diversity from the known species, f ISTotwithstanding the published 
opinion of Cuvier, that the field of research was exhausted in regard 
to the Mammalia, our gifted townsman was enabled to add an im- 
portant pachydeiTu to the catalogue of Mammalogy, and that too 
from the other hemisphere. 

Let it not be supposed that, amid these absorbing topics of research, 
he relaxed for a moment his attention to his professional pursuits. 
On the contrary, he was constantly and largely engaged in practice, 
and, at his decease, was one of the leading practitioners of our city. 
Neither did he allow himself to fall behind his professional colleagues 
in the literafure of medicine. He was among the first to intro- 
duce on this side the Atlantic the physical means of diagnosis in 



* Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the United States. By 
Samuel George Morton. Philadelphia : Key and Biddle. 18-34. 

•j- The Academy has recently (January 1852) received a specimen of it. 

4 



XXVm MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

thoracic affections. He w'as also one of tlie earliest investigators of 
the morbid anatomy of Phthisis Pulmonalis ; and his volume on that 
subject, although superseded by the later and more extensive re- 
searches of the French pathologists, is a monument of his industry 
and accuracy, and a credit to American medicine.* He also edited 
Mackintosh's Practice of Physic, with notes, which add materially to 
its value to the American physician.f In 1849, he published a text- 
book of anatomy, remarkable for its clearness and succinctness, and 
the beauty of its illustrations. | He was early selected by Dr. Parrish 
as one of his associates in teaching, and lectured upon anatomy in 
that connexion for a number of years. He subsequently filled the 
chair of anatomy in the Medical Department of Pennsylvania College 
from 1839 to 1843. As a lecturer he was clear, calm, and self- 
possessed, moving through his topic with the easy regularity of one 
to whom it was entirely familiar. Pie served for several years as one 
of the physicians and clinical teachers of the Alms-house Hospital, 
and it was there that most of his researches on consumption were 
made. He was a Fellow of the College of Physicians, but did not 
take an active part in their proceedings, from the fact that their stated 
meetings occurred on the same evenings as those of the Academy, 
where he felt it his first duty to be. His only contribution to their 
printed Transactions is a biographical notice of his valued friend, 
Dr. George MeClellan, prepared by request of the College. 

We now come to a portion of his scientific labors, npon which I 
must be allowed to dwell at greater length. I refer of course to his 
researches in Anthropology, commencing with what may be desig- 
nated Comparative Cranioscopy, and running on into general Ethno- 
logy. The object proposed primarily being the determination of 
ethnic resemblances and discrepancies by a comparison of crania, 
(thus perfecting what Blumenbach had left lamentably incomplete,) 
the work could not be commenced until the objects for comparison 
were brought together. The results of Blumenbach were invalidated 
by the sraall number of specimens generally relied upon b}^ him ; for 
in a case where allowance is to be made for individual peculiarities 
of form and stature, the conclusions gain infinitely in value by exten- 
sion of the comparison over a sufiicient series to neutralize this 
disturbing element. There was therefore necessary, first of all, a 

* Illustrations of Pulmonary Consumption, its Anatomical Characters, Causes, Symptoms 
and Treatment. With twelve colored plates. Philadelphia: 1884. 

+ Principles of Pathology and Practice of Physic. By John Mackintosh, M. D., &c. First 
American from the fourth London edition. With notes and additions. In 2 vols. Phila- 
delphia: 1835. 

J An Illustrated System of Human Anatomy, Special, General, and Microscopic. Phi- 
ladelphia: 1849. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXIX 

collection of crania, and that not of a few specimens, but widely 
enough, extended to give reliable results. The contemplation of 
these facts shows the magnitude and boldness of the plan, which 
would have sufficed to deter most men from the attempt. But Mor- 
ton was not easily discouraged, and although he doubtless occupied 
a wider field in the end than he proposed to himself in the outset, 
it is evident that from the beginning he contemplated a fall cabinet 
of universal Craniology, Human and Comparative. His own account 
of the commencement of the collection is as follows : " Having had 
occasion, in the summer of 1830, to deliver an introductory lecture 
to a course of Anatomy, I chose for my subject The different forms 
of the skull as exhibited in the Jive races of men. Strange to say, I 
could neither buy nor borrow a cranium of each of these races ; and 
I finished my discourse without showing either the Mongolian or the 
Malay. Forcibly impressed with this great deficiency in a most im- 
portant branch of science, I at once resolved to make a collection for 
myself."* Dr. Wood (Memoir, p. 13,) states that he engaged in 
this study soon after he commenced practice ; and adds, " among the 
earliest recollections of my visits to his office is that of the skulls 
he had collected." The selection of the topic above-mentioned shows 
that he was already interested in it. 

The increase was at first slow, but the work was persevered in with 
a constancy and energy that could know no failure. Every legitimate 
means was adopted, and every attainable influence brought to bear 
upon the one object. Time, labor, and money, were expended with- 
out stint. The enthusiasm he felt himself he imparted to others, and 
he thus enlisted a body of zealous collaborators who sought contri- 
butions for him in every part of the world. Many of them sympa- 
thized with him in his scientific ardor, and quite as many were 
actuated solely by a desire to serve and oblige the individual. A friend 
of the writer (without any particular scientific interest) exposed his 
life in robbing an Indian burial-place in Oregon, and carried his 
spoils for two weeks in his pack, in a highly unsavory condition, and 
when discovery would have involved danger, and probably death. 
Before his departure he had promised Morton to bring him some 
skulls, and he was resolved to do it at all hazards. This eflbrt also 
involved, of course, a veiy extensive and laborious correspondence. 
He was in daily receipt of letters from all countries and from every 
variety of petsons. It was mainly by the free contributions of these 
assistants that the collection eventually grew so rapidly. Among the 

* Letter to J. R. Bartlett, Esq. Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, 
vol. ii. New York: 1848. 



XXX MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

contributors I may mention William A. Foster, Esq., as presenting 
135 specimens, Dr. J. C. Cisneros 53, and Dr. Rusclienberger 39. 
George R. Glicldon, Esq. presented 30, beside the 137 originally pro- 
cured by his agency ; William A. Gliddon, Esq., 19 ; M. Clot-Bey 15 ; 
and Professor Retzius 17, with 24 more received since the death of 
Dr. M. Over one hundred gentlemen are named in the catalogue as 
contributing more or less, sixty-seven of them having presented one 
skull each. It is not to be supposed, however, that even the portion 
thus given led to no outlay of means. The mere charges for freight 
from distant portions of the globe amounted to a considerable sum. 
Dr. Wood (loe. eit.) estimates the total cost of the collection to its 
proprietor from ten to fifteen thousand dollars. At this moment it 
is undoubtedly by far the most complete collection of crania extant. 
There is nothing in Europe comparable to it. I have recently seen a 
letter from an eminent British ethnologist, containing warm thanks 
for the privilege even of reading the catalogue of such a collection, 
and adding that he would visit it anywhere in Europe, although he 
cannot dare the ocean for it. At the time of Dr. Morton's death it 
consisted of 918 human crania, to which are to be added 51 received 
since, and which were then on their way. The collection also con- 
tains 278 crania of mammals, 271 of birds, and 88 of reptiles and 
fishes : — in all, 1656 skulls ! I rejoice to state that this magnificent 
cabinet has been secured to our city by the contribution of liberal 
citizens, who have purchased it for $4,000, and presented it to the 
Academy. 

Simultaneously with his accumulation of crania, and based upon 
them, he carried on his study of Ethnology, if I may use that term 
in reference to a period when the science, so called at present, could 
scarcely be said to exist. Indeed it is almost entirely a new science 
within a few years. While medical men occupied themselves exclu- 
sively with the intimate structure and function of the human frame, 
no investigator of nature seemed to turn his attention to the curious 
diversities of form, feature, complexion, &c., which characterize the 
difierent varieties of men. With a very thorough anatomy and phy- 
siology, our descriptive liistory of the human species was less accurate 
and extensive than that of most of the well-known animals. So true 
was this that BufFon pithily observed that " quelque interet que nous 
ayons a nous connaitre nous memes, je ne sais si nous ne connaissons 
pas mieux tout ce qui n'est pas nous." But every branch of this 
interesting investigation has recently received a sudden and vigorous 
impulse, and there has grown up within a few years an Ethnology 
with numerous and devoted cultivators. That it still has much to 
accomplish will appear from the number of questions which the pages 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXI 

of this book show to be still sub judice. Indeed it is the widest and 
most attractive field open to the naturalist of to-day. To quote the 
admirable language of Jomard : 

" Car il ne faut pas perdre de vue, maintenant que la connaissance ext^rieure du globe 
et de ses productions a fait d'immenses progrfes, que la connaissance de I'homme est le 
but final des sciences geographiques. Une carrifere non moins yaste que la premifere est 
ouverte au g^nie des voyages ; il importe, il est urgent meme, pour I'avenir de I'espfece 
bumaine et pour le besoin de I'Europe surtout, de connaitre a fond le degr€ de civilisation 
de toutes les races; de savoir exactement en quoi elles diffferent ou se rapprocbent ; 
quelle est I'analogie ou la dissemblance entre leurs regimes, leurs moeurs, leurs religions, 
leurs langages, leurs arts, leurs industries, leurs constitutions physiques, afin de lier entre 
elles et nous des rapports plus surs et plus avantageux. Tel est I'objet de I'ethnologie, ce 
qui est la science meme de la geographic vue dans son ensemble et dans toute sa haute 
g^nfiralite. Bien que cette matifere ainsi envisag^e soit presque toute nouvelle, nous ne 
pouvons trop, n^anmoins, recommander les observations de cette espfece au zfele des 
voyageurs."* 

The attempt to establish a rule of diversity among the races of 
men, according to cranial conformation, commenced in the last cen- 
tury with Camper, the originator of the facial angle. The subject 
was next taken up by Blumenbach, who has been until recently the 
controlling authority upon it. His Decades Craniorum, whose publi- 
cation was begun in 1790, and continued until 1828, covers the period 
when Morton began this study. His method of comparing crania, (by 
the norma verticalis,) and his distribution of races, were then both un- 
disputed. The mind of the medical profession in Great Britain and 
in this country had then, moreover, been recently attracted to the 
subject by the publication (in 1819) of the very able book of 3>Ir. Law- 
rence,f avowedly based upon the researches of the great Professor 
of Gottingen. Dr. Prichard had published his Inaugural Dissertation, 
De Hominum Varietatibus, in 1808, and a translation of the same in 
1812, under the title of Researches on the Physical History of Man, 
constituting the first of a series of publications, afterwards of great 
influence and value. Several treatises had also been published with 
the intention of proving that the color of the negro might arise from 
climatic influences, the principal work being that of President Smith, 
of Princeton College, N'ew Jersey. Beyond this, nothing had been 
done for the science of Man up to Morton's return to this country in 
1824. A new impetus had been given, however, to the speciality of 
Craniology by the promulgation of the views of Gall and Spurzheim, 
then creating their greatest excitement. These distinguished persons 
completed the publication of their great work at Paris in 1819, both 

* Etudes Geographiques et Historiques sur I'Arabie, p. 403. 

f Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man, delivered at the 
Royal College of Surgeons, bv W Lawrence, F. R. S., &c. 
1 



XXXU MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

before and after which, time ^purzheim lectured in Great Britain, 
making many proselytes. The phrenologists of Edinburgh must 
have been in the very fervor of their first love during Morton's resi- 
dence there, and they included in their number some men of eminent 
ability and eloquence. Collections of prepared crania, of casts and 
masks, became common ; but they were brought together in the hope 
of illustrating character, not race, and were prized according as fan- 
ciful hypothesis could make their protuberances correspond with the 
distribution of intellectual faculties in a most crude and barren 
psychology. • Morton's collection was ethnographic in its aim from 
the outset ; nor can I find that he ever committed himself fully to the 
miscalled Phrenology — a system based upon principles indisputably 
true, but which it holds in common with the world of science at 
large, while all that is peculiar to itself is already fading into obli- 
vion.* Attractive by its easy comprehensibility and facility of appli- 
cation, it acquired a sudden and wide-spread popularity, and so passed 
out of the hands of men of science, step by step, till it has now become 
the property of itinerant charlatans, describing characters for twenty- 
five cents a head. The very name is so degraded by these associa- 
tions, that we are apt to forget that, thirty years ago, it was a scientific 
doctrine accepted by learned and thoughtful men. There can be no 
doubt that it had its effect (important though indirect) upon the 
mind of Morton, in arousing him to the importance of the Craniology 
about wliich everybody was talking, and leading him to make that 
application of it, which, although neglected by his professional 
brethren, was still the only one of any real and permanent value. 

It is evident that the published matter for Morton's studies was 
very limited. A pioneer himself, he had to resort to the raw mate- 
rial, and obtain his data at the hand of nature. Fortunately for him 
he resided in a country where, if literary advantages are otherwise 
deficient, the inducement and opportunities for anthropological re- 
search are particularly abundant. There are reasons why Ethnology 
should be eminently a science for American culture. Here, three of 
the five races, into which Blumenbach divided mankind, are brought 
together to determine the problem of their destiny as they best may, 

* The ensuing paragraph will show more clearly Morton's matured opinion on this subject. 
It is from an Introductory Lecture on " The Diversities of the Human Species," delivered 
before the Medical Class of Pennsylvania College in November 1842. 

"It (Phrenology) further teaches us that the brain is the seat of the mind, and that it 
is a congeries of organs, each of which performs its own separate and peculiar function. 
These propositions appear to me to be physiological truths; but I allude to them on this 
occasion merely to put you on your guard against adopting too hastily those minute details 
of the localities and functions of supposed organs, which have of late found so many and 
such zealous advocates." 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXUl 

while Chinese immigration to CaHfornia and the proposed importa- 
tion of Coolie laborers threaten to bring us into equally intimate 
contact with a fourth. It is manifest that our relation to and ma- 
nagement of these people must depend,in a great measure, upon their 
intrinsic race-character. "While the contact of the white man seems 
fatal to the Red American, whose tribes fade away before the onward 
march of the frontier-man like the snow in spring (threatening ulti- 
mate extinction), the JSTegro thrives under the shadow of his white 
master, falls readily into the position assigned him, and exists and 
multiplies in increased physical well-being. To the American states- 
man and the philanthropist, as well as to the naturalist, the study 
thus becomes one of exceeding interest. Extraordinary facilities for 
observing minor sub-divisions among the families of the white race 
are also presented by the resort hither of immigrants from every part 
of Europe. Of all these advantages Morton availed himself freely, 
and soon became the acknowledged master of the topic. Extending 
his studies beyond what one may call the zoological, into the 
archaeological, and, to some extent, into the philological department 
of Ethnography, his pre-eminence was speedily acknowledged at 
home, while the publication of his books elevated him to an equal 
distinction abroad. Professor Eetzius of Stockholm, writing to him 
April 3d, 1847, says emphatically : " You have done more for JEthno- 
graphy than any living physiologist ; and I hope you will continue to 
cultivate this science, which is of so great interest." 

The first task proposed to himself by Morton, was the examination 
and comparison of the crania of the Indian tribes of ITorth and South 
America. His special object was to ascertain the average capacity 
and form of these skulls, as compared among themselves and with 
those of the other races of men, and to determine what ethnic dis- 
tinctions, if any, might be inferred from them. The result of this 
labor was the Orania Americana, published in 1839. This work con- 
tains admirably executed lithographic plates of numerous crania, of 
natural size, and presenting a highly creditable specimen of American 
art. The letter-press includes accurate admeasurements of the crania, 
especially of their interior capacity ; the latter being made by a plan 
pecuHar to the author, and enabling him to estimate with precision 
the relative amount of brain in various races. The introduction is 
particularly interesting, as containing the author's general ethnologi- 
cal views so far as matured up to that time. He adopts the quintuple 
di\dsion of Blumeubach, not as the best possible, but as sufficient for 
his purpose, and each of the five races he again divides into a certain 
number of characteristic families. His main conclusions concerning 
the American race are these : 



XXXIV MEMOIE OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

" 1st. That tlie American race differs essentially from all others, not excepting the Mongo- 
lian ; nor do the feeble analogies of language, and the more obvious ones in civil and 
religious institutions and the arts, denote anything beyond casual or colonial commu- 
nication with the Asiatic nations ; and even those analogies may perhaps be accounted 
for, as Humboldt has suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from similar wants 
and impulses in nations inhabiting similar latitudes. 

"2d. That the American nations, excepting the polar tribes, are of one race and one spe- 
cies, but of two great families, which resemble each other in physical, but differ in 
intellectual character. 

" 3d. That the cranial remains discovered in the monnds from Peru to Wisconsin, belong 
to the same race, and probably to the Toltecan family." 

The publication of a work of such costly character, and necessarily 
addressed to a very limited number of readers, was a bold under- 
taking for a man of restricted means. It was published by himself 
at the risk of considerable pecuniary loss. The original subscription 
list fell short of paying the expense, but I am happy to say that the 
subsequent sale of copies liquidated the deficit. The reception of 
the book by the learned was all he could have desired. Everywhere 
it received the warmest commendations. The following extract from 
a notice in the London Medieo-Chirurgical Eeview for October 1840, 
will show the tone of the British scientific press : 

" Dr. Morton's method and illustrations in eliciting the elements of his magnificent 
Craniography, are admirably concise, without being the less instructively comprehensive. 
His work constitutes, and will ever be highly appreciated as constituting an exquisite 
treasury of facts, well adapted, in all respects, to establish permanent organic principles 
in the natural history of man." 

" Here we finish our account of Dr. Morton's American Cranioscopy ; and by its extent 
and copiousness, our article will show how highly we have appreciated his classical pro- 
duction. We have studied his views with attention, and examined his doctrines with fair- 
ness-; and with perfect sincerity in rising from a task which has afforded unusual gratifi- 
cation, we rejoice in ranking his ' Crania Americana' in the highest class of transatlantic 
literature, foreseeing distinctly that the book will ensure for its author the well-earned 
meed of a Caucasian reputation." 

From among the warmly eulogistic letters received from distin- 
guished savans, I select but one, that of Baron Humboldt, who is 
himself a high authority on American subjects. 

" Monsieur, — Les liens intimes d'interet et d'affection qui m'attachent. Monsieur, depuis 
un dgmi-sifecle a I'hemisphfere que vous habitez et dont j'ai la vanity de me croire citoyen, 
ont ajoutg a I'impression que m'ont fait presque a la fois votre grand ouvrage de physio- 
logic philosophique et I'admirable histoire de la conquete du Mexique par M. William 
Prescott. Voil4 de ces travaux qui ^tendent, par des moyens trfes differens, la sphfere de 
nos connaissances et de nos vues, et ajoutent ^ la gloire nationale. Je ne puis vous exprimer 
assez vivement. Monsieur, la profonde reconnaissance que je vous dois. Americain bien 
plus que Sib^rien d'aprfes la couleur de mes opinions, je suis, a mon grand age, singulifere- 
ment flattg de I'interet qu'on me conserve encore de I'autre cot^ de la grand vallee atlantique 
sur laquelle la vapeur a presque jet^ un pont. Les richesses craniologiques que vous avez 
6t6 assez heureux de r^unir, ont trouv6 eu vous un digne interprfete. Votre ouvrage, Mon- 
sieur, est 6galement remarquable par la profondeur des vues anatomiques, par le detail 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXV 

num^rique des rapports de conformation organique, par I'absence des reveries po^tiques 
qui sont les mythes de la Physiologic moderne, par les g6n6ralit(^s dont votre " Introductory 
Essay" abonde. R^digeant dans ce moment le plus important de mes outrages qui sera 
public sous le titre imprudent de Kosmos, je saurai profiter de tants d'excellents appergus 
sur la destribution des races humaines qui se trouvent gpars dans votre beau volume. Que 
de sacrifices pScuniares n'avez vous pas du faire, pour atteindre une si grande perfpction 
artistique et produire un ouvrage qui rivalise avec tout ce que Ton a fait de plus beau en 
Angleterre et en France. 

" Agrgez, je vous supplie, Monsieur, I'hommage renouvelld de la haute consideration 
avec laquelle j'ai I'honneur d'etre, 

" Monsieur, votre trfes-humble et trfes-obeissant serviteur, 

" Alexandre Humboldt. 

" a Berlin, ce 17 Janvier, 1844," 

The eminent success of this work determined definitely its author's 
ulterior scientific career. From this time forward he devoted his 
powers almost exclusively to Ethnology. He sought in every direc- 
tion for the materials for his investigation, when circumstances led 
to his acquaintance with Mr. George R. Gliddon, whose contributions 
opened to him a new field of research, and gave him an unexpected 
triumph. Mr. G. firet visited this country in 1837, being sent out by 
Mehemet Ali to obtain information, purchase machinery, &c., in re- 
ference to the promotion of the cotton-culture in Egypt. Morton, 
who never lost the opportunity of securing an useful correspondent, 
sought his acquaintance, but failing to meet him personally, wrote 
him at ISTew York under date of Nov. 2d, 1837, inquiring his precise 
address, and soliciting pei-mission to visit him in reference to busi- 
ness. Illness preventing this visit, he wrote again, N'ov. 7 th. The 
following extract is interesting, as displaying his mode of procedure 
in such cases, as well as the state of his opinions, at the date in 
question : — 

" You will observe by the annexed Prospectus that I am engaged in a work of considera- 
ble novelty, and which, as regards the typography and illustrations at least, is designed to 
be equal to any publication hitherto issued in this country. You may be surprised that I 
should address you on the subject, but a moment's explanation may suffice to convey my 
views and wishes. The prefatory chapter will embrace a view of the varieties of the Human 
Race, embracing, among other topics, some remarks on the ancient Egyptians. The posi- 
tion I have always assumed is, that the present Copts are not the remains of the ancient 
Egyptians, and in order more fully to make my comparisons, it is very important that I 
should get a few heads of Egyptian mummies from Thebes, &c. I do not care to have them 
entirely perfect specimens of embalming, but perfect in the bony structure, and with the 
hair preserved, if possible. It has occurred to me that, as you will reside at Cairo, and 
with your perfect knowledge of aflFairs in Egypt, you would have it in your power to em- 
ploy a confidential and well-qualified person for this trust, who would save you all personal 
trouble ; and if twenty-five or thirty skulls, or even half that number can be obtained, 
(and I am assured by persons who have been there that no obstacles need be feared, but 
of this you know best,) I am ready to defray every expense, and to advance the money, or 
any part of it now, or to arrange for payment, both as to expenses and commissions, at 
any time or in any way you may designate. With the Egyptian heads, I should be very 



XXXVl MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

glad to have a skull of a Copt and a Fellah, and indeed of any other of the present tribes 
in or bordering on Egypt, and which could be probably obtained through any one of your 
medical friends in Cairo or Alexandria. I hope before you leave to be able to send you one 
of the lithographs for my work, to prove to you that it -will be no discredit to the arts of 
this country. Sensible how infinitely you may serve me in a favorite though novel inquiry, 
I cannot but hope to interest your feelings and exertions on this occasion, and therefore 
beg an early answer." 

To this letter Mr. G. responded freely and cordially, readily under- 
taking the commission, which resulted in supplying Morton with 
crania, which form the basis of his renowned Crania ^gyptiaca. 
"Without the aid thus afforded, any attempt to elucidate Egyptian 
ethnology from this side the Atlantic would have been absurdly hope- 
less ; with it, a difficult problem was solved, and the opinion of the 
scientific world rectified in an important particular. The correspond- 
ence thus originated led to a close intimacy between the parties, 
which essentially modified the history of both, and ended only with 
life ; and which resulted in a warmth of attachment, on the part of the 
survivor, that even death cannot chill, as the dedication of this volume 
attests. With the prospect of obtaining these Egyptian crania, 
Morton was delighted. How much he anticipated appears from the 
following passage in the preface to his Crania Americana : — 

" Nor can I close this preface without recording my sincere thanks to George R. Gliddon, 
Esq., United States Consul at Cairo, in Egypt, for the singular zeal with which he has pro- 
moted my wishes in this respect; the series of crania he has already obtained for my use, 
of many nations, both ancient and modern, is perhaps without a rival in any existing 
collection ; and will enable me, when it reaches this country, to pursue my comparisons on 
an extended scale." (p. 5.) 

The skulls came to hand in the fall of 1840, and Morton entered 
eagerly upon their examination, and upon the study of Miotic 
Archseology in connection therewith. Mr. Gliddon arrived in Janu- 
ary 1842, with the intention of delivering a course of lectures in this 
country upon hieroglyphical subjects ; and the two friends could now 
prosecute their studies together. They had already been engaged in 
active correspondence, Morton detailing the considerations which 
were impelling him to adopt views diverse, in several points, from what 
were generally considered established opinions. I regret that I have 
not access to the letters of Morton of this period, but the following 
extract from a reply of Gliddon, dated London, Oct. 21st, 1841, 
will show the state of their minds in regard to Egyptian questions at 
that time : — 

"With regard to your projected work, {Crania JEgyptiaea,) I will, with every deference, 
frankly state a few evanescent impressions, which, were I with you, could be more fully 
developed. I am hostile to the opinion of the African origin of the Egyptians. I mean 
of the high caste — kings, priests, and military. The idea that the monuments support such 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXVll 

theory, or the conclusion that they came doivn the Nile, or that ' Merawe' is the Father of 
Egypt, is, I think, untenahle, and might be refuted. Herodotus's authority, unless modi- 
fied in the way you mention, dark skinned and curly haired, is in this, as in fifty other in- 
stances, quite insignificant. We, as hieroglyphists, know Egypt better now, than all the 
Greek authors or the Roman. On this ground, unless you are convinced from Comparative 
Anatomy, with which science I am totally unacquainted, and be backed by such evidence 
as is incontrovertible, I urge your pausing, and considering why the ancient Egyptians 
may not be of Asiatic, and perhaps of Arabic descent ; an idea which, I fancy, from the 
tenor of your letters, is your present conclusion. At any rate, they are not, and never 
■were, Africans, still less Negroes. Monumental evidence appears to overthrow the African 

theory Look at the portraits of the kings of Egypt, in the plates of 

Prof Rosellini's Monumenti Slorici, and then read his 2d vol. text, at the end. They are fac- 
similes, and is there anything African in them, (excepting in the Amunoph family, where 
this cross is shown and explained,) until you come down to the Ethiopian dynasty? For 
' Merawe' read Hoskins's Ethiopia — it is a valuable work, but I differ in tolo from his 
chronology, or his connection between Egypt and ' Meroe' down the Nile. 

" The Copts may be descendants of the ancient race, but so crossed and recrossed, as to 
have lost almost every vestige of their noble ancestry. I should think it would be difficult, 
with 100 skulls of Copts, to get at an exact criterion, they are so varied. Do not forget 
also the efi'ect of wearing the turban on the Eastern races, except the Fellahs, who seldom 
can afi'ord it, and wear a cap. 

"It has been the fashion to quote the Sphinx, as an evidence of the Negro tendencies 
of ancient Egyptians. They take his wig for woolly hair — and as the nose is off, of course 
it is flat. But even if the face (which I fully admit) has a strong African cast, it is an 
almost solitary example, against 10,000 that are not Afriian. AVe may presume from the 
fact that the tablet found on it bears the name of the 5th Thotmes — b. c. 1702— Rosellini, 
No. 106 — that it represents some king, (and most probably Thotmes 5th himself,) who, by 
ancestral intermarriage, was of African blood. In fact, we find that Amunoph 1st — b. c. 
1822 — and only five removes from this same Thotmes his successor, had an Ethiopian 
wife — a black queen — ' Aahmes Nofreari.' If the Sphinx were a female, I should at once 
say it stood for ♦ Nofreari,' who, as the wife of the expeller of the Hykshos, was much 
revered. The whole of the Thotmes and Amunoph branches had an African cast — vide 
Amunoph 3d — almost a Nubian : but this cast is expressly given in their portraits, in 
contradistinction to the aquiline-nosed and red Egyptians. Look at the Ramses family — 
their men are quite Caucasian — their women are white, or only yellowish, but I can see 
nothing African. I wish I were by your side with my notes and rambling ideas — they 
are crude, but under your direction could be licked into shape. The masses of facts are 
extraordinary, and known but to very, very few. Unless a man now-a-days is a hierogly- 
phist, and has studied the monuments, believe me, his authority is dangerous ; and but few 
instances are there in which amongst the thousand-and-one volumes on Egypt, the work is not 
a mere repetition or copy of the errors of a preceding work — and this is but repeating what 
the Romans never comprehended, but copied from the Greeks, who made up for their igno- 
rance then, as they do now, by lies. All were deplorably ignorant on Egyptian matters. 
Anything of the Champollion, Rosellini, and Wilkinson school for ancient subjects, is 
safe — for the modern, there is only Lane. I mention these subjects just to arrest your 
attention, before you take a leap ; though I have no doubt you leave no stone unturned. 
Pardon my apparent officiousness, but I do this at the hazard of intruding, lest in your 
earnest comparisoris of ' Crania,' you may not lay sufiicient stress on the vast monumental 
evidences of days of yore, and mean this only as a ' caveat.' " 

Bnt they soon found themselves in want of books, especially of 
costly illustrated works. IS'ot only was it essential to verity quotations 
by reference to the text, but the plates were absolutely indispensable. 



XXXVm MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

The desired books did not exist in any library in the United States, 
and Morton had already gone as far as prudence permitted. In a 
letter now before me, Grliddon writes him from 'New York in despair, 
stating that, for his part, he could not move a step further without 
access to Rosellini, {Monumenti^ &c.,) of which there was not a copy 
in the country. This serious difficulty was finally removed by the 
munificent liberality of Richard K. Haight, Esq., of !N"ew York, who, 
actuated solely by a generous desire to promote the interests of 
science, imported and placed at the disposal of our students the 
superb volumes in question. 

Morton's study now was more than ever " a place of skulls.'' His 
correspondence, having been widely extended, was at last bearing its 
fruit. Contributions came dropping in from various quarters, not 
always accompanied with reliable information, and requiring careful 
deliberation before being assigned a place in his cabinet. N"othing short 
of positive certainty, however, would induce him to place a name upon 
a cranium. The ordeal of examination each had to undergo was rigid 
in the extreme. Accurate and repeated measurements of every part 
vp^ere carefully made. Where a case admitted of doubt, I have known 
him to keep the skull in his office for weeks, and, taking it down at 
every leisure moment, sit before it, and contemplate it fixedly in 
every position, noting every prominence and depression, estimating 
the extent and depth of every muscular or ligamentous attachment, 
until he could, as it were, build up the soft parts upon their bony 
substratum, and see the individual as in life. His quick artistic per- 
ception of minute resemblances or discrepancies of form and color, 
gave him great facilities in these pursuits. A single glance of his rapid 
eye was often enough to determine what, with others, would have 
been the subject of tedious examination. The drawings for the Crania 
^gyptiaea were made by Messrs. Richard H. and Edward M. Kern,* 

* Even while I write (Dec. 1st, 1853) the news has reached us of the brutal murder by 
Utah Indians of Richard H. Kern, with Lieut. Gunnison, and others of the party engaged 
in the survey of the proposed middle route for a Pacific Railroad. So young, and so full 
of hope and promise ! to be cut off thus, too, just as his matured intellect began to com- 
mand him position, and to realize the bright anticipations of his many friends ! The rela- 
tions of Mr Gliddon and myself to this new victim of savage ferocity were so intimate, 
that we may be excused if we pause here to give to his memory a sigh — one in which the 
subject of our memoir, were he still with us, would join in deepest sympathy. But the 
sorrow we feel is one that cannot be free from bitterness, while the bones of Dick Kern 
^ bleach unavenged upon the arid plains of Deseret. We have had too much of sentimen- 
talism about the Red-man. It is time that cant was stopped now. Not all the cinnamon- 
colorei vermin west of the Mississippi are worth one drop of that noble heart's-blood. The 
busy brain, the artist's eye, the fine taste, the hand so ready with either pen or pencil, — 
could these be restored to us again, they would be cheaply purchased back if it cost the 
extermination of every miserable Pah-Utah under heaven! He is the second member of 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXIX 

who were fhen also engaged in preparing the magnificent illustrations 
of Mr. Gliddon's hierological lectures; and these gentlemen have 
informed me that not the slightest departure from literal accuracy 
could escape the eye of Morton. This was true, not only of human 
figures, hut equally of the minutest hieroglyphic details. Dr. Meigs, in 
his Memoh, relates an instance of his acumen, in which, while inspect- 
ing the aegis in the hand of a female divinity, he noticed the resemblance 
to the face of a certain queen, and at once referred it to that reign ; 
which, on examining the text, proved correct. The two following 
anecdotes, for which I am indebted to Mr. Gliddon, resemble the well- 
known instances of scientific acuteness and perspicacity that are related 
of Cuvier. 

In the summer of 1842, Mr. G. met in N'ew York with Mr. John 
L. Stephens, then recently returned from his second visit to Yucatan. 
The conversation turning upon crania, Mr. S. regretted the destruc- 
tion of all he had collected, in consequence of their extreme brittle- 
ness. One skeleton he had hoped to save, but on unpacking it, that 
morning, it was found so dilapidated that he had ordered it thrown 
away. Mr. G. begged to see it, and secured it, comminuted as it 
was. Its condition may be inferred from the fact that the entire 
skeleton was tied up in a small India handkerchief, and carried to 
Philadelphia in a hat-box. It was given <to Morton, who at first de- 
plored it as a hopeless wreck. The next day, however, Mr. G. found 
him, with a glue-pot beside him, engaged in an eflx)rt to reconstruct 
the skull. A small piece of the occiput served as a basis, upon which 
he put together all the posterior portion of the cranium, showing it by 
characteristic marks to be that of an adult Indian female. From the 
condition of another portion of the skeleton, he derived evidence of 
a pathological fact of considerable moment, in view of the antiquity 
of these remains. How much interest he was able to extract from 
this handful of apparent rubbish will appear from the following 
passages : — 

" The purport of his opinion is as follows : — In the first place, the needle did not deceive 
the Indian who picked it up in the grave. The bones are those of a female. Her height 
did not exceed five feet, three or four inches. The teeth are perfect and not appreciably 
worn, while the epiphyses, those infallible indications of the growing state, have just become 
consolidated, and mark the completion of adult age. The bones of the hands and feet are 
remarkably small and delicately proportioned, which observation applies also to the entire 

his family that has met this melancholy fate. His brother. Dr. Benjamin J. Kern — a pupil 
of Morton, and surgeon to the ill-fated expedition of Colonel Fremont in the winter of 
1848-49 — was cruelly massacred by Utahs in the spring of 1849, in the mountains near 
Taos. So long as our government allows cases of this kind to remain without severe retri- 
bution, so long, in savage logic, will impunity iu crime be considered a free license to 
murder at will. 

2 



xl MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

skeleton. The skull was crushed into many pieces, but, by a cautious manipulation, Dr. 
Morton succeeded in reconstructing the posterior and lateral portions. The occiput is 
remarkably flat and vertical, while the lateral or parietal diameter measures no less than 
five inches and eight-tenths. 

" A chemical examination of some fragments of the bones proves them to be almost 
destitute of animal matter, which, in the perfect osseous structure, constitutes about thirty- 
three parts in the hundred. On the upper part of the left tibia there is a swelling of the 
bone, called in surgical language a node, an inch and a half in length, and more than half 
an inch above the natural surface. This morbid condition may have resulted from a variety 
of causes, but possesses greater interest on account of its extreme infrequency among the 
primitive Indian population of the country."* 
t 

Mr. Gliddon, while in Paris in 1845-6, presented a copy of the 
Crania ^gyptiaca to the celebrated orientalist, IVI. Fulgence Fresnel, 
(well known as the decipherer of the Himyaritic inscriptions, and 
now engaged in ITinevite explorations,) and endeavored to interest 
him in Morton's labors. More than a year afterwards, having returned 
to Philadelphia, he received there a box from R, K. Haight, Esq., 
then at JSTaples. The box contained a skull, but not a word of infor- 
mation concerning it. It was handed over to Morton, who at once 
perceived its dissimilarity to any in his possession. It was evidently 
veiy old, the animal matter having almost entirely disappeared. Day 
after day would Morton be found absorbed in its contemplation. At 
last he announced his conclusion. He had never seen a Phoenician 
skull, and he had no idea where this one came from ; but it was what 
he conceived that a Phoenician skull should be, and it could be no 
other. Things remained thus until some six months afterwards, when 
Mr. Haight returned to America, and delivered to Mr. G. the letters 
and papers sent him by various persons. Among them was a slip in 
the hand-writing of Fresnel, containing the history of the skull in 
question. f He discovered it during his exploration of a Phcenician 
tomb at Malta, and had consigned it to Morton by Mr. H., whom he 
met at ISTaples. These anecdotes not only show the extraordinary 
acuteness of Morton, but they also prove the certainty of the anato- 
mical marks upon which Craniologists rely. 

The Crania Mgyptiaca was pubhshed in 1844, in the shape of a 
contiibution to the Transactions of the American Philosophical So- 
ciety. This apparent delay in its appearance arose from the author's 
extreme caution in forming his conclusions, especially in view of the 
fact that he found himself compelled to differ in opinion from the 
majority of scholars, in regard to certain points of primary import- 
ance. Most ethnologists, with the high authority of Prichard at their 

* Stephens' Yucatan, vol. i. pp. 281-2. — Morton's Catalogue of Crania, 1849, No. 
1050. 
f Catalogue, No. 1352. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. xli 

head, ascribed the IsTilotic family to the African race ; while the great 
body of Archseologists were disposed to consider the aborigines of 
Egypt as (probably black) Troglodytes, from the Upper Mle, whose 
first halting-place and seat of civilization was at Meroe. But Morton 
took counsel with none of those authorities of the day. Optimi con- 
sultores mortui; and these dead, but still eloquent witnesses of the 
past, taught him clearly the identity of cranial conformation in the 
ancient Egyptian and the modern white man. He established, beyond 
question, that the prevailing type of skull must come into the Cauca- 
sian category of Blumenbach. He pointed out the distinctions be- 
tween this and the neighboring Semitic and Pelasgic types. The 
population of Egypt being always a very mixed one, he was able also 
to identify among his crania those displaying the Semitic, Pelasgic, 
Negro and l^egroid forms. Turning next to the monuments, he ad- 
duced a multitude of facts to prove the same position. His historical 
deductions were advanced modestly and cautiously, but most of them 
have been triumphantly verified. While he, in his quiet study at 
Philadelphia, was inferentially denying the comparative antiquity of 
Meroe, Lepsius was upon the spot, doing the same thing beyond the 
possibility of further cavil. The book was written when it was still 
customary to seek a foreign origin for the inhabitants of every spot 
on earth except Mesopotamia ; and the author, therefore, indicates, 
rather than asserts, an Asiatic origin for the Egyptians. But his 
resume contains propositions so important, that I must claim space 
for them entire, taking the liberty of calling the attention of the 
reader, by Italics, particularly to the last. 

1. The valley of the Nile, both in Egypt and in Nubia, was originally peopled by a branch 

of the Caucasian race. 

2. These primeval people, since called Egyptians, were the Mizraimites of Scripture, the 

posterity of Ham, and directly associated with the Libyan family of nations. 

3. In their physical character, the Egyptians were intermediate between the modern Euro- 

pean and Semitic races. 

4. The Austral-Egyptian or Meroite communities were an Indo-Arabian stock, engrafted 

on the primitive Libyan inhabitants. 

5. Besides these exotic sources of population, the Egyptian race was at different periods 

modified by the influx of the Caucasian nations of Asia and Europe — Pelasgi or Hel- 
lenes, Scythians and Phoenicians. 

6. Kings of Egypt appear to have been incidentally derived from each of the above 

nations. 

7. The Copts, in p^rt at least, are a mixture of the Caucasian and Negro, in extremely 

variable proportions. 

8. Negroes were numerous in Egypt. Their social position, in ancient times, was the same 

that it is now ; that of servants or slaves. 

9. The natural characteristics of all these families of man were distinctly figured on the 

monuments, and all of them, excepting the Scythians and Phoenicians, have been iden- 
tified in the catacombs. 



Xlii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

10. The present Fellahs are the lineal and least mixed descendants of the ancient Egyp- 
tians ; and the latter are collaterally represented by the Tuaricks, Kabyles, Siwahs, 
and other remains of the Libyan family of nations. 

11. The modern Nubians, with few exceptions, are not the descendants of the monumental 
Ethiopians ; but a variously mixed race of Arabians and Negroes. 

12. Whatever may have been the size of the cartilaginous portion of the ear, the osseous 
structure conforms, in every instance, to the usual relative position. 

13. The teeth differ in nothing from those of other Caucasian nations. 

14. The hair of the Egyptians resembles in texture that of the fairest Europeans of the 
present day. 

15. The phjsieal or organic characters which distinguish the several races of men are as old as 
the oldest records of our species. 

The sentiments here enunciated he subsequently modified in one 
essential particular. In his letter to Mr. Bartlett of Dec. 1st, 1846, 
(published in vol. 2d of the Transactions of the American Ethnolo- 
gical Society, p. 215,) after reiterating his conviction that the pure 
Egj^Dtian of the remotest monumental period differed as much from 
the negro as does the white man of to-day, he continues : — 

" My later investigations have confirmed me in the opinion, that the valley of the Nile, 
was inhabited by an indigenous race, before the invasion of the Hamitic and other Asiatic 
nations ; and that this primeval people, who occupied the whole of Northern Africa, bore 
much the same relation to the Berber or Berabra tribes of Nubia, that the Saracens of the 
middle ages bore to their wandering and untutored, yet cognate brethren, the Bedouins of 
the desert." 

Further details on this point will be found on pp. 231 and 232 of 
the present work. 

The reception of this book was even more flattering than had been 
that of its predecessor. To admiration was added a natural feeling 
of surprise, that light upon this interesting subject should have come 
from this remote quarter. Lepsius received it on the eve of departure 
on his expedition to Djebel-Barkal, and his letter acknowledging it 
was dated from the island of Philse. One can imagine with what in- 
tense interest such a man, so situated, must have followed the lucid 
deductions of the clear-headed American, writing at the other side of 
the world. But probably the most gratifying notice of the book is 
that by Prichard, in the Appendix to his iTatural History of Man, of 
which I extract a portion. He quotes Morton largely, and always 
with commendation, even where the conclusions of the latter are in 
conflict with his own previously published opinions. 

" A most interesting and really important addition has lately been made to our know- 
ledge of the physical character of the ancient Egyptians. This has been derived from a 
quarter where local probabilities would least of all have induced us to have looked for it. 
In France, where so many scientific men have been devoted, ever since the conquest of 
Egypt by Napoleon, for a long time under the patronage of government, to researches into 
this subject; in England, possessed of the immense advantage of wealth and commercial 
resources ; in the academies of Italy and Germany, where the arts of Egypt have been 
studied in national museums, scarcely anything has been done since the time of Blumen- 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. xliii 

bach to elucidate the physical history of the ancient Egyptian race. In none of these 
countries have any extensive collections been formed of the materials and resources which 
alone can aiford a secure foundation for such attempts. It is in the United States of Ame- 
rica that a remarkable advancement of this part of physical science has been at length 
achieved. ' The Transactions of the American Philosophical Society' contain a memoir by 
Dr. Morton of Philadelphia, in which that able and zealous writer, already distinguished 
by his admirable researches into the physical characters of the native American races, has 
brought forward a great mass of new information on the ancient Egyptians." (p. 57.) 

This brings us at once to the consideration of Morton's opinion 
upon the much-vexed question of the unity or diversity of the various 
races of men, or rather of their origin from a single pair; for that alone 
practically has been the topic of discussion. It is a subject of too 
much importance, both to the cause of science and the memory of 
Morton, to be passed over slightly. Above all, there is necessary a 
clear and fair statement of his opinions, in order that there may be 
no mistake. His mind vras progressive on this subject, as upon many 
others. He had to disabuse himself of erroneous notions, early ac- 
quired, as well as to discover the truth. It is therefore possible so to 
quote him as to misrepresent his real sentiments, or to make his 
assertions appear contradictory and confused. I propose to show the 
gradual growth of his convictions by the quotation, in their legitimate 
series, of his published expressions on the subject. 

The unity and common origin of mankind have, until recently, been 
considered undisputed points of doctrine. They seem to have been re- 
garded as propositions not scientifically established, so much as taken 
for granted, and let alone. All men were held to be descended from 
the single pair mentioned in Genesis ; every tribe was thought to be 
historically traceable to the regions about Mesopotamia ; and ordinary- 
physical influences were believed sufficient to explain the remarkable 
diversities of color, &c. These opinions were thought to be the teach- 
ings of Scripture not impugned by science, and were therefore almost 
universally acquiesced in. By Blumenbach, Prichard, and others, 
the unity is assumed as an axiom not disputed. It is curious that 
the only attack made upon this dogma, until of late, was made from a 
theological, and not from a scientific stand-point. The celebrated book 
of Peyrerius on the pre- Adamites was written to solve certain diffi- 
culties in biblical exegesis, (such as Cain's wife, the city he builded, 
&c.,) for the writer was a mere scholastic theologian.* He met the 
fate of all who ventured to defy the hierarchy, at a day when they 
bad the civil 'power at their back. JSTow they are confined to the 
calling of names, as infidel and the like, although mischief enough 

* Prse-Adamitae, sive esercitatio super versibus duodecimo, decimotertio et decimo quarto 
capitis quinti Epistols D. Pauli ad Romanes. Quibus inducuntur primi Homines ante 
Adamum conditi. Anno Salutis mdclv. 



(I 



xliv MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

can they thus do, inflicting a poisoned wound. Then they had their 
fagots in the Place de Greve, and as they could not catch Peyrerius, 
the Sorbonne ordered his hook publicly burned by the common hang- 
man. There is something ludicrously pathetic in the manner in which 
he addresses his essay to the then-persecuted Jews, with an utinam ex 
vohis unus! and adds, "Hoc mihi certe cum vobis commune est; 
quod vitam duco erraticam, quseque parum convenit cum otio medi- 
tantis et scribentis." The press fairly rained replies to this daring 
work, from both Catholic and Protestant writers, but not one of them 
based on scientific grounds, nor, indeed, in the defence of Genesis. 
Peyrerius would appear to have confessedly the advantage there. But it 
was asserted that the denial of mankind's universal descent from the 
loins of Adam, militated with the position of the latter as " federal 
head" of the race in the " scheme of redemption." The writer's ofience 
was purely theological, and hence the charge of Socinianism and the 
vehemence with which even a phlegmatic Dutchman could be roused 
to hurl at his devoted head the anathema : Perturhet te Dominus, quia 
perturbasti Israelem ! * This excitement over, the subject was heard of 
no more until the French writers of the last century again agitated it. 
Voltaire repeatedly and mercilessly ridicules the idea of a common 
origin. He says — "II n'est permis qu'a un aveugle de douter que 
les blancs, les Negres, les Albinos, les Hottentots, les Lappons, les 
Chinois, les Americains, soient des races entierement differentes."t 
But Voltaire was not scientific, and his opinion upon such questions 
would go for nothing with men of science. Prichard therefore sums 
up his jN"atural History of Man, {London, 1845,) with the final em- 
phatic declaration " that all human races are of one species and one 
family." The doctrine of the unity was indeed almost universally 
held even by those commonly rated as "Deistical" wiiters. D'Han- 
carville, and his fellow dilettanti, will certainly not be suspected of 
any proclivity to orthodoxy ; yet, in his remarks upon the wide dis- 
semination of Phallic and other religious emblems, he gives the 
ensuing forcible and eloquent statement of his con^dction of the full 
historical evidence of unity : — 

" Comme les coquillages et les debris des productions de la mer, qui sent deposes sans 
notnbre et sans mesure sur toute la surface du globe, attestent qu'a des tems inconnus a 
toutes les histoires, il fut occupy et recouyert par les eaux ; ainsi ces emblemes singuliers, 
admis dans toutes les parties de I'ancien continent, attestent qu'^ des tems ant^rieurs a 
tous ceux dont parlent les historiens, toutes les nations chez laquelle exist^rent ces em- 
blemes eurent un meme culte, une meme religion, une meme th^ologie, et vraisemblable- 
ment une meme langage."{ 

* Non-ens Prae-Adamiticum. Sive confutatio vani et Socinizantis cujusdam Somnii, &c. 
Autore Antonio Hulsio. Lugd. Batav. mdclvi. f Essai sur les Moeurs, Introd. 

X Recherches sur I'origine, I'esprit et les progrfes des arts de la Grfece, London, 1785, 
L. 1. xiv. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 



xlv 



Morton was educated in youth to regard this doctrine as a scriptural 
verity, and he found it accepted as the first proposition in the existing 
Ethnology. As such he received it implicitly, and only abandoned it 
when compelled by the force of an irresistible conviction. What he 
received in sincerity, he taught in good faith. There can be no doubt 
that in that early course of 1830, he inculcated the unity doctrine as 
strongly as ever did Prichard. 

But this state of opinion could not continue undisturbed. The 
wide ethnic diversities which so forcibly impressed one who contem- 
plated them merely as an historian and critic (as Voltaire), could not 
fail to engage the attention of naturalists. The difficulties of the 
popular doctrine became daily more numerous and apparent, and it 
owed its continued existence, less to any inherent strength, than to the 
forbearance of those who disliked to awaken controversy by assailing 
it. The ordinary exposition of Genesis it was impossible for natu- 
ralists longer to accept, but they postponed to the utmost the inevita- 
ble contest. The battle had been fought upon astronomy and gained; 
so that Ma pur si muove had become the watchword of the scientific 
world in its conflict with the parti pretre. The Geologists were even 
then coming victorious out of the combat concerning the six days of 
Creation, and the universality of the Deluge. The Archaeologists 
were at the moment beating down the old-fashioned short chronology. 
[N'ow another exciting struggle was at hand. Unfortunately it seems 
out of the question to discuss topics which touch upon theology with- 
out rousing bad blood. "Eeligious subjects," says Payne Knight, 
" being beyond the reach of sense or reason, are always embraced or 
rejected with \'iolence or heat. Men think they know because they are 
sure they feel, and are firmly convinced because strongly agitated."* 
But disagreeable as was the prospect of controversy, it could not be 
avoided. It is curious to read Lawrence now, and see how he piles 
up the objections to his own doctrine, until you doubt whether he 
believes it himself! The main difficulty concerns a single centre of 
creation. The dispersion of mankind from such a centre, somewhere 
on the alluvium of the Euphrates, might be admitted as possible ; 
but the gathering of all animated nature at Eden to be named by 
Adam, the distribution thence to their respective remote and diver- 
sified habitats, their reassembling by pairs and sevens in the Ai'k, and 
their second distribution from the same centre — these conceptions 
are what Lawrence long ago pronounced them, simply " zoologically 
impossible." The error arises from mistaking the local traditions of 
a circumscribed community for universal history. As Peyrerius re- 
marked two centuries ago, " peccatur non raro in lectione sacrorum 



R. Payne Knight. Letter to Sir Jos. Bankes and Sir Wm. Hamilton, p. 23. 



xlvi MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

codicum, quoties generalius accipitur, quod specialius debuit intel- 
ligi."* The most rigid criticism has demonstrated, beyond the possi- 
bility of disputation, that all the nations and tribes mentioned in the 
Pentateuch, are included strictly within the so-called Caucasian race, 
and that the writer probably never heard of (as he certainly never 
mentions) any other than white men. This discussion, even to the 
limited extent to which it has gone, has called forth much bitterness; 
not on the part of sincere students of the sacred text, but of that 
pretraille which, arrogant in the direct ratio of its ignorance, substi- 
tutes clamor and denunciation for reason, and casts the dirt of oppro- 
brious epithets when it has no arguments to offer. But already this 
advantage has arisen from the agitation : — that some preliminary 
points at least may be considered settled, and a certain amount of 
scholarship may be demanded of those who desire to enter the dis- 
cussion ; thus eliminating from it the majority of persons most ready 
to present themselves with noisy common-place, already ten times 
refuted. The men who, in the middle of- the nineteenth century, can 
still find the ancestors of Mongolians and Americans among the sons 
of Japhet, or who talk about the curse of Canaan in connexion with 
!N'egroes,t are plainly without the pale of controversy, as they are 
beyond the reach of criticism. There is, even in some who have re- 
cently published books on the subject, such a helpless profundity 
of ignorance of the very first facts of the case, that one finds no 
fitting answer to them but — expressive silence ! To endeavor to raise 
such to the dignity of Ethnologists, even by debate with them, is 
to pay them a compliment beyond their deserts. They have no right 
whatever to thrust themselves into the field, — the lists are opened for 
another class of combatants. Therefore they cannot be recognised. 
With Dante, 

" Non ragionam di lor ; ma guarda, e passa ! " 

It was impossible for Morton, in the prosecution of his labors, to 
avoid these exciting questions. We have his own assurance that he 
early felt the insuperable difiaculties attending the hypothesis of a 
common origin of all races. He seems soon to have abandoned, if 
he ever entertained, the notion that ordinary physical influences -Rail 
account for existing diversities, at least within the limits of the popu- 
lar short chronology. There are two ways of escaping this difficulty — 
one by denying entirely the competency of physical causes to produce 
the effects alleged ; and the other to grant them an indefinite period 
for their operation, as Prichard did in the end, with his " chiliads 

* Op. cit, p. 163. 

I The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race, examined on the Principles of Science, 
by John Bachman, D. D. Charleston : 1850. pp. 291-292. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. xlvU 

of years," for man's existence upon earth. Morton inclined to the 
other view, mainly in consequence of the historical evidence he had 
accumulated, shomng the unalterable permanency of the charac- 
teristics of race, within the limits of human records. But he was 
slow to hazard the publication of an opinion upon a question of so 
great moment. He preferred to wait, not only until his own convic- 
tion became certainty, but until he could adduce the mass of testi- 
mony necessary to convince others. This extreme caution charac- 
terized all his literary labors, and made his conclusions always 
reliable.* A true disciple of the inductive philosophy, he labored 
long and hard in the verification of his premises. With an inex- 
haustible patience he accumulated fact upon fact, and published 
observation upon observation, often apparently dislocated and object- 
less, but all intended for future use. Many of his minor papers are 
mere stores of disjointed data. More than once, when observing his 
untiring labor and its long postponed result, he has brought into my 
mind those magnificent lines of Shelley : 

Hark ! the rushing snow I 
The sun-awakened avalanche ! whose mass, 
Thrice sifted by the storm, had gathered there 
Flake after flake, in heaven-defying minds 
As thought by thought is piled, till some great truth 
Is loosened, and the nations echo round, 
Shaken to their roots, as do the mountains now.f 

In fact, he had an eye, in all his investigations, to the publication at 
some future period of a work on the Elements of Ethnology, which 
should contain the fully ripened fruits of so many years of toil. Of 
this project he speaks in some of his letters as "perhaps an idle 
dream," but one for whose realization he would make many sacri- 
fices. For it he reserved the complete expression of his ethnological 
doctrines. This consideration, and his extreme dislike of controversy, 
made him particularly guarded in his statements. Constitutionally 
averse to all noisy debate and contention, he was well aware also that 
they are incompatible with the calmness essential to successful scien- 
tific inquiry. ]N"othing but an aggravated assault could have drawn 
from him a reply. That assault was made, and, as I conceive, most 

• In a letter of Prof. 0. W. Holmes to Dr. Morton, (dated Boston, Nov. 27th, 1849,) I 
find the following passage, so just in its appreciation of his scientific character, that I take 
the liberty of quoting it : — 

"The more I read on these subjects, the more I am delighted with the severe and cau- 
tious character of your own most extended researches, which, from their very nature, are 
permanent data for all future students of Ethnology, whose leader on this side the Atlantic, 
to say the least, you have so happily constituted yourself by well-directed and long-con- 
tinued efforts." 

f Prometheus Unbound, Act IT., Scene 3d. 

3 



xlviii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

fortunately for his reputation. Witliout it, he would prohably have 
ceased from his labors without having published any such explicit 
and unmistakeable expression of opinion, on this important question, 
as his scientific friends would have desired. As it is, he has left no 
room for doubt or cavil as to his position in the very front of our 
onward progress in Anthropology. 

The first published opinion of Morton in reference to this question 
is found in the Orania Americana. It will be perceived, that, recog- 
nizing the entire incompetency of ordinary climatic and similar in- 
fluences to produce the alleged effects, he suggests, as an escape from 
the difficulty, that the marks of Eace were impressed at once by 
Divine Power upon the immediate family of Adam. 

" The recent discoveries in Egypt give additional force to the preceding statement, inas- 
much as they show, beyond all question, that the Caucasian and Negro races were as per- 
fectly distinct in that country, upwards of three thousand years ago, as they are now ; 
whence it is evident, that if the Caucasian was derived from the Negro, or the Negro from 
the Caucasian, by the action of external causes, the change must have been effected in, at 
most, one thousand years ; a theory which the subsequent evidence of thirty centuries 
proves to be a physical impossibility ; and we have already ventured to insist that such a 
commutation could be effected by nothing short of a miracle." (p. 88.) 

In his printed Introductory Lecture of 1842, the same views are 
repeated, and the insufficiency of external causes again insisted upon. 
In April of the same year, he read, before the Boston Society of l^a- 
tural History, a paper which was republished in 1844, under the title 
of An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race 
of America. From this paper I extract the following striking passage : 

In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a patient examination of the facts 
thus briefly and inadequately stated, is, that the American race is essentially separate and 
peculiar, whether we regard it in its physical, moral, or its intellectual relations. To us 
there are no direct or obvious links between the people of the old world and the new ; for 
even admitting the seeming analogies to which we have alluded, these are so few in num- 
ber, and evidently so casual, as not to invalidate the main position ; and even should it be 
hereafter shown that the arts, sciences, and religion of America can be traced to an exotic 
source, I maintain that the organic characters of the people themselves, through all their 
endless ramifications of tribes and nations, prove them to belong to one and the same race, 
and that this race is distinct from all others." (p. 35.) 

His unequivocal assertion of the permanency of the distiuctive 
marks of Race in the final proposition of his resume of the Crania 
Mgyptiaca has already been given, {supra, p.xlii.)Two years afterwards 
he published this emphatic declaration : 

" I can aver that sixteen years of almost daily comparisons have only confirmed me in 
the conclusions announced in my " Crania Americana," that all the American nations, ex- 
cepting the Eskimaux, are of one race, and that this race is peculiar and distinct from all 
others."* 

* Ethnography and Archaeology of the American Aborigines. New Haven: 1846. (p. 9.) 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON, xlix 

The next citation is from the letter to Mr. Bartlett before men- 
tioned : 

" But it is necessary to explain what is here meant by the word race. I do not use it to 
imply that all its divisions are derived from a single pair ; on the contrary, I believe they 
have originated from several, perhaps even from many pairs, which were adapted, from the 
beginning, to the varied localities they were designed to occupy ; and the Fuegians, less 
migratory than the cognate tribes, will serve to illustrate this idea. In other words, I re- 
gard the American nations as the true autocthones, the primeval inhabitants of this vast 
continent; and when I speak of their being of one race or of one origin, I allude only to 
their indigenous relation to each other, as shown in all those attributes of mind and body 
which have been so amply illustrated by modern ethnography."* 

In a note to a paper in Silliman's Journal for 1847, he says : — 

" I may here observe, that whenever I have ventured an opinion on this question, it has 
been in favor of the doctrine of primeval diversities among men — an original adaptation of 
the several races to those varied circumstances of climate and locality, which, while con- 
genial to the one, are destructive to the other; and subsequent investigations have con- 
firmed me in these views."f 

One would suppose that whoever had read the above publications 
could have no doubt as to Morton's sentiments ; yet Dr. Bachman 
and others have affected to be suddenly surprised by the utterance 
of opinions which had been distinctly implied, and even openly pub- 
lished years before. To leave no further doubt upon the subject, he 
thus expresses himself in his letter to Dr. Bachman of March 30th, 
1850:— 

"I commenced the study of Ethnology about twenty years since; and among the first 
aphorisms taught me by all the books to which I then had access, was this — that all man- 
kind were derived from a single pair ; and that the diversities now so remarkable, origin- 
ated solely from the operations of climate, locality, food, and other physical agents. In 
other words, that man was created a perfect and beautiful being in the first instance, and 
that chance, chance alone has caused all the physical disparity among men, from the noblest 
Caucasian form to the most degraded Australian and Hottentot. I approached the subject 
as one of great difficulty and delicacy; and my first convictions were, that these diversities 
are not acquired, but have existed ab origine. Such is the opinion expressed in my Crania 
Americana; but at that period, (twelve years ago,) I had not investigated Scriptural Eth- 
nology, and was content to suppose that the distinctive characteristics of the several races 
had been marked upon the immediate family of Adam. Further investigation, however, 
in connection with zoological science, has led me to take a wider view of this question, of 
which an outline is given above."J 

In order to present still more fully and clearly the final conclusions 
of our revered friend on this topic, I append two of his letters. The 
first is addresse.d to Dr. I^Tott, under date of January 29th, 1850. 

* Transactions of American Ethnological Society, vol. ii. New York: 1848. (p. 219.) 
■)■ Hybridity in animals and plants, considered in reference to the question of the Unity 

of the Human Species. New Haven: 1847. (p. 4.) 

X Letter to the Rev. .John Bachman, D. D., on the question of Hybridity in animals. 

Charleston: 1850. (p. 15.) 



1 MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. . 

" I have read and re-read your Two Lectures with great pleasure and instruction. I am 
especially pleased Tfith the triumphant manner in which you have treated the absurd pos- 
tulate, that one race can be transmuted into another. The only illustrations that can be 
adduced by its advocates, as you justly observe, are certain diseased and abnormal organi- 
zations, that, by a wise law of nature, wear out in a few generations. Some of your apho- 
risms have delighted me. ' Man can invent nothing in science or religion but falsehood ; 
and all the truths which he discovers are but facts or laws which have emanated from the 
Creator.' This is a! noble sentiment admirably expressed. I am slowly preparing my 
memoir ' On the Size of the Brain in various Races and Families of Man ; with Ethnological 
Remarks.' The latter clause will give me sufficient scope for the expression of my views 
on those sensitive points of Ethnology in which I entirely agi-ee with you in opinion ; 
leaving out all theological discussion, which I have carefully avoided. You will observe a 
note in my Essay on Hybridity, in which I avow my belief in a plurality of origins for the 
human species, and I have now extended those observations, and briefly illustrated them; 
but in so doing I find no difficulty with the text of Genesis, which is just as manageable in 
Ethnology as it has proved in Astronomy, Geology, and Chronology. When I took this 
ground four years ago, (and in the Crania Americana my position is the same, though more 
cautiously worded,) it was with some misgivings, not because I doubted the truth of my 
opinions, but because I feared they would lead to some controversy with the clergy. No- 
thing of the kind has happened ; for I have avoided coming into collision with men who 
too often uphold a garbled text of Scripture, to defeat the progress of truth and science. 
I have had some letters from the clergy and from other piously-disposed persons, bat the 
only one that had any spice of vehemence was from a friend. Dr. Bachman, of Charleston. 
A number of clergymen have called upon me for information on this subject, and I confess 
to you my surprise at the liberal tone of feeling they have expressed on this sensitive ques- 
tion ; and I really believe that if they are not pressed too hard, they will finally concede 
all that can be asked of the mere question of diversity ; for it can be far more readily 
reconciled to the Mosaic annals than some other points. Astronomy, &c., for example. As 
for Chronology, we all know it to be a broken reed. Look at the last page of Dr. Prichard's 
great work — the last page of his fifth and last volume — and he there gives it as his ma- 
tured opinion that the human race has been ' chiliads of centuries' upon the earth ! He 
had before found it necessary to prove the Deluge a partial phenomenon, and he also admits 
that no physical agents could ever have produced the existing diversities among men ; and 
ascribes them to accidental varieties which have been careful to intermix only among them- 
selves, and thereby perpetuated their race I Compared with this last inadequate hypothesis, 
how beautiful, how evidently and inherently truthful is the proposition — that our species 
had its origin, not in one, but in several or in many creations ; and that these diverging 
from their primitive centres, met and amalgamated in the progress of time, and have thus 
given rise to these intermediate links of organization which now connect the extremes to- 
gether. Here is the truth divested. of mystery ; a system that explains the otherwise unin- 
telligible phenomena so remarkably stamped on the races of men." 

The remaining letter is addressed to Mr. Gliddon, under date of 
Philadelphia, April 27th, 1851, little more than two weeks before its 
author ceased to breathe. I publish it verbatim, so that the reader 
may see that the concluding emphatic declaration stands unqualified 
by anything in the context. 

" My dear Sir : — Have you Squier's pamphlets on California and New Mexico ? Is it not 
in them that is contained a refutation of the old fable of white Indians on or near the Rio 
Gila ? If so, please send me the above paper by mail as soon as you can. I must have 
them somewhere, but I am in an emergency for them, and they cannot be found. I am 
hard at work at my chapter for Schoolcraft's book, and am desirous to get it oflf my haiids. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. ll 

I send you a paragraph from the Ledger which Trill gratify you. There is no higher praise 
than this. It is all the better for being so aphorismally expressed. The doctrine of the 
original diversity of mankind unfolds itself to me more and more with the distinctness of reve- 
lation. 

" With kindest remembrances to Mrs. Gr. and your fine boy, I am, 

" Ever faithfully yours, 

" S. G. Morton." 

These citations are sufficient for our purpose, I apprehend, especially 
the laconic emphasis of the last, which may be regarded as the ethnolo- 
gical testament of our lamented friend. I have been thus full upon this 
point, because I believe it but justice to his memory to show that he 
was among the very earliest to accept and give shape to the doctrine 
stated. As the mountain summits are gilded with the early dawn, 
while the plain below still sleeps in darkness, so it is the loftiest spirit 
among men that first receives and reflects the radiance of the coming 
truth. Morton has occupied that position among us, in relation to this 
important advance in scientific opinion. I have desired to put the 
evidence of it fairly upon record, and thus to claim and secure the 
distinction that is justly due him. 

Many well-meaning, but uninformed persons have, however, raised 
an outcry of horror against the assertion of original human diversities, 
in which they have been joined by others who ought to know better. 
The attack is not made upon the doctrine itself, nor upon any direct 
logical consequence of it. The alleged grievance consists entirely in 
the loss of certain corollaries deducible from the opposite proposition. 
Thus it is asserted that our religious system and our doctrine of social 
and political rights, alike result from the hypothesis of human consan- 
guinity and common origin, and stand or fall with it. To this effect 
we have constantly quoted to us the high authority of Humboldt, who 
says, " En maintenant I'unite de I'espece humaine, nous fejetons par 
consequence necessaire, la distinction desolante de races superieures 
et de races inferieures."* 

In a note he again applies the term desolante to this doctrine. I 
have used the French translation, because it is the more forcible, and 
because it was that read by Morton, whose felicitous commentary 
upon it I am fortunately able to adduce, from a letter to Mr. Gliddou, 
of May 30th, 1846. 

" Humboldt's word desolante is true in sentiment and in morals — but, as you observe, it is 
wholly inapplicable to the physical reality. Nothing so humbles, so crushes my spirit, as 
to look into a mad-house, and behold the drivelling, brutal idiocy so conspicuous in such 
places ; it conveys a terrific idea of the disparity of human intelligences. But there is the 

* Cosmos: traduit par H. Faye. Paris: 1846. I. p. 430. Also, note 42, p. 579. Ott6 
translates by depressing in one place, and cheerless in another. Cosmos : New York, 1850. 
I. p. 358. 



lii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

unyielding, insuperable reality. It is desolanie indeed to think, to know, that many of these 
poor mortals were born, were created so ! But it appears to me to make little difference 
in the sentiment of the question whether they came into the world without their wits, or 
whether they lost them afterwards. And so, I would add, it makes little difference whe- 
ther the mental inferiority of the Negro, the Samoiyede, or the Indian, is natural or 
acquired ; for, if they ever possessed equal intelligence with the Caucasian, they have lost 
it ; and if they never had it, they had nothing to lose. One party would arraign Provi- 
dence for creating them originally different, another for placing them in circumstances by 
which they inevitably became so. Let us search out the truth, and reconcile it after- 
wards." 

Here are sound philosophy aud plain common sense. As the facts 
are open to investigation, let us first examine them, and leave the in- 
ferences for future consideration. If the proposition prove true, we 
may safely trust all its legitimate deductions. There is no danger 
from the truth, neither will it conflict with any other truth. Our 
greater danger is from the cowardice that is afraid to look fact in the 
face, and, not daring to come in contact with reality, for fear of con- 
sequences, must rest content with error and half-helief. The question 
here is one of fact simply, and not of speculation nor of feeling. 
Humboldt may deny the existence of unalterable diversities, but that 
is another question, also to be settled only by a wider observation and 
longer experience. The ethical consequences he so eloquently depre- 
cates, moreover, appear to me not to be fairly involved, unless he 
assumes that the solidarity and mutual moral relations of mankind 
originate solely in their relationship as descendants of a single pair. 
If so, he has built upon a sandy foundation, and one which every 
moralist of note will tell him is inadequate to the support of his 
superstructure. The inalienable right of man to equal liberty with 
his fellows depends, if it has any sanction, upon higher considerations 
than any mere physical fact of consanguinity, and remains the same 
whether the latter be proved or disproved. Ethical principles require 
a difierent order of evidence from material phenomena, and are to be 
regarded from another point of view. The scientific question should, 
therefore, be discussed on its own merits, and without reference to 
false issues of an exciting character, if we hope to reach the truth. I 
cannot forbear the conclusion that, in this matter, the JSTestor of 
science has been betrayed into a little piece of popular declamation, 
unworthy of his pen, otherwise so consistently logical. But the acme 
of absurdity is reached by those clerical gentlemen at the south, who 
have been so eager to avail themselves of Humboldt's great authority 
in opposition to the doctrine of diversity, while they deny all his pre- 
mises. Do they consider all doctrine necessarily desolante, because 
an argument in favor of slavery, true or false, may be based upon it ? 
Humboldt does. And again, if the denial of a common paternity 
involves all the deplorable consequences indicated by the latter, does 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTOIS^. liii 

its assertion carry with it the contrary inferences ? They say not. If, 
then, the doctrine of unity gives no essential guarantee of universal 
libert}^ and equality, why reproach the opposite doctrine with destroy- 
ing what never existed ? Thus, these gentlemen must stultify either 
themselves or their champion, while that which with him was merely a 
rhetorical flourish becomes, in their hands, a ridiculous non sequitur. 

In the course of these discussions it became necessary to define, 
with greater precision, certain terms in constant use. This was espe- 
cially the case with the word species, the loose employment of which 
occasioned much confusion. According to the prevalent zoological 
doctrine, the production of a prolific oflTspring is tbe highest evidence 
of specific identity, and vice versa. The important results of the 
application of this law to the races of men are apparent. But other 
authorities deny the validity of the alleged law and its application. 
" Wir diirften," says Rudolphi, " also wohl deswegen auf Keine Einheit 
des Menschengeschlechts sehliessen, well die verschiedenen Menschen- 
stiimme sich fruchtbar mit einander begatten." The question of 
Il3'bridity, therefore, presented itself to Morton in a form that de- 
manded attention and settlement before going farther. He seized the 
subject, not to speculate, and still less to declaim about it, but cau- 
tiously to gather and sift its facts. His first papers were read before 
the Academy of ]S"atural Sciences in JSTovember, 1846, and published 
in Silliman's Journal the next year. They contain a large number of 
facts, from various authorities, together with the author's inferences. 
For these, and the entire discussion of the topic, I refer the reader 
to Chapter XH. (on Hybridity) in this work. But the controversy 
into which it led Morton forms too prominent a part of his scientific 
history to be passed over in silence. It was not of his seeking, but 
was forced upon him. A literaiy club at Charleston, S. C, being 
engaged in the discussion of the Origin of Man, the Eev. Dr. Bach- 
man assumed the championship of the unitary hypothesis, taking 
ground upon the evidence afforded by an invariabty prolific offspring. 
His opponents met him with Morton's papers on Hybridity. These 
he must, of course, examine ; but he first addressed Morton a letter, 
of which the following is an extract : — 

Charleston, Oct. Ibih, 1849. 
" We are both in the search of truth. I do not think that these scientific investigations 
affect the scripture question either way. The Author of Revelation is also the Author of 
Nature, and I have^no fear that when we are able to read intelligibly, we will discover that 
both harmonize. We can then investigate these matters without the fear of an aulo-da-fe 
from men of sense. In the meantime all must go with respect and good feeling towards 
each other. Although hard at werk in finishing the last volume of Audubon's work, I will 
now and then have time to look at this matter ; and here let me in anticipation state some 

of my objections But I am overrun with calls of duty, and have 

written this under all kinds of interruptions. I shall be most sorry if my opposition to 
your theory would produce the slightest interruption to our good feeling, as I regard you, 
in your many works, as a benefactor to your country, and an honor to science. I feel con- 



liv MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON". 

fident that I can scatter some of your facts to the -winds — yet in others you will be very 
apt to trip up my own heels ; so let us work harmoniously together. At the English Uni- 
versities they have wranglers, but no quarrellers." 

This seems manly and friendly, and Morton, feeling it to be such, 
was very mnch gratified. He certainly never could have regarded it 
as a prelude to an attack upon himself; yet such it was. The next 
spring (1850) witnessed the publication of Dr. B.'s book on Unity, as 
well as his Monograph on Hybridity, in the Charleston MedicalJournal, 
in both of which Morton is made the object of assault and attempted 
ridicule. The former work I have already referred to, (p. xlvi.) The 
author starts with what amounts, under the circumstances, to a broad 
and unequivocal confession of ignorance of his topic — a confession 
which, however praiseworthy on the score of frankness, may be re- 
garded as wholly supererogatory ; for no reader of ordinary intelligence 
can open the book without perceiving the fact for himself. His reading 
seems to have been singularly limited,* while the topic, involving, as 
it does, the characteristics of remote races, &c., demands a wide and 
careful consultation of authorities. For one who is confessedly 
neither an archaeologist, an anatomist, nor a philologist, to attempt 
to teach Ethnology on the strength of having, many years ago, read 
on the subject a single work — and he scarcely recollects what — is a 
conception as bold as it is original. His production required no 
notice, of course, at the hand of Morton. On the special subject of 
Hybridity, however, he was entitled to an attentive hearing as a gen- 
tleman of established authority, particularly in the mammalian de- 
partment of Zoology. Had he discussed it in the spirit foreshadowed 
by his letter, and which Morton anticipated, there would have been 
no controversy, but an amicable comparison of views, advancing the 
cause of science. But his tone was arrogant and offensive. 'Not only 
to the general reader in his book, but also to Morton in his letters, 

* " In preparing these notes we have even resolved not to refer to Prichard — who, we 
believe, is justly regarded as one of our best authorities — whose work we read with great in- 
terest some years ago, (and which is allowed even by his opponents to have been written in a 
spirit of great fairness,) and many of whose arguments we at the time considered unan- 
swerable." (p. 16.) 

" After this work was nearly printed, we procured Prichard's Natural History of Man — 
his other works we have not seen. We were aware of the conclusions at which his mind had 
arrived, but not of the process by which his investigations had been pursued." (p. 804.) 

Now, as the Natural History was not published until 1843, it could hardly be the book 
read " some years ago" (prior to 1849) ; especially as Dr. B. confesses ignorance " of the 
process, &c." [supra.] That must have been one of the earlier volumes of the Physical 
Researches, commenced in 1812, probably the very first, \fhich leaves the subject short of 
the point to which Blumenbach subsequently brought it. But Dr. B. assures us again, that 
other work of Prichard than the Natural History he "has never seen." Then he never saw 
any, before writing his own book ! His memory is certainly extremely vague. It is safe 
to conclude, however, that he undertook to write upon this difficult subject without the 
direct consultation of a single authority : — the result is what might be readily anticipated. 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. Iv 

does he speak de haut en has, as if, from the height of the pulpit, he 
was looking down upon men immeasurably removed from him by 
his sacred office. This faulty manner perhaps results from his pro- 
fession, as does his verbose and declamatory style. But this consi- 
deration will not excuse the patronizing way in which he addresses 
one of higher scientific rank than himself. He reminds Morton of 
the countenance he has heretofore given him, — that he even subscribed 
for his book ! The authorities relied upon by the latter he treats with 
supreme contempt, individually and collectively, characterizing them 
as pedantic, antiquated, and "musty."* All this is carried through 
in a bold, dashing, oflF-hand way, calculated to impress forcibly any 
reader ignorant of the matter under discussion. It argues the most 
confident self-complacency and conviction of superiority on the part 
of the writer, and doubtless his admiring readers shared the feeling. 
For a short season there was quite a jubilation over the assumed 
defeat of the physicists. 

But there is an Italian proverb which saj's, Non sempre cJii eantando 
viene, eantando va ! and which Dr. B. was destined to illustrate. To 
his first paper Morton replied in a letter dated March 30th, 1850, the 
tone of which is calm, dignified, and friendly. He defends his autho- 
rities, accumulates new evidence, and strengthens and defines his 
position. This called forth Dr. B.'s most objectionable letter of June 
12th, 1850, also published in the Charleston Journal, and in which 
he entirely passes the bounds of propriet}-. ISTo longer satisfied with 
his poor attempts at wit, which consist almost exclusively in the use 
of the word "old" and its synonymes, he becomes denunciatory, and 
even abusive. He charges Morton with taking part in a deliberate 
conspiracy, having its ramifications in four cities, for the overthrow 
of a doctrine "nearly connected with the faith and hope of the Chris- 
tian, for this world and for eternity." In another paragraph, (p. 507,) 
he says, that infidelity must inevitably spring up as the consequence 
of adopting Morton's views. ITow, we all know that when gentle- 
men of Dr. B.'s cloth use that word, they mean war usque ad necem. 
Its object is simply to do mischief and give pain. It cannot injure 

* Dr. Bachman's contempt for everything " old" is certainly very curious in one so likely, 
from calling and position, to be particularly conservative. Nor is this his only singularity. 
His pertinacious ascription of a remote date to every one whose name has a Latinized 
termination, reminds one of the story told of the backwoods lawyer, who persisted in 
numbering " old Cantharides" among the sages of antiquity. He is particularly hard upon 
" old Hellenius," never failing to give him a passing flout, and talking about raising his 
ghost. The writings of Dr. B. do not indicate a very sensitive person, yet even he must 
have felt a considerable degree of the sensation known as cutis anserina, when he received 
the information, conveyed in Morton's quietest manner, that "old Hellenius," with others 
of his so-called " musty" authorities, were his own contemporaries ! The work of Chevreul, 
■which he disposes of in the same supercilious way, bears the extreme date of 1846! 



Ivi MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 

tiie person attacked, so far as the scientific world is concerned — for 
there the phrase can now only excite a smile — but it may impair hia 
business or his public standing, or, still worse, it may enter his do- 
mestic circle, and wound him through his teuderest sympathies. 
"Was such the intention in the present case ? Charity bids us think 
otherwise ; and yet the attack has a very mahgnant appearance. To 
Morton it occasioned great surprise and pain. He answered it calmly 
in a paper in the same Journal, entitled Additional Observations, &c. 
He is unwavering in the assertion of his opinion ; and, inasmuch as 
its triumphant establishment would be his own best justification, he 
piles up still more and more evidence, often from the highest autho- 
rities in ISTatui-al History. The personalities of Dr. B. he meets and 
refutes briefly, but with firmness and dignity, declining entirely to 
allow himself to be provoked into a bandying of epithets. His con- 
duct was in striking contrast with that of his reverend opponent ; 
and, while it exalted him in the estimation of the learned everywhere, 
showed the latter to be a stranger to the courtesies that should 
characterize scientific discussion. More of a theological polemic than 
a naturalist, he uses the tone and style proverbially displayed by the 
former, and is offensive accordingly. He has his punishment in 
general condemnation and impaired scientific standing. In the 
mean time, Morton was stimulated to a determination to exhaust 
whatever material there was accessible in regard to Hybridity. Dr. 
Bachmau he dropped entirely after the second letter; but he an- 
nounced to his friends his intention of sending an article regularly 
for each successive number of the Charleston Journal, so long as new 
matter presented. Two only of these supplementary communications 
appeared, the last being dated January 31st, 1851. 

But the solemn termination of all these labors was near at hand. 
Never had Morton been so busy as in that spring of 1851. His pro- 
fessional engagements had largely increased, and occupied most of 
his time. His craniological investigations were prosecuted with un- 
abated zeal, and he had recently made important accessions to his 
collection. He was actively engaged in the study of Archaeology, 
Egyptian, Assyrian, and American, as collateral to his favorite sub- 
ject. His researches upon Hybridity cost him much labor, in his 
extended comparison of authorities, and his industrious search for 
facts bearing on the question. In addition to all this, he was occu- 
pied with the preparation of his contiibution to the work of Mr. 
Schoolcraft, and of several minor papers. Most of these labors were 
left incomplete. The fragments published in this volume will show 
how his mind was engaged, and to what conclusions it tended at the 
close. For it was now, in the midst of toil and usefulness, that he 
was called away from us. Five days of illness — not considered 



MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. 



Ivii 



alarming at first — had scarcely prepared his friends for the sad event, 
when it was announced, on the 15th of May, that Morton was no more ! 
It was too true — he had left vacant among us a place that cannot 
soon he filled. Peacefully and calmly he had gone to his eternal rest, 
having accomplished so much in his short space of life, and yet 
leaving so much undone, that none but he could do as well ! 

So lived and so died our lamented friend. While we deplore his 
loss, however, we cannot but perceive that few men have been more 
blessed in life than he. His career was an eminently prosperous and 
successful one. Veiy few have ever been so uniformly successful in 
their enterprises. He established, with unusual rapidity, a wide- 
spread scientific fame, upon the white radiance of which he has, 
dying, left not a single blot. His life was also a fortunate and happy 
one in its more private relations. His first great grief came vipon 
him, precisely a year before his own decease, in the loss of a beloved 
son, to whom he was tenderly attached. N'o other cloud than this 
obscured his clear horizon to the last. That he felt it deeply there 
can be no doubt ; but he had, at his heart's core, the sentiment that 
can rob sorrow of its bitterness, and death of its sting. To that sen- 
timent he has given utterance in these lines ; and, with their quotation, 
I conclude this notice, the preparation of which has been to me a 
labor of love, and the solace, for a season, of a bed of sufiering. 

Jan. 1854. co.so.a.xon. H. S. P. 

"What art thou, -world! with thy beguiling dreams, 

Thy banquets and carousals, pomp and pride ! 
What is thy gayest moment, when it teems 

"With pleasures won, or prospects yet untried ? 
"What ai-e thy honors, titles and renown, 

Thy brightest pageant, and thy noblest sway ? 
Alas ! like flowers beneath the tempest's frown. 

They bloom at morn, — at eve they fade away ! 
A few short years revolve, and then no more 

Can Memory rouse them from their resting-place ; 
The joys we courted, and the hopes we bore, 

Have pass'd like shadows from our fond embrace. 
But is there nought, amid the fearful doom, 

That can outlast the wreck of mortal things ? 
There is a spirit that does not consume, 

But mounts o'er ruin with triumphant wings. 
And thou, Religion ! like a guardian star 

Dost glitter in the firmament on high. 
And lead'st us still, tho' we have wander'd far. 

To hopes that cheer, and joys that never die! 
And if an erring pilgrim on his way 

Casts but a pure, a suppliant glance to Heaven, 
" Fear not — benighted child" — he hears thee say — 

" For they are doubly blest that are forgiven ! " • , 



SKETCH 



NATURAL PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD AND THEIR RELATION" 
TO THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAN. 

BY LOUIS AGASSIZ. 



Messrs. Nott and Gliddon. 

Dear Sirs: — In compliance Tvith your request that I should furnish you with certain 
Bcientific facts respecting the Natural History of Man, to which you are now devoting par- 
ticularly your attention, I transmit to you some general remarks upon the natural relations 
of the human family and the organic world surrounding it ; in the hope that it may call 
the attention of naturalists to the close connection there is between the geographical distribution 
of animals and the natural boundaries of the different races of man — a fact which must be 
explained by any theory of the origin of life which claims to cover the whole of this diffi- 
cult problem. I do not pretend to present such a theory now, but would simply illustrate 
the facts as they are, to lay the foundation of a more extensive work to be published at 
some future time. Nor is it my intention to characterize hei'e all the zoological provinces 
recognized by naturalists, but only those the animals of which are known with sufficient 
accuracy to throw light upon the subject under consideration. Of the marine animals, I 
shall therefore take no notice, except so far as they bear a special relation to the habits 
of uncivilized races or to the commercial enterprise of the world. The views illustrated 
in the following pages have been expressed for the first time by me in a paper, published 
in French, in the Revue Suisse for 1845. 

Very truly, yours, 

Ls. Agassiz. 

Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 19th, 1853. 



There is one feature in the physical history of mankind which has 
been entirely neglected by those who have studied this subject, viz., 
the natural relations between the different types of man and the 
animals and plants inhabiting the same regions. The sketch here 
presented is intended to supply this deficiency, as far .as it is possible 
in a mere outline delineation, and to show that the boundaries, within 
which the different natural combinations of animals are known to be 
circumscribed upon the surface of our earth, coincide with the natural 
range of distinct types of man. Such natural combinations of animals 
circumscribed within definite boundaries are called faunas, whatever 

(Iviii) 



PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD, ETC. lix 

be tlieir home — laud, sea, or river. Among the animals which com- 
pose the fauna of a country, we find types belonging exclusively 
there, and not occurring elsewhere ; such are, for example, the orni- 
thorhynehus of 'New Holland, the sloths of America, the hippopota- 
mus of Africa, and the walruses of the arctics : others, which have 
only a small number of representatives beyond the fauna which they 
specially characterize, as, for instance, the marsupials of New Hol- 
land, of which America has a few species, such as the opossum ; and 
again others which have a wider range, such as the bears, of which 
there are distinct species ta Europe, Asia, or America, or the mice 
and bats, which are to be found all over the world, except in the 
arctics. That fauna will, therefore, be most easily characterized 
which possesses the largest number of distinct types, proper to itself, 
and of which the other animals have little analogy with those of 
neighboring regions, as, for example, the fauna of New Holland. 

The inhabitants of fresh waters furnish also excellent characters 
for the circumscription of faunae. The fishes, and other fluviatile 
animals from the larger hydrographic basins, differ no less from each 
other than the mammalia, the birds, the reptiles, and the insects of 
the countries which these rivers water. ■ ^Nevertheless, some authors 
have attempted to separate the fresh water animals from those of the 
land and sea, and to establish distinct divisions for them, under the 
name of fluviatile faunas. But the inhabitants of the rivers and 
lakes are too intimately connected with those of their shores to allow 
of a rigorous distinction of this kind. Rivers never establish a sepa- 
ration between terrestrial faunae. For the same reason, the faunae of 
the inland seas cannot be completely isolated from the terrestrial 
ones, and we shall see hereafter that the animals of southern Europe 
are not bound by the Mediterranean, but are found on the southern 
shore of that sea, as far as the Atlas. We shall, therefore, distin- 
guish our zoological regions according to the combination of species 
which they enclose, rather than according to the element in which 
we find them. 

If the grand divisions of the animal kingdom are primordial and 
independent of climate, this is not the case with regard to the ulti- 
mate local circumscription of species : these are, on the contrary, 
intimately connected with the conditions of temperature, soil, and 
vegetation. A remarkable instance of this distribution of animals 
with reference to climate may be observed in the arctic fauna, which 
contains a great number of species common to the three continents 
converging towards the North Pole, and which presents a striking 
uniformity, when compared with the diversity of the temperate and 
tropical faunae of those same continents. 



Ix PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD 

The arctic fauna extends to the utmost limits of the cold and bar- 
ren regions of the ISTorth. But from the moment that forests appear, 
and a more propitious soil permits a larger development of animal 
life and of vegetation, we see the fauna and flora, not only diversified 
according to the continents on which they exist, but we observe also 
striking distinctions between diflferent parts of the same continent : 
thus, in the old world, the animals vary, not only from the polar 
circle to the equator, but also in the opposite direction — those of the 
western coast of Europe are not the same as those of the basin of the 
Caspian Sea, or of the eastern coast of Asia, nor are those of the 
eastern coast of America the same as those of the western. 

The first fauna, the limits of which we would determine with pre- 
cision, is the arctic. It ofiers, as we have just seen, the same aspects 
in three parts of the world, which converge towards the ]!^orth Pole. 
The uniform distribution of the animals by which it is inhabited 
forms its most striking character, and gives rise to a sameness of 
general features which is not found in any other region. Though the 
air-breathing species are not numerous here, the large number of 
individuals compensates for this deficiency, and among the marine 
animals we find an astonishing profusion and variety of forms. 

In this respect the vegetable and animal kingdoms differ entirely 
from each other, and the measure by which we estimate the former 
is quite false as applied to the latter. Plants become stunted in their 
growth or disappear before the rigors of the climate, while, on the 
contrary, all classes of the animal kingdom have representatives, 
more or less numerous, in the arctic fauna. 

Neither can they be said to diminish in size under these influences ; 
■ for, if the arctic representatives of certain classes, particularly the 
insects, are smaller than the analogous types in the tropics, we must 
not forget, on the other hand, that the whales and larger cetacea 
have here their most genial home, and make amends, by their more 
powerful structure, for the inferiority of other classes. Also, if the 
animals of the K"orth are less striking in external ornament — if their 
colors are less brilliant — yet we cannot say that they are more 
uniform, for though their tints are not so bright, they are none the 
less varied in their distribution and arrangement. 

The limits of the arctic fauna are very easily traced. "We must 
include therein all animals living beyond the line where forests cease, 
and inhabiting countries entirely barren. Those which feed upon 
flesh seek fishes, hares, or lemmings, a rodent of the size of our rat. 
Those which live on vegetable substances are not numerous. Some 
gramineous plants, mosses, and lichens, serve as pasture to the rumi- 
nants and rodents, while the seeds of a few flowering plants, and 



AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN Ixi 

of tlie dwarf birches, afford nourishment to the little granivorous 
birds, such as linnets and buntings. The species belonging to the 
sea-shore feed upon marine animals, which live, themselves, upon 
each other, or upon marine plants. 

The larger mammalia which inhabit this zone are — the white 
bear, the walrus, numerous species of seal, the reindeer, the muski 
ox, the narwal, the cachalot, and whales in abundance. Among the 
smaller species we may mention the white fox, the polar hare, and 
the lemming. The birds are not less characteristic. Some marine 
eagles, and wading birds in smaller number, are found; but the 
aquatic birds of the family of palmipedes are those which especially 
prevail. The coasts of the continents and of the numerous islands 
in the arctic seas are peopled by clouds of gannets, of cormorants, 
of penguins, of petrels, of ducks, of geese, of mergansers, and of 
gulls, some of which are as large as eagles, and, like them, live on 
prey. N^o reptile is known in this zone. Fishes are, however, very 
numerous, and the rivers especially swarm with a variety of species 
of the salmon family. A number of representatives of the inferior 
classes of worms, of Crustacea, of mollusks, of echinoderms, and of 
medusse, are also found here. 

Within the limits of this fauna we meet a peculiar race of men, 
known in America under the name of Esquimaux, and under the 
names of Laplanders, Samojedes, and Tchuktshes in the north of 
Asia. This race, so well known since the voyage of Capt. Cook and 
the arctic expeditions of England and Russia, differs alike from the 
Indians of ISTorth America, from the whites of Europe, and the Mon- 
gols of Asia, to whom they are adjacent. The uniformity of their 
characters along the whole range of the arctic seas forms one of the 
most striking resemblances which these people exhibit to the fauna 
with which they are so closely connected. 

The semi-annual alternation of day and night in the arctic regions 
has a great influence upon their modes of living. They are entirely 
dependent upon animal food for their sustenance, no farinaceous 
grains, no nutritious tubercles, no juicy fruits, growing under those 
inhospitable latitudes. Their domesticated animals are the reindeer 
in Asia, and a peculiar variety of dog, the Esquimaux dog, in l^orth 
America, where even the reindeer is not domesticated. 

Though the arctic fauna is essentially comprised in the arctic circle, 
its organic limit does not correspond rigorously to this line, but 
rather to the isotherme of 32° Eahr., the outline of which presents 
numerous undulations. This limit is still more natural when it is 
made to correspond with that of the disappearance of forests. It 
then circumscribes those immense plains of the !North, which the 
Samoyedes call tundras, and the Anglo-Americans, Jarrew lands. 



Ixii PKOviNCES or the animal world, 

The naturalists, who have overlooked this fauna, and connected it 
with those of the temperate zone, have introduced much confusion in 
the geographical distribution of animals, and have failed to recognize 
the remarkable coincidence existing between the extensive range of 
the arctic race of men, and the uniformity of the animal world around 
•the ITorthern Pole. 

The first column of the accompanying tableau represents the types 
which characterize best this fauna ; viz., the white or polar bear, the 
walrus, the seal of Greenland, the reindeer, the right whale, and the 
eider duck. The vegetation is represented by the so-called reindeer- 
moss, a lichen which constitutes the chief food of the herbivorous 
animals of the arctics and the high Alps, during winter. 

To the glacial zone, which incloses a single fauna, succeeds the 
temperate zone, included between the isothermes of 32°, and 74° 
Fahr., characterised by its pine forests, its amentacea, its maples, its 
walnuts, and its fruit trees, and from the midst of which arise like 
islands, lofty mountain chains or high table-land^, clothed with a 
vegetation v^hich, in many respects, recalls that of the glacial regions. 
The geographical distribution of animals in this zone, forms several 
closely connected, but distinct combinations. It is the country of the 
terrestrial bear, of the wolf, the fox, the weasel, the marten, the otter, 
the lynx, the horse and the ass, the boar, and a great number of 
stags, deer, elk, goats, sheep, bulls, hares, squirrels, rats, &c. ; to 
which are added southward, a few representatives of the tropical 
zone. 

Wherever this zone is not modified by extensive and high table- 
lands and mountain chains, we may distinguish in it four secondary 
zones, approximating gradually to the character of the tropics, and 
presenting therefore a greater diversity in the types of its southern 
representation than we find among those of its northern boundaries. 
"We have first, adjoining the arctics, a sub-aretie zone, with an almost 
uniform appearance in the old as well as the new world, in which 
pine forests prevail, the home of the moose ; next, a cold temperate 
zone, in which amentaceous trees are combined with pines, the home 
of the fur animals ; next, a warm temperate zone, in which the pines 
recede, whilst to the prevailing amentaceous trees a variety of ever- 
greens are added, the chief seat of the culture of our fruit trees, and 
of the wheat ; and a sub-tropical zone, in which a number of tropical 
forms are combined with those characteristic of the warm temperate 
zone. Yet there is throughout the whole of the temperate zone one 
feature prevailing ; the repetition, under corresponding latitudes, but 
under diflferent longitudes, of the same genera and families, repre- 
sented in each botanical or zoological province by distinct so-called 



AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixiii 

analogous or representative species, with a very few subordinate types, 
peculiar to each province ; for it is not until we reach the tropical 
zone that we find distinct tj'pes prevailing in each fauna and flora. 
Again, owing to the inequalities of the surface, the secondary zones 
are more or less Mended into one another, as for instance, in the 
table-lands of Central Asia, and "Western l!^orth America, where the 
whole temperate zone preserves the features of a cold temperate re- 
gion; or the colder zones may appear like islands rising in the midst 
of the warmer ones, as the Pyrenees, the Alps, &c., the summits of 
which partake of the peculiarities of the arctic and sub-arctic zones, 
whilst the valleys at their base are characterised by the flora and 
fauna of the cold or warm temperate zones. It may be proper to 
remark, in this connection, that the study of the laws regulating the 
geographical distribution of natural families of animals and plants 
upon the whole surface of our globe differs, entirely, from that of the 
associations and combinations of a variety of animals and plants 
within deflnite regions, forming peculiar faunae and flora. 

Considering the whole range of the temperate zone from east to 
west, we may divide it in accordance with the prevailing physical 
features into — 1st, an Asiatic realm, embracing Mantchuria, Japan, 
China, Mongolia, and passing through Turkestan into 2d, the Euro- 
pean realm, which includes Iran as well as Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, 
northern Arabia and Barbary, as well as Europe, properly sr' called; 
the western parts of Asia, and the northern parts of Africa being 
intimately connected by their geological structure with the southern 
parts of Europe ; * and, 3d, the North American realm, which extends 
as far south as the table-land of Mexico. 

"With these qualifications, we may proceed to consider the faunae 
which characterize these three realms. • But, before studying the or- 
ganic characters of this zone, let us glance at its physical constitution. 
The most marked character of the temperate zone is found in the 
inequality of the four seasons, which give to the earth a peculiar 
aspect in different epochs of the year, and in the gradual, though 
more or less rapid passage of these seasons into each other. The 
vegetation particularly undergoes marked modifications ; completely 
arrested, or merely suspended, for a longer or shorter time, according 
to the proximity of the arctic or the tropical zone, we find it by 
turns in a prolonged lethargy, or in a state of energetic and sustained 
development. But in this respect there is a decided contrast between 
the cold and warm portions of the temperate zone. Though they 

» For further evidence that Iran, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Northern Arabia and 
Northern Africa, belong naturally to the European realm, see GuyoCs Earth and Man. 

5 



Ixiv PEOyiNCES OF THE ANIMAL WOKLD 

are both, characterized by the predominance of the same families of 
plants, and in particular by the presence of numerous species of the 
coniferous and amentaceous plants, yet the periodical sleep which 
deprives the middle latitudes of their verdure, is more complete in the 
colder region than in the warmer, which is already enriched by some 
southern forms of vegetation, and where a part of the trees remain 
green all the year. The succession of the seasons produces, more- 
over, such considerable changes in the climatic conditions in this 
zone, that all the animals belonging to it cannot sustain them equally 
well. Hence a large number of them migrate at diiferent seasons 
from one extremity of the zone to the other, especially certain fami- 
lies of birds. It is known to all the world that the birds of l^orthern 
Europe and America leave their ungenial climate in the winter, seek- 
ing warmer regions as far as the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterra- 
nean, the shores of which, even those of the African coasts, make a 
part of the temperate zone. Analogous migrations take place also 
in the north of Asia. Such migrations are not, however, limited to 
the temperate zone ; a number of species from the arctic regions go 
for the winter into the temperate zone, and the limits of these migra- 
tions may aid us in tracing the natural limits of the faunae, which thus 
link themselves to each other, as the human races are connected by 
civilization. 

The temperate zone is not characterized, like the arctic, by one and 
the same fauna ; it does not form, as the arctic does, one continuous 
zoological zone around the globe. Not only do the animals change 
from one hemisphere to another, but these differences exist even be- 
tween various regions of the same hemisphere. The species belonging 
to the western countries of the old world are not identical with those 
of the eastern countries. It is true that they often resemble each 
other so closely, that until very recently they have been confounded. 
It has been reserved, however, for modern zoology and botany to 
detect these nice distinctions. For instance, the coniferse of the old 
world, even within the sub-arctic zone, are not identical with those 
of America. Instead of the ITorway and black pine, we have here 
the balsam and the white spruce ; instead of the common fir, the 
JPinus rigida; instead ot the European larch, the hacmatac, &c. ; and 
farther south the differences are still more striking. In the temperate 
zone proper, the oaks, the beeches, the birches, the hornbeams, the 
ho]Dhornbeams, the chestnuts, the buttonwoods, the elms, the linden, 
the maples, and the walnuts, are represented in each continent by 
peculiar species differing more or less. Peculiar forms make, here 
and there, their appearance, such as the gum-trees, the tulip-trees, the 
magnolias. The evergreens are still more diversified, — we need only 



AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixv 

mention the camelias of Japan, and the kalmias of America as exam- 
ples. Among the tropical forms extending into the warm temperate 
zone, we notice particularly the palmetto in the southern United 
States, and the dwarf chamserops of southern Europe. The animal 
kingdom presents the same features. In Europe we have, for in- 
stance, the brown bear ; in IlTorth America, the black bear ; in Asia, 
the bear of Tubet : the European stag, and the European deer, are 
represented in ITorth America by the Canadian stag, or wapiti, and 
the American deer ; and in eastern Asia, by the musk-deer. Instead 
of the mouflon, ISTorth America has the big-horn or mountain sheep, 
and Asia the argali. The I^orth American buflFalo is represented in 
Europe by the wild auerochs of Lithuania, and in Mongolia by the 
yak ; the wild-cats, the martens and weasels, the wolves and foxes, 
the squirrels and mice (excepting the imported house-mouse), the 
birds, the reptiles, the fishes, the insects, the mollusks, &c., though 
more or less closely allied, are equally distinct specifically. The types 
peculiar to the old or the new world are few ; among them may be 
mentioned the horse and ass and the dromedauy of Asia, and the 
opossum of Is'oi'th America ; but upon this subject more details may 
be found in every text-book of zoology and botany. We would only 
add that in the present state of our knowledge we recognise the fol- 
lowing combinations of animals within the limits of the temperate 
zone, which may be considered as so many distinct zoological pro- 
vinces or faunse. 

In the Asiatic realm, — 1st, a north-eastern fauna, the Japanese 
fauna; 2d, a south-eastern fauna, the Chinese fauna, and a central 
fauna, the Mongolian fauna, followed westwards by the Caspian 
fauna, which partakes partly of the Asiatic and partly of the Euro- 
pean zoological character; its most remarkable animal, antelope 
saiga, ranging west as far as southern Russia. The Japanese and 
the Chinese faunse stand to each other in the same relation as southern 
Europe and north Africa, and it remains to be ascertained by farther 
investigations whether the Japanese fauna ought not to be subdivided 
into a more eastern insular fauna, the Japanese fauna proper, and a 
more western continental fauna, which might be called the Mandshu- 
rian or Tongousian fauna. But since it is not my object to describe 
separately all faunag, but chiefly to call attention to the coincidence 
existing between the natural limitation of the races of man, and the 
geographical range of the zoological provinces, I shall limit myself 
here to some general remarks respecting the Mongolian fauna, in 
order to show that the Asiatic zoological realm diflxjrs essentially 
from the European and the American. In our Tableau, the second 
column represents the most remarkable animals of this fauna ; the 



Ixvi PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD 

bear of Tubet (ursus thibetauus), the musk-deer (moschus moschiferus), 
the Tzeiran (antilope gutturosa), the Mongolian goat (capra sibirica), 
the argali (ovis argah), and the yak (bos grunniens). This is also the 
home of the Baetrian or double-hnnched camel, and of the wild 
horse (eqnus caballus), the wild ass (equus onager), and another equine 
species, the Dtschigetai (equus hemionus). The wide distribution 
of the musk-deer in the Altai, and the Himmalayan and Chinese 
Alps, shows the whole Asiatic range of the temperate zone to 
be a most natural zoological realm, subdivided into distinct pro- 
vinces by the greater localization of the largest number of its repre- 
sentatives. 

If we now ask what are the nations of men inhabiting those re- 
gions, we find that they all belong to the so-called Mongolian race, 
the natural limits of which correspond exactly to the range of the 
Japanese, Chinese, Mongolian and Caspian faunae taken together, 
and that peculiar types, distinct nations of this race, cover respec- 
tively the different faunee of this realm. The Japanese inhabiting 
the Japanese zoological province; the Chinese, the Chinese pro- 
vince; the Mongols, the Mongolian province; and the Turks, the 
Caspian province; eliminating, of course, the modern establishment 
of Turks in Asia Minor and Europe. 

The unity of Europe, (exclusive of its arctic regions,) in connection 
with south-western Asia and northern Africa, as a distinct zoological 
realm, is established by the range of its mammalia and by the limits 
of the migrations of its birds, as well as by the physical features of 
its whole extent. Thus we find its deer and stag, its bear, its hare, 
its squirrel, its wolf and wild-cat, its fox and jackal, its otter, its 
weasel and marten, its badger, its bear, its mole, its hedgehogs, and 
a number of bats, either extending over the whole realm in Europe, 
western Asia, and north Africa, or so linked together as to show that 
in their combination with the birds, reptiles, fishes, &c., of the same 
countries, they constitute a natural zoological association analogous 
to that of Asia, but essentially different in reference to species. Like 
the eastern realm, this European world may be sub-divided into a 
number of distinct faunae, characterized each by a variety of peculiar 
animals. In western Asia we find, for instance, the common camel, 
instead of the Baetrian, whilst Mount Sinai, Mounts Taurus and 
Caucasus have goats and wild sheep which dijBfer as much from those 
of Asia, as they difier from those of Greece, of Italy, of the Alps, 
of the Pyrenees, of the Atlas, and of Egypt. "Wild horses are 
known to have inhabited Spain and Grermany ; and a wild bull ex- 
tended over the whole range of central Europe, which no longer 
exists there. The Asiatic origin of our domesticated animals may, 



AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN Ixvii 

therefore, well be questioned, even if we were still to refer western 
Asia to the Asiatic realm ; since the ass, and some of the breeds of 
our horse, only belong to the table-lands of Iran and Mongolia, whilst 
the other species, including the cat, may all be traced to species of 
the European realm. The domesticated cat is referred by Riippell to 
felis maniculata of Egypt; by others, to felis catus ferus of central 
Europe ; thus, in both cases, to an animal of the European realm. 
Whether the dog be a species by itself, or its varieties derived from 
several species which have completely amalgamated, or be it descended 
from the wolf, the fox, or the jackal, every theory must hmit its natural 
range to the European world. The merino sheep is still represented 
in the wild state by the mouflon of Sardinia, and was formerly wild in 
all the mountains of Spain ; whether the sheep of the patriarchs were 
derived from those of Mt. Taurus, or from Armenia, still they differed 
from those of western Europe ; since, a thousand years before our 
era, the Phoenicians preferred the wool from the Iberian peninsula to 
that of their Syrian neighbours. The goats differ so much in different 
parts of the world, that it is still less possible to refer them to one 
common stock; and while N^epaul and Cashmere have their own 
breeds, we may well consider those of Egypt and Sinai as distinct, 
especially as they differ equally from those of Caucasus and of 
Europe. The common bull is derived from the wild species which 
has become extinct in Europe, and is not identical with any of the 
wild species of Asia, notwithstanding some assertions to the contrary. 
The hog descends from the common boar, now found wild over the 
whole temperate zone in the Old World. Both ducks and geese 
have their wild representatives in Europe ; so also the pigeon. As 
for the common fowls, they are decidedly of east Asiatic origin ; but 
the period of their importation is not well known, nor even the wild 
species from which they are derived. The wild turkey is well known 
as an inhabitant of the American continent. 

- 'Now, taking further into account the special distribution of all the 
animals, wild as well as domesticated, of the European temperate 
zone, we may sub-divide it into the following eight faunae : — 1st, 
Scandinavian Jauna ; 2d, Russian -fauna ; 3d, The fauna of Central 
Europe; 4th, The fauna of Southern Europe; 5th, The fauna of 
Iran; 6th, The Syrian fauna ; 7th, The Egyptian fauna ; and 8th, 
The fauna of the Atlas. The special works upon the zoology of 
Europe, the great works illustrative of the Fi-ench expeditions in 
Egypt, Morocco, and Algiers, the travels of Riippell and Eusseger in 
Egypt and Syria, of M. Wagner in Algiers, of Demidoff in southern 
Russia, &c. &c., and the special treatises on the geographical distribu- 
tion of mammalia by A. Wagner, and of animals in general by 



Ixviii PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL "WORLD 

Schmarda, may furnish more details upon the zoology of these 
countries. 

Here, again, it cannot escape the attention of the careful observer, 
that the European zoological realm is circumscribed within exactly 
the same limits as the so-called white race of man, including, as it 
does, the inhabitants of south-western Asia, and of north Africa, 
with the lower parts of the valley of the Mle. "We exclude, of 
course, modern migrations and historical changes of habitation fi'om 
this assertion. Our statements are to be understood as referring only 
to the aboriginal or ante-historical distribution of man, or rather to 
the distribution as history finds it. And in this respect there is a 
singular fact, which historians seem not to have sufficiently appre- 
ciated, that the earliest migrations recorded, in any form, show us 
man meeting man, wherever he moves upon the inhabitable surface 
of the globe, small islands excepted. 

It is, farther, very striking, that the different sub-divisions of this 
race, even to the limits of distinct nationalities, cover precisely the 
same ground as the special faunae or zoological provinces of this most 
important part of the world, which in all ages has been the seat of 
the most advanced civilization. In the south-west of Asia we find 
(along the table-land of Iran) Persia and Asia Minor ; in the plains 
southward, Mesopotamia and Syria ; along the sea-shores, Palestine 
and Phoenicia; in the valley of the Nile, Egypt; and along the 
southern shores of Africa, Bavbary. Thus we have Semitic nations 
covering the north African and south-west Asiatic faunse, while the 
south Ei:iropean peninsulas, iiicluding Asia Minor, are inhabited by 
Grseco-Ronian nations, and the cold, temperate zone, by Celto-Ger- 
manic nations ; the eastern range of Europe being peopled by Sclaves. 
This coincidence may justify the inference of an independent origin 
for these different tribes, as soon as it can be admitted that the races 
of men were primitively created in nations; the more so, since all 
of them claim to have been autochthones of the countries they inhabit. 
This claim is so universal that it well deserves more attention. It 
may be more deeply founded than historians, generally, seem inclined 
to grant. 

The third column of our Tableau exhibits the animals characteristic 
of the temperate part of the European zoological realm, and shows 
their close resemblance to those of the corresponding Asiatic fauna ; 
the species being representative species of the same genera, with the 
exception of the musk-deer, which has no analogues in Europe. 

Though temperate America resembles closely, in its animal crea- 
tion, the countries of Europe and Asia belonging to the same zone, 
we meet with physical and organic features in this continent which 



AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixix 

differ entirely from those of the Old World. The tropical realms, 
connected there with those of the temperate zone, though hound 
together hy some analogies, differ essentially from one another. 
Tropical Africa has hardly any species in common with Europe, 
though we may rememher that the lion once extended to Greece, and 
that the jackal is to this day found upon some islands in the Adriatic, 
and in Morea. Tropical Asia differs equally from its temperate 
regions, and Australia forms a world by itself. ITot so in southern 
America. The range of mountains which extends, in almost un- 
broken continuity, from the Arctic to Cape Horn, establishes a 
similarity between North and South America, Avhich may be traced 
also, to a great degree, in its plants and animals. Entire families 
which are peculiar to this continent have their representatives in 
iN'orth, as well as South America, the cactus and didelphis, for 
instance ; some species, as the puma, or American lion, may even be 
traced from Canada to Patagonia. In connection with these facts, 
we find that tropical America, though it has its peculiar types, as 
characteristic as those of tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia, does 
not furnish analogues of the giants of Africa and Asia; its largest 
pachyderms being tapirs and pecaris, not elephants, rhinoceroses, and 
hippopotami ; and its largest ruminants, the llamas and alpacas, 
and not camels and giraffes ; whilst it reminds us, in many respects, 
of Australia, with which it has the t3'pe of marsupials in common, 
though ruminants and pachyderms, and even monkeys, are entirely 
wanting there. Thus, with due qualification, it maj- be said, that the 
whole continent of America, when compared with the corresponding 
twin-continents of Europe —Africa or Asia— Australia is characterized 
by a much greater uniformity of its natural productions, combined 
with a special localization of many of its subordinate types, which 
will justify the establishment of many special faunae within its 
boundaries. 

With these facts before us, we may expect that there should be no 
great diversity among the tribes of man inhabiting this continent; 
and, indeed, the most extensive investigation of their peculiarities 
has led Dr. Morton to consider them as constituting but a single race, 
from the confines of the Esquimaux down to the southernmost ex- 
tremity of the continent. But, at the same time, it should be 
remembered that, in accordance with the zoological character of the 
whole realm, this race is divided into an infinite number of small 
tribes, presenting more or less difference one from anothei\ 

As to the special faunae of the American continent, we may distin- 
guish, within the temperate zone, a Canadian fauna, extending from 
Is'eAvfoundland across the great lakes to the base of the Eocky moun- 



IXX PROVINCES or THE ANIMAL WORLD 

tains, a fauna of the North American tahle-land, a fauna of the North- 
west eoast, a fauna of the middle United States, a fauna of the southern 
United States, and a Qalifornian fauna, the characteristic features of 
which I shall describe on another occasion. 

When we consider, however, the isolation of the American conti- 
nent from those of the Old "World, nothing is more striking in the 
geographical distribution of animals, than the exact correspondence 
of all the animals of the northern temperate zone of America with 
those of Europe : all the characteristic forms of which, as may be seen 
bj the fourth column of our Tableau, belong to the same genera, 
with the exception only of a few subordinate types, not represented 
among our figures — such as the opossum and the skunk. 

In tropical America we may distinguish a Central American fauna, 
a Brazilian fauna, a, fauna of the Pampas, a, fauna of the Cordilleras, a 
Peruvian fauna, and a Patagonian fauna ; but it is unnecessary for 
our purpose to mention here their characteristic features, which may 
be gathered from the works of Prince IS'ew "Wied, of Spix and Martins, 
of Tschudi, of Poppig, of Ramon de la Sagra, of Darwin, &c. 

The slight differences existing between the faunae of the temperate 
zone have required a fuller illustration than may be necessary to char- 
acterize the zoological realms of the tropical regions and the southern 
hemi-sphere generally. It is sufficient for our purpose to say here, that 
these realms are at once distinguished by the prevalence of peculiar 
types, circumscribed within the natural limits of the three continents, 
extending in complete isolation towards the southern pole. In this 
respect there is already a striking contrast between the northern and 
the southern hemisphere. But the more closely we compare them 
with one anothei^, the greater appear their differences. We have 
already seen how South America differs from Africa, the East Indies, 
and Australia, by its closer connection with l!^orth America. Not- 
withstanding, however, the absence in South America of those 
sightly animals so prominent in Africa and tropical Asia, its gen- 
eral character is, like that of all the tropical continents, to nourish 
a variety of types which have no close relations to those of other 
continents. Its monkeys and edentata belong to genera which 
have no representatives in the Old World ; among pachyderms it has 
pecaris, which are entirely wanting elsewhere ; and though the tapirs 
occur also in the Sunda Islands, that type is wanting in Africa, where 
in compensation we find the hippopotamus, not found in either Asia or 
America. We have already seen that the marsupials of South Ame- 
rica differ entirely from those of Australia. Its ostriches differ also 
generically from those of Africa, tropical Asia, ITew Holland, &c. 

K we compare further the southern continents of the Old World 



IN THEIR RELATION WITH TYPES OF MAN. Ixxi 

with one another, we find a certain uniformity between the animals 
of Africa and tropical Asia. They have both elephants and rhinoce- 
roses, though each has its peculiar species of these genera, which 
occur neither in America nor in Australia ; whilst cercopitheci and 
antilopes prevail in Africa, and long-armed monkeys and stags in 
tropical Asia. Moreover, the black orangs are peculiar to Africa, and 
the red orangs to Asia. As to Australia, it has neither monkeys nor 
pachyderms, nor edentata, but onlj' marsupials and monotremes. We 
need therefore not carry these comparisons farther, to be satisfied that 
Africa, tropical Asia, and Australia constitute independent zoological 
realms. 

The continent of Africa south of the Atlas has a very uniform 
zoological character. This realm may however be subdi'vided, accord- 
ing to its local peculiarities, into a number of distinct faunse. In its 
more northern parts we distinguish the fauna of the Sahara, and those 
of ISTubia and Abyssinia ; the latter of which extends over the Red 
Sea into the tropical parts of Arabia. These faunae have been par- 
ticularly studied by Rlippell and Ehrenberg, in whose works 
more may be found respecting the zoology of these regions. They 
are inhabited by two distinct races of men, the ITubians and Abys- 
sinians, receding greatly in their features from the woolly-haired 
Negroes with flat broad noses, which cover the more central parts of 
the continent. But even here we may distinguish the fauna of 
Senegal from that of Guinea and that of the African Table-land. In 
the first, we notice particularly the chimpanzee ; in the second, the 
gorilla. There is no anthropoid monkey in the third. The fifth 
column in our Tableau gives figures of the most prominent animals 
of the genuine West African t3'pe. A fuller illustration of this subject 
might show, how peculiar tribes of ITegroes coyer the limits of the 
different faunae of tropical Africa, and establish in this respect a paral- 
lelism between the nations of this continent and those of Europe. 
"We are chiefiy indebted to Fi-ench naturalists for a better knowledge 
of the Natural History of this part of the world. In the sixth column 
of our Tableau we have represented the animals of the Cape-lands, 
. in order to show how the African fauna is modified upon the southern 
extremity of this continent, which is inhabited by a distinct race of 
men, the Hottentots. The zoology of South Africa may be studied 
in the works of Lichteustein and Andrew Smith. 

The East Indian realm is now veiy well known zoologically, thanks 
to the efforts of Enghsh and Dutch naturalists, and may be subdivided 
into three faunae, that of Dukhun, that of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, 
and that of the Sunda Islands, Borneo, and the Philippines. Its 
characteristic animals, represented in the seventh column of our 



> 



Ixxii ' PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WOELD 

Tableau, may be readily contrasted with those of Africa. There is, 
however, one feature in this realm, which requires particular atten- 
tion, and has a high importauce with reference to the study of the 
races of men. "VVe find here upon Borneo (an island not so extensive 
as Spain) one of the best known of those anthropoid monkeys, the 
orang-outan, and with him as well as upon the adjacent islands of 
Java and Sumatra, and along the coasts of the two East Indian penin- 
sulse, not less than ten other different species of Hylobates, the long- 
armed monkeys; a genus which, next to the orang and chimpanzee, 
ranks nearest to man. One of these species is circumscribed within 
the Island of Java, two along the coast of Coromandel, three upon 
that of Malacca, and four upon Borneo. Also, eleven of the highest 
organized beings which have performed their part in the plan of the 
Creation within tracts of land inferior in extent to the range of any 
of the historical nations of men ! In accordance with this fact, we 
find three distinct races within the boundaries of the East Indian 
realm : the Telingan race in anterior India, the Malays in posterior 

. ^India and upon the islands, upon which the ISTegrillos occur with them. 

( Such combinations justify fully a comparison of the geographical 
range covered by distinct European nations with the narrow limits 
occupied upon earth by the orangs, the chimpanzees, and the gorillas ; 
and though I still hesitate to assign to each an independent origin 
(perhaps rather from the difiiculty of divesting myself of the opinions 
universally received, than from any intrinsic evidence), I must, in 
presence of these facts, insist at least upon the probability of such an 
independence of origin of all nations ; or, at least, of the independent 
origin of a primitive stock for each, with which at some future period 
migrating or conquering tribes have more or less completely amal- 
gamated, as in the case of mixed nationalities. The evidence adduced ' 
from the affinities of the languages of different nations in favor of a 
community of origin is of no value, when we know, that, among 
vociferous animals, eveiy species has its peculiar intonations, and that 
the different species of the same family produce sound as closely 
allied, and forming as natural combinations, as the so-called Indo- 
Germanic languages compared with one another. iJsTobody, for 
instance, would suppose that because the notes of the different species 
of thrushes, inhabiting diffei^ent parts of the world, bear the closest 
affinity to one another, these birds must all have a common origin ; 
and yet, with reference to man, philologists still look upon the affini- 
ties of languages as affording direct evidence of such a community 
of origin, among the races, even though they have already discovered 
the most essential differences in the very structure of these languages. 
Ever since New Holland was discovered, it has been known 



AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixxiii 

as tlie land of zoological marvels. All its animals differ so completely 
from those of other parts of our globe, that it ma}^ be said to consti- 
tute a world in itself, as isolated in that respect from tlie other conti- 
nents, as it truly is in its physical relations. As a zoological realm, 
it extends to JSTew Guinea and some adjacent islands. New Holland, 
however, constitutes a distinct fauna, which at some future time may 
be still further subdivided, differing from that of the islands north 
of it. The characteristic animals of this insular continent are repre-^ 
sented in the eighth column of our Tableau. They all belong to two 
families only, considering the class of mainmalia alone, the marsu- 
pials, and the monotremes. Besides these are found bats, and mice, 
and a wild dog ; but there are neither true eclentata, nor ruminants, 
nor pachyderms, nor moukej-s, in this realm, which is inhabited by 
two races of men, the Australian in ITew Holland, and the Papuans 
upon the Islands. The isolation of the zoological types of Australia, 
inhabiting as they do a continent partaking of nearly all the phj'sicai 
features of the other parts of the world, is one of the most striking 
evidences that the presence of animals upon earth is not determined 
by physical conditions, but established by the direct agency of a 
Creator. -^ 

Of Polynesia, its i-aees and animals, it would be difficult to give an 
idea in such a condensed picture as this. I pass them, therefore, 
entirely unnoticed. The mountain faunae have also been omitted in 
our Map from want of space. "^ 

Before closing these remarks I should add, that one of the greatest 
difficulties naturalists have met with, in the study of the human races, 
has been the want of a standard of comparison by which to estimate 
the value and importance of the diversities observed between the 
different nations of the world. But (since it is idle to make assertions 
upon the character of these differences without a distinct understand- 
ing respecting the meaning of the words constantly used in reference 
to the subject), it may be proper to ask here. What is a species, what 
a variety, and what is meant by the unity or the diversity of the races ? 

In order not to enter upon debat^able ground in answering the 
first of these questions, let us begin by considering it with reference 
to. the animal kingdom; and, without alluding to any controverted point, 
limit ourselves to animals well known among us. "We would thus 
remember that, with universal consent, the horse and ass are con- 
sidered as two distinct species of the same genus, to which belong 
several other distinct species known to naturalists under the names 
of zebra, quagga, dauw, &c. The buffalo and the bull are also distinct 
species of another genus, embracing several other foreign species. 
The black bear, the white bear, the grizzly bear, give another example 



Ixxiv PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WOELD 

K ' of three different species of the same genus, &c. &c. We might 
select many other examples among our common quadrupeds, or 
among birds, reptiles, fishes, &c., but these will be sufficient for our 
purpose. In the genus horse we have two domesticated species, the 
common horse and the donkey ; in the genus bull, one domesticated 
species and the wild buffalo ; the three species of bear mentioned are 
only found in the wild state. The ground upon which these animals 
are considered as distinct species is simply the fact, that, since they 
have been known to man, they have always preserved the same cha- 
racteristics. To make specific difference or identity depend upon 
genetic succession, is begging the principle and taking for granted 
what in reality is under discussion. It is true that animals of the 
same species are fertile among themselves, and that their fecundity 
is an easy test of this natural relation ; but this character is not ex- 
clusive, since we know that the horse and the ass, the buffalo and 
our cattle, like many other animals, may be ci'ossed ; we are, there- 
fore, not justified, in doubtful cases, in considering the fertility of 
two animals as decisive of their specific identity. Moreover, gene- 
ration is not the only way in which certain animals may multiply, 
as there are entire classes in which the larger number of indivi- 
duals do not originate from eggs. Any definition of species in 
which the question of generation is introduced is, therefoi'e, objec- 
tionable. The assumption, that the fertility of cross-breeds is neces- 
sarily limited to one or two generations, does not alter the case; 
since, in many instances, it is not proved beyond dispute. It is, 
however, beyond all question that individuals of distinct species may, 
in certain cases, be productive mth one another, as well as with 
their own kind. It is equally certain that their offspring is a 
half-breed ; that is to say, a being partakiug of the peculiarities of 
the two parents, and not identical with either. The onl}^ definition 
of species meeting all these difficulties is that of Dr. Morton, who 
characterizes them as primordial organic forms. Species are thus 
distinct forms of organic life, the origin of which is lost in the 
primitive establishment of the state of things now existing, and 
varieties are such modifications of the species as may return to the 
typical form, under temporary influences. Accepting this definition 
with the qualifications just mentioned respecting hybridity, I am 
prepared to show that the differences existing between the races of 
men are of the same kind as the differences observed between the 
different families, genera, and species of monkeys or other animals; 
and that thes-e different species of animals differ in the same degree 
one from the other as the races of men — nay, the differences between 
distinct races are often greater than those distinguishing species of 



AND THEIK RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. IxXV 

animals one from the other. The chimpanzee and gorilla do not I , 
differ more one from the other than the Mandingo and the Guinea 
l^egro : they together do not differ more from the orang than the 
Malay or white man differs from the Negro. In proof of this assertion, 
I need only refer the reader to the description of the anthropoid 
monkeys published by Prof. Owen and by Dr. J. Wyman, and to 
such descriptions of the races of men as notice more important 
peculiarities than the mere differences in the color of the skin. It 
is, however, but fair to exonerate these authors from the responsibility 
of any deduction I would draw from a renewed examination of the 
same facts, differing from theirs; for I maintain distinctly that the 
differences observed among the races of men are of the same kind 
and even greater than those upon which the anthropoid monkeys 
are considered as distinct species. ^ 

Again, nobody can deny that the offspr.ng of different races 
is always a half-breed, as between animals of different species, and 
not a child like either its mother or its father. These conclusions 
in no way conflict with the idea of the unity of mankind, which 
is as close as that of the members of any Avell- marked type of 
animals; and whosoever will consult history must remain satisfied, 
that the moral question of brotherhood among men is not any more 
affected by these views than the direct obligations between immediate 
blood relations. Unity is determinal by a typical structure, and by 
the similarity of natural abilities and propensities ; and, unless we deny 
the typical relations of the cat tribe, for instance, we must admit that 
unity is not only compatible with diversity of origin, but that it is 
the universal law of nature. 

This coincidence, between the circumscription of the races of man 
and the natural limits of different zoological provinces characterized 
by peculiar distinct species of animals, is one of the most important 
and unexpected features in the N'atural History of Mankind, which 
the study of the geographical distribution of all the organized beings, 
now existing upon earth, has disclosed to us. It is a fact which can- 
not fail to throw light, at some future time, upon the very origin 
of the differences existing among men, since it shows that man's 
physical nature is modified by the same laws as that of animals, 
and that any general results obtained from the animal kingdom 
regarding the organic differences of its various types must also apply 
to man. [ 

l^ow, there are only two alternatives before us at present : — 

1st. Either mankind originated from a common stock, and all 
the different races with their peculiarities, in their present 
distribution, are to be asci'ibed to subsequent changes — 



Ixxvi PEOVINCES OF THE ANIMAL TFORLD, ETC. 



n 



an assumption for which there is no evidence whatever, 
and which leads at once to the admission that the diver- 
sity among animals is not an original one, nor their dis- 
tribution determined by a general plan, established in the 
beginning of the Creation ; — or, 
2d, We must acknowledge that the diversity among animals 
is a fact determined by the will of the Creator, and their 
geographical distribution part of the general plan which 
unites all organized beings into one great organic con- 
ception : whence it follows that what are called human 
races, down to their specialization [as nations, are distinct 
primordial forms of the type of man. 
The consequences of the first alternative, which is contrary to all 
the modern results of science, run inevitably into the Lamarkian 
development theory, so well known in this country through the 
work entitled "Vestiges of Creation;" though its premises are gen- 
erally adopted by those who would shrink from the conclusions to 
which they necessarily lead. 

Whatever be the meaning of the coincidence alluded to above, 
it must in future remain an important element in ethnographical 
studies ; and no theory of the distribution of the races of man, and 
of their migrations, can be satisfactory hereafter, which does not 
account for that fact. 

We may, however, draw already an important inference from this 
investigation, which cannot fail to have its influence upon the 
farther study of the human races : namely, that the laws which 
regulate the diversity of animals, and their distribution upon earth, 
apply equally to man, within the same limits and in the same degree; 
and that all our liberty and moral responsibility, however spon- 
taneous, are jet instinctively directed by the All-wise and Omni- 
potent, to fulfil the great harmonies established in I^ature. 

L. A. 



/ 



^TOT. 



VII, MALAY. 



VIII AUSTRMIAN. 



I 




k^ 









m- 


Ik,,....- 


ll^^-':-'--^ 


1.. 




T Smclair'a Jlth.Phil. 



EXPLANATIONS 

OF THE 

TABLEAU ACCOMPANYING PROF. AGASSIz'S SKETCH. 



I, -ARCTIC REALM, 

1. Head — Eslimaux. [Franklin : 

2rf Exp. i'o!. &a ; 1S2S ; i. pi. 13.] 

2. Skull — Esldmaux. [Morton : 

Cr. Amer.! p. 70. No. 1.] 
S.White Bear (Ursus maritimns). 

[Cutier: Rignt Anim.; Atlas, 

Mamm., pi. 30, fig. 3.] 
4. Walrus (Trichecus Eosmaiiis). 

[Civier: op. cit.; pi. 45, fig. 1.] 
6. Reindeer ( Cervus Tarandus ). 

[Cdvier: op. cU.; pi. 87, fig. 2.] 

6. Harp Seal {Flioca grcenlandica). 
[Shaw: Zool.; Mamm., i. pi. 71.] 

7. KightWhale {Balana Mysticetus). 

[CcviEK : op. cit. ; pi. 100, fig. 1.] 

8. Eider Duck _ (Anas mollissima). 

[Acdubon: Birds; 1843; Ti.pl. 
405, fig. 1.] 

9. Keindeer-moss (Cenamyce rangi- 
ferina). [Loudon: i'nc. Ptanfs; 
p. 969, No. 15,636.] 

II. -MONGOL REALM. 

10. Head — Chinese. [Ham. Sotth : 

Aiz/. Hist. Human Species ; 1S48 ; 
pi. 10, "Mongol."] 

11. Skull — Cliinese. [Cutier : op. 
cit. ; pi. 8, fig. iii.] 

12. Bear {Ursiis ihibetanus). [Schre- 

bek: S'dugthiere: iii. pi. 141 dd]. 

13. Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus). 

[Cctier: op. cit.; pi. 86.] 

14. Antilope (Antilope gutturosa). 

[Schkeber: op. cit.; pi. 275.] 

15. Goat {Capra siberica). [Schre- 

BER : op. cit. ; pi. 281.] 

16. Sheep (Ovis Argali). [Cutier: 

Iconographie ; i. pi. 44bis,fig.l.] 

17. Yak (Bos grunnitns). [Vaset: 

Ox Tribe; 1851; p. 45.] 

Ill, -EUROPEAN REALM, 

18. Head — Cutier's portrait. [Regne 

Anim.; Atlas, Mamnr.; "Me- 
dalion."] 

19. Skull — European. [Cutier : op. 

cit.; pi. 8, fig. 1.] 

20. Bear (Pj-sus ^j-rfos). [Schreber: 

op. cit. ; pi. 139.] 

21. Stag (Cervus Elaphus). [Schre- 

ber : op. cit. ; pi. 247 A.] 

22. Antilope (Antilope Rupicapra). 

[Schkeber: op. cit.; pi. 279.] 



23. Goat (Capra Ibex). [Schreber : 

op. cit. ; pi. 281 c] 

24. Sheep (Ovis Musimon). Schre- 

ber : op. cit. ; pi. 28S A.] 

25. Auerochs (Bos Urus). [Vasey: 

op. cit. ; p. 40.] 

IV. -AMERICAN REALM. 

26. Head — Indian Chief. [Max. Pr. 

DE Wied: Travels; pi. 3.] 

27. Skull — Mound in Tennessee. — 

[Morton : Cr. Amer. ; pi. 55.] 

28. HenT (Vrsus americanus). [Schre- 

ber : op. cit. ; pi. 141 B.] 

29. Stag(Ce?T). virginianus). [Schre- 

ber: cip. cit. : pi. 246 H.l 

30. Autilope (Ani.furcifera). [U. S. 

Pat. Off. Rep. 1852 ; pt. ii. pi. 1.] 

31. Goat (Capra americana). [f. S. 

Pal. Off.; pi. 6.] 

32. Sheep (Ovis montana). [U. S. 

Pal. Off.; pi. 5.] 

33. Bison (Bos americanus). [U.S. 

Pal. Off. ; pi. 7.] 

V.-AFRICAN REALM. 

34. Head — Mozambique Negro. — 

CoUBTET DE l'Isle : Tableau Eth- 
nog. du Genre Humain ; 1849 ; 
pi. 5.] 

35. Skull — Creole Negro. [Latham ; 

Varieties of Man ; p. 6.] 

36. Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger). 

[Cutier : Regne An.; pi. ii. fig. 1.] 

37. Elephant (Elephas africanus). 

Cutier : Regne anim. ; i. p.] 

38. Rhinoceros (if . fttcornts). [Smith : 

South Africa; pi. 2.] 

39. Hippopotamus (H. amphibius). 

[Smith: South Africa; pi. 6.] 

40. Wart -Hog (Phacochcerus Pli- 

ant). [Schreber: op. cit.; pi. 
326 A.] 

41. Giraffe (Camdeopardalis Gi- 

raffa). [Cutier ; Iconographie : 
i. pi. 43.] 

VI, -HOTTENTOT FAUNA. 

42. Head — Bushman. [Ham. Smith: 

Nat. Hist; ^I.IZ.] 

43. Skull — Bushman. [Ham. Smith : 

op. cit. ; pi. 2.] 

44. HyenaGenet(/'rofefcs Lalandii). 

[Mem. du Museum; xi. p. 354.] 

45. Quagga (Equus Quagga) [Schre- 

ber: op. cit.; pi. 317.] 



46 Rhinoceros (R. Simus). [Smith: 
SouOi Africa; pi. 19.] 

47. Cape Hyrax (Hyrax capensis). 

[Schreber : op. cit. ; pi. 240.] 

48. Ant-eater(Or!/cte)-opMS capensis.) 

[Nouv. Did. d'Hist. NatureUe; 
xxiv. p. 182.] 

49. Cape Ox (Bos coffer). [Taset : 

Ox Tribe; p. 86.] 

VI!, -MALAYAN REALM. 

50. Head — Ma I a y. [Ward : Nat. 

Hist. ofManldnd; 1849; p. 54.] 

51. Skull — Malay. [Dumoutier : 

Atlas Anlhropol. ; pi. 37, fig. 5.) 

52. Orang-utan (Pithecus Satyrus). 

[Temmkck : Monographies ; ii. 
pi. 41.] 

53. Elephant (Elephas indicus). — 

[Schreber : op. cit. ; pi. 317 cc] 

54. Rhinoceros (R.sondaicus). [Hors- 

riELD : Zool. Researches ; 1824.J 

55. Tapir (Tapirus malayanus). — 

[Horsfield : op. «'(.] 

56. Stag (Cermis Muntjac). HoRS- 
FIELD : op. ct4.] 

57. Ox (Bos Arnee). [Taset: Ox 

Tribe; p. 111.] 

VIII.-AUSTRALIAN REALM. 

58. Head — Alfouroux. [Cxjyier : op. 
cit. ; pi. 8, fig. 1.] 

59. Skull — ^;/oMTOS. [Ham. Sjuth: 

Nat. Hist; pi. 2.] 

60. Spotted Opossum (DasyurusViv.). 

[Schreber: op. cit. ; pi. 152b.] 

61. Ant-eater ( Myrmecobius fas- 

cialus). [Trans. Zoological Soc; 
ii. p. 154.] 

62. Rabbit ( Perameles Lagotis ). — 

[Waterhouse: Marsupials; i. 
pi. 13.] 

63. Phalanger (Phalangista vulpina). 

[Waterhouse: op. cit.; i. pi. 8.] 

64. Wombat (Phascolarctos cinereus). 

[Schreber: op. cit.; pi. 155 a.] 

65. Squirrel (Petaurus scitireus). — 

[Waterhouse: op. cit. ; i. p. 3-3.] 

66. Kangaroo ( Macropus gigante- 

us). [Waterhouse: op. cit.; i. 
p. 62.] 

67. Duck-bill (Ornithorhynchus para- 

doxus). [Waterhouse : op. cit. ; 
i. p. 25.] 



Note. — Adhering as closely as possible to the written instructions of Prof. Agassiz, the annexed Tableau 
was drawn and tinted, under my own eye, in the Library of the Academy of the Natural Sciences at Philadel- 
phia. ETery effort at correctness has been made ; although, owing to unaToidable reduction to so small a scale, 
the coloring especially can be but suggestiTe. _ 

To Prof. Joseph Leidt, Dr. Wm. S. Zantzinger, and Major John Le Conte, who most obligingly gaTe me the 
advantage of their aid and counsel in selecting the originals of these figures, must be ascribed the merit of 
carrying Prof Agassiz's conception into detailed effect, (January, 1854.) 

G. R. G., Corr. Mem. Acad. Nat. Sciences. 
( Ixxvii ) 



EXPLANATIONS 

OF THE 

MAP ACCOMPANYINa PKOP. AGASSIZ'S SKETCH. 



Ii — ARCTIC R E A L M — inhatited by H YPEKBORiE ANS; and containing : — 
AAA — an Hyperborean fauna. 

II. — ASIATIC RE ALM— inhabited by MONGOLS; andsubdividedinto: — 

B — & Mandchurian fa-waa, | . ,, , 

„ _ . Mn the temperate range of the zone. 

C — a Japanese fauna J ^ i = 

D — a Chinese fauna, in the warmer part. 
E — a Central- Mongolian fauna. 
F — a Caspian (western) fauna. 

(II. — EUROPEAN REALM— inhabitedby WHITE-MEN; and divided into : — 

G — a Scandinavian fauna. 
H — a Russian fauna. 

I — a Central-European fauna. 

J — a Soulh-European fauna. 
K — a North-African fauna. 

L — an Egyptian fauna. 

M — a Syrian and an Iranian fauna. 

IV. — AMERICAN R E A L M — inhabited by AMBKIOAN INDIANS. 

NoKTH Amekica — divided into: — 

N — a Canadian fauna. 

— an AUeghanian fauna, or fauna of the Middle States. 

P — a liouisianian fauna, or fauna of the Southern States 

Q — a TabU-land fauna, or fauna of the Rocky Mountains. 

B — a Northwest-Coast fauna. 

S — a Cdlifornian fauna. 
Central America — subdivided into : — 

T — a Main-land fauna. 

U — an Antilles fauna. 
SoDTH America — divided into : — 

T — a Brazilian fauna. 
— a Pampas fauna. 

X — a Cordilleras fauna. 

Y — a Peruvian fauna. 

Z — a Patagonian fauna. 

V, — AFRICAN REALM— inhabited by NUBIANS, ABYSSINIANS, FOOLAHS, NB- 

GROES, HOTTENTOTS, BOSJESMANS; 
and divided into: — 
' ' aa — a Sdharan fauna. 

ih — a Nubian fauna. 

CO — an Abyssinian fauna (extending to Arabia). 
dd — a Senegalian fauna. 
ee — a Ouinean fauna. 
ff — an Afric-Table-land fauna. 
gg — a Cape-of-Good-Hbpe fauna. 
7ih — a Madagascar (diverging) fauna. 

VI, — EAST-INDIAN (or MALAYAN) R E A L M - inhabited by TELINGANS, MALAYS, 

NEGRILLOS; and divided into : — 
ii — a Dukhitn fauna. 
jj — an Indo-Chinese fauna. 
Tik — a Sunda-Islandic fauna (including Borneo and the Philippines). 

VII. — AU STRALI AN REALM— inhabited by PAPUANS, AUSTRALIANS; and divided 

into : — 
II — a Papuan fauna. 
mm — a New-Holland fauna. 

VII I. — P LY N ES I AN R E A LM — inhabitedby SOUTH-SEA ISLANDERS; and containing: — 

nn, nn — Polynesian t&xines. 



N. B. It has not been in my power to follow Prof. Agassiz's instructions in regard to the coloring of this 

map, the scale adopted being too small. — G. R. G. 

(Ixxvm) 



TYPES OF MANKIND. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Mr. Luke Bueke, tlie bold and able Editor of tbe London Ethno- 
logiealJournal, defines Ethnology to be "a science which investigates 
the mental and physical difierences of Mankind, and the organic laws 
upon which they depend; and which seeks to deduce from these 
investigations, prinqiples of human guidance, in all the important 
relations of social existence." ^ To the same author are we indebted 
not only for the most extensive and lucid definition of this term, 
but for the first truly philosophic view of a new and important science 
that we have met with in the English language. 

The term ^^ Ethnology" has generally been used as synonymous 
with "Ethnography," understood as the Natural History of Man ; but 
by Burke it is made to take a far more comprehensive grasp -(- to 
include the whole mental and physical history of the various Types 
of Mankind, as well as their social relations and adaptationsj and, 
under this comprehensive aspect, it therefore interests equally the 
philanthropist, the naturalist, and the statesman. ( Ethnology demands 
to know what was the primitive organic structure of each race ? — 
what such race's moral and psychical character? — how far a race may 
have been, or may become, modified by the combined action of time 
and moral and physical causes ? — r and what position in the social 
scale Providence has assigned to e^ch type of man ? 

" Ethnology divides itself into two principal departments, the Scientific and the Historic. 
Undei- the former is comprised every thing connected with the Natural History of Man 
and the fundamental laws of living organisms ; under the latter, every fact in civil history 
which has any important bearing, directly or indirectly, upon the question of races — every 
fact calculated to throw light upon the number, the moral and physical peculiarities, the 
early seats, migrations, conquests or interblendings, of the primary divisions of the human 
family, or of the leading mixed races which have sprung from their intermarriages. "2 
7 (49) 



50 INTKODUCTION. 

Such is tlie scope of tliis science — born, we may say, within our 
own generation — and we propose to examine mankind under the 
above two-fold aspect, while we point out some of the more salient 
results towards which modern investigation is tending. The press 
everywhere teems with new books on the various partitions of the 
wide field of Ethnology ; yet there does not exist, in any language, an 
attempt, based on the highest scientific lights of the day, at a 
systemat-j treatise on Ethnology in its extended sense. Morton 
was the first to conceive the proper plan ; but, unfortunately, lived 
not to carry it out ; and although the present volume falls very far 
below the just requirements of science, we feel assured that it will 
at least aid materially in suggesting the right direction to future 
investigators. 

The grand problem, more particularly interesting to all readers, is 
that which involves the common origin of races ; for upon the latter 
deduction hang not only certain religious dogrnas, but the more 
practical question of the equality and perfectibility of races — we say 
"more practical question," because, while Almighty Power, on the 
one hand, is not responsible to Man for the distinct origin of human 
races, these, on the other, are accountable to Hire for the manner in 
which their delegated power is used towards each other. 

Whether an original diversity of races be admitted or not, the 
permanence of existing physical tjqDCS will not be questioned by any 
Archaeologist or Naturalist of the present day. ~^oy, by such com- 
petent arbitrators, can the consequent permanence of moral and 
intellectual peculiarities of types be denied. The intellectual man is 
inseparable from the physical man ; and the nature of the one cannot 
be altered without a corresponding change in the other. 

The truth of these propositions had long been familiar to the 
master-mind of John C. Calhoun ; who regarded them to be of such 
paramount importance as to demand the fullest consideration from 
those who, like our lamented statesman in his day, wield the destinies 
of nations and of races. An anecdote will illustrate the pains-taking 
laboriousness of Mr. Calhoun to let no occasion slip whence informa- 
tion was attainable. Our colleague, Gr. R. Gliddon, happened to be in 
"Washington City, early in May, 1844, on business of his father (United 
States' Consul for Egypt) at the State Department; at which time 
Mr. Calhoun, Secretary of State, was conducting diplomatic negotia- 
tions with France and England, connected with the annexation of 
Texas. Mr. Calhoun, suflering from indisposition, sent a message to 
Mr. Gliddon, requesting a visit at his, lodgings. In a long interview 
which ensued, Mr. Calhoun stated, that England pertinaciously con- 
tinued to interfere with our inherited Institution of Negro Slavery, 



INTRODUCTION. 51 

and in a manner to render it imperative that he should indite very 
strong instructions on the subject to the late Mr. Wu. E. King, of 
Alabama, then our Ambassador to France. He read to Mr. Gliddon 
portions of the manuscript of his celebrated letter to Mr. King, which, 
issued on the 12th of the following August, ranks among our ablest 
national documents. Mr. Calhoun declared that he could not foresee 
what course the negotiation might take, but wished to be forearmed 
for any emergency. He was convinced that the true difficulties of 
the subject could not be fully comprehended vdthout first considering 
the radical difference of humanity's races, which he intended to dis- 
cuss, should he be driven to the necessity. Knowing that Mr. Gliddon 
had paid attention to the subject of Afiican ethnology; and that, 
fi'om his long residence in Egypt, he had enjoyed unusual advantages 
for its investigation, Mr. Calhoun had summoned him for the purpose 
of ascertaining what were the best sources of information in this 
country. Mr. Gliddon, after laying before the Secretary what he 
conceived to be the true state of the case, referred him for further 
information to several scientific gentlemen, and more particularly to 
Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia. A correspondence ensued bet^veen 
Mr. Calhoun and Dr. Morton on the subject, and the Doctor presented 
to him copies of the Crania Americana and ^gyptiaca, together with 
minor works, all of which Mr. Calhoun studied with no less pleasure 
than profit. He soon perceived that the conclusions which he had 
long before drawn from history, and fi'om his personal observations 
in America, on the Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Teutonic, French, Spanish, 
Negro, and Indian races, were entirely corroborated by the plain 
teachings of modern science. ('He beheld demonstrated in Morton's 
works the important fact, that the Egj^^tian, JSTegro, several White, and 
sundry Yellow races, had existed, in their present forms, for at least 
4000 years ; and that it behoved the statesman to lay aside all current 
speculations about the origin and perfectibility of races, and to deal, 
in political argument, with the simple facts as they stand, j 

Wliat, on the vital question of African Slavery in our Southern 
States, was the utiUtarian consequence of Calhoun's memorable 
dispatch to King ? Strange, yet true, to say, although the English 
press anxiously complained that Mr. Calhoun had intruded Ethnology 
into diplomatic correspondence, a communication from the Foreign 
Office promptly assured our Government that Great Britain had no 
intention of intermeddling with the domestic institutions of other 
nations. Nor, from that day to this, has she violated her foiTual 
pledge in our regard. During a sojourn of Mr. Calhoun, on his retire- 
ment from office, with us at Mobile, we enjoyed personal opportunities 
of knowing the accuracy of the above facts, no less than of receiving 



62 INTKODUCTION. 

ample eorrolDorations illustrative of tlie inconvenience whieli true 
ethnological science might have created in philanthropical diplomacy, 
had it been frankly introduced by a Calhoun. 

'No class of men, perhaps, underetand better the practical import- 
ance of Ethnology than the statesmen of England ; yet fi'om motives 
of policy, they keep its agitation studiously out of sight. Db. Pkichaeij, 
when speaking of a belief in the diversity of races, justly remarks — 

" If these opinions are not every day expressed in this country [England], it is because 
the avowal of them is restrained by a degree of odium that would be excited by it." 3 

Although the press in that country has been, to a great extent, 
muzzled by government influence, we are happy to see that her peri- 
odicals are beginning to assume a bolder and more rational tone ; and 
we may now hope that the stereot^-ped errors of Prichard, and we 
might add, those of Latham,* will soon pass at their true value. The 
immense evils of false philanthropy are becoming too glaring to be 
longer overlooked. Wliile, on the one hand, every true philanthropist 
must admit that no race has a right to enslave or oppress the weaker, 
it must be conceded, on the other, that all changes in existing insti- 
tutions should be guided, not by fanaticism and groundless hypo- 
theses, but by experience, sound judgment, and real charity. 

"No one that has not worked much in the element of History can be aware of the 
immense importance of clearly keeping in view the differences of race that are discernible 
among the nations that inhabit different parts of the world. In practical politics it is cer- 
tainly possible to push such ethnographical considerations too far ; as, for example, in our 
own cant about Celt and Saxon, when Ireland is under discussion ; but in speculative 
history, in questions relating to the past career and the future destinies of nations, it is 
only by a firm and eflScient handling of this conception of our species as broken up into so 
many groups or masses, physiologically different to a certain extent, that any progress can 
be made, or any available conclusions accurately airived at. 

" The Negeo, or African, with his black skin, woolly hair, and compressed elongated 
skull ; the Mongolian of Eastern Asia and America, with his olive complexion, broad and 
all but beardless face, oblique eyes, and square skull ; and the Caucasian of Western Asia 
and Europe, with his fair skin, oval face, full brow, and rounded skull : such, as every 
school-boy knows, are the three great types or varieties into which naturalists have divided 
the inhabitants of our planet. Accepting this rough initial conception of a world peopled 
everywhere, more or less completely, with these three varieties of human beings or their 
combinations, the historian is able, in virtue of it, to announce one important fact at the 
very outset, to wit: that, up to the present moment, the destinies of the species appear to 
have been carried forward almost exclusively by its Caucasian variety." s 

(y In the broad field and long duration of J^egTO life, not a single 
civilization, spontaneous or borrowed, has existed, to adorn its gloomy 
past. The ancient kingdom of Meroe has been often pointed out as 
an exception, but this is now proven to be the work of Pharaonie 
Egj-ptians, and not of Negro races. Of Mongolian races, we have the 
prolonged semi-civilizations of China, Japan, and (if they be classed 



INTRODUCTION. 53 

un er the same head) the still feebler attempts of Peru and Mexico. 
"What a contrast, if we compare with these, 

" Caucasian progress, as exhibited in the splendid succession of distinct civilizations, 
from the ancient Egyptian to the recent Anglo-American, to -which the Caucasian part of 
the species has given birth." 

K'or when we examine their past history, their anatomical and phy- 
siological characters, and philological differences, are we justified in 
throwing all the Indo-European and Semitic races into one indivisible 
mass. 

I " Our species is not a huge collection of perfectly similar human beings, but an aggre- 
gation of a number of separate groups or masses, having such subordinate difiFerences of 
organization that, necessarily, they must understand nature differently, and employ in life 
very different modes of procedure. ' Assemble together a Negro, a Mongol, a Shemite, an 
Armenian, a Scythian, a Pelasgian, a Celt, and a German, and you will have before you 
not mere illustrations of an arbitrary classification, but positively distinct human beings — 
men whose relations to the outer world are by no means the same." 

"In all, indeed, there will be found the same fundamental instincts and powers, the 
same obligation to recognized truth, the same feeling for the beautiful, the same abstract 
sense of justice, the same necessity of reverence ; in all, the same liability to do wrong, 
knowing it to be wrong. These things excepted, however, what contrast, what variety ! 
The representative of one race is haughty and eager to strike, that of another is meek and 
patient of injury ; one has the gift of slow and continued perseverance, another can labour 
only at intervals and violently ; one is full of mirth and humour, another walks as if life 
were a pain ; one is so faithful and clear in perception, that what he sees to-day he will 
report accurately a year hence ; through the head of another there perpetually sings such 
a buzz of fiction that, even as he looks, realities grow dim, and rocks, trees, and hills, reel 
before his poetic gaze. Whether, with phrenologists, we call these differences craniological ; 
or whether, in the spirit of a deeper physiology, we adjourn the question by refusing to 
connect them with aught less than the whole corporeal organism — bone, chest, limbs, skin, 
muscle, and nerve ; they are, at all events, real and substantial ; and Englishmen will 
never conceive the world as it is, will never be intellectually its masters, until, realizirig 
this as a fact, they shall remember that it is perfectly respectable to be an Assyrian, and 
that an Italian is not necessarily a rogue because he wears a moustache." 6 

Ijjooking back over the world's history, it "\vill be seen that human 
progress has arisen mainly from the war of races. All the great 
impulses Avhich have been given to it from time to time have been 
the results of conquests and colonizations.)^- Certain races would be 
stationaiy and barbarous for ever, were it not for the introduction of 
new blood and novel influences ; and some of the lowest types are 
hopelessly beyond the reach even of these salutaiy stimulants to 
melioration. 

It has been naively remarked that — 

" Climate has no influence in permanently altering the varieties or races of men ; destroy 
them it may, and does, but it cannot convert them into any other race ; nor can this be 
done by an act of parliament ; which, to a thoroughgoing Englishman, with all his amusing 
nationalities, will appear as something amazing. It has been tried in Wales, Ireland, and 
Caledonia, and failed."" 

Xot enough is it for us to know who and what are the men who 



54 INTEODUCTION. 

play a prominent part in these changes, nor what is the general 
character of the masses whom they influence. ISTone can predict how 
long the power or existence of these men will last, nor foretell what 
will be the character of those who succeed them. If we wish to pre- 
dict the future, we must ascertain those gi'eat fundamental laws of 
humanity to which all human passions and human thoughts must 
ultimately be subject. "We must know universal, as well as individual 
man. These are questions upon which science alone has the right to 
pronounce. 

" Where, we ask, are the historic evidences of universal human equality, or unity ? The 
farther we trace back the records of the past, the more broadly marked do we find all 
human diversities. In no part of Europe, at the present day, can we discover the striking 
national contrasts which Tacitus describes, still less those represented in the more ancient 
pages of Herodotus." 8 

And nowhere on the face of the globe do we find a greater diver- 
sity, or more strongly-marked types, than on the monuments of Egypt, 
antedating the Christian era more than 3000 years. - 

Dr. James Cowles Prichard, for the last half centuiy, has been the 
grand orthodox au;thority with the advocates of a common origin for 
the races of men. His ponderous work on the " Physical History of 
Mankind." is one of the noblest monuments of learning and labour 
to be found in any language. It has been the never-exhausted reser- 
voir of knowledge from which most subsequent writers on Ethnology 
have drawn ; but, nevertheless, as Mr. Bm-ke has sagely remarked, 
Prichard has been the "victim of a false theory." He commenced, 
when adolescent, by writing a graduating thesis, at Edinburgh, in 
support of the unity of races, and the remainder of his long life was 
devoted to the maintenance of this first impression. We behold him, 
year after year, like a bound giant, struggling with increasing strength 
against the cords which cramp him, and we are involuntarily looking 
with anxiety to see him burst them asunder. But how few possess 
the moral power to break through a deep-rooted prejudice ! 

Prichard published no less than three editions of his " Physical 
History of Mankind," viz. : in 1813, 1826, and 1847. To one, how- 
ever, who, like ourselves, has followed him line by line, throughout his 
whole literary life, the constant changes of his opinions, his " special 
pleading," and his cool suppression of adverse facts, leave little confi- 
dence in his judgment or his cause. He set out, in youth, by distort- 
ing history and science to suit the theological notions of the day ; and, 
in his mature age, concludes the final chapter of his last volume by 
abandoning the authenticity of the Pentateuch, which for forty years 
had been the stumbling-block of his life. 

Dr. Prichard's defence of the Book of Genesis, in the Appendix to 



INTRODUCTION. 55 

the fiftt. volume of liis "Researches," is certainly a very extraordinary 
performance. He denies its genealogies ; denies its chronology ; de- 
nies all its histoiical and scientific details ; denies that it was written 
by Moses; admits that nobody knows who did write it; and yet, 
withal, actually endeavours " to show that the sacred and canonical 
authority of the Book of Genesis is not injured." 

We confess that we cannot understand why one half of the historical 
portion of a book should be condemned as false and the other received 
as true, when both stand upon equal authority. IsTor do we think that 
his dissection of other parts of the Old Testament leaves them in 
much better condition, as regards their account of human origins. 
Behold a sample : 

" The time of Ezra, after the Captivity, ■was the era of historical compilation, soon after 
•which the Hebrew language gave way to a more modern dialect. There are indications 
that the whole of the Sacred Books passed under several recensions during these successive 
ages, when they were, doubtless, copied, and recopied, and illustrated by additional passages, 
or by glosses, that might be requisite, in order to preserve their meaning to later times. 
Such passages and glosses occur frequently in the different Books of Moses, and in the 
older historical books, and we may thus, in a probable way, account for the presence of 
many explanatory notices and comments, of comparatively later date, which, unless thus 
accounted for, would add weight to the hypotheses (?) of some German writers, who deny 
the high antiquity of the Pentateuch." 9 

On the degree of orthodoxy claimed by the erudite Doctor in respect 
to chronology, the following extract will speak for itself: 

"Beyond that event [arrival of Abraham in Palestine,] we can never know how many 
centuries, nor even how many thousands of years, may have elapsed since the first man of 
clay received the image of God, and the breath of life. Still, as the thread of genealogy 
has been traced, though probably with many great intervals, the whole duration of time 
from the beginning must apparently have been within moderate bounds, and by no means 
so wide and vast a space as the great periods of the Indian and Egyptian fabulists." 

Instead of thus nervously shifting his scientific and theological 
grounds from year to year, how much more dignified, and becoming 
to both science and religion, would it have been, had Prichard simply 
followed facts, wherever they might lead in science; and had he 
frankly acknowledged that the Bible really gives no history of all the 
races of Men, and but a meagre account of one ? He was indeed the 
\'ictim of a false theory; and we could not but be struck by the 
applicability of the following pencil-note to his first volume (1813), 
written on the margin, just forty years ago, by the late distinguished 
Dr. Thomas Cooper, President of South Carolina College : 

"This is a book by an industrious compiler, but an inconclusive reasoner ; he wears the 
orthodox costume of his nation and his day. No man can be a good reasoner who is marked 
by clerical prejudices." 

Alas ! for his fame. Dr. Prichard continued to change his costume 
with the fashion ; and some truths of the Universe, most essential to 



56 INTRODUCTION. 

Man, have thereby been kept in darkness, that is, out of the popular 
sight, by erroneous interpretations of God's works. 

Albeit, in his last edition, Prichard evidently perceived, in the 
distance, a glimmer of light dawning from the time-worn monuments 
of " Old Egypt," destined eventually to dispel the obfascations with 
which he had enshrouded the history of Man ; and to destroy that 
darling unitary fabric on which all his energies had been expended. 
Had he lived but two years longer, until the mighty discoveries of 
Lepsius were unfolded to the world, he would have realized that the 
honorable occupation of his long life had been only to accumulate 
facts, which, properly interpreted, shatter everything he had built 
upon them. In the preface to vol. iii., he says : 

" If it should be found that, -within the period of time to ■which historical testimony 
extends, the distinguishing characters of human races have been constant and undeviating, 
it would become a matter of great difficulty to reconcile this conclusion [i. e. the unity of 
all mankind,] with the inferences already obtained from other considerations." 

In other words, if hypotheses, and deductions drawn from analo- 
gies among the lower animals, should be refuted by well-ascertained 
facts, demonstrative of the absolute independence of the primitive 
types of mankind of all existing moral and physical causes, during 
several thousand/ years, Prichard himself concedes, that every argu- 
ment heretofore adduced in support of a common origin for human 
families must be abandoned. 

One of the main objects of this volume is to show, that the criterion- 
point, indicated by Prichard, is now actually arrived at ; and that the 
diversity of races must be accepted by Science as a fact, independently 
of theology, and of all analogies or reasonings drawn from the 
animal kingdom. 

It will be observed that, with the exception of Morton's, we 
seldom quote works on the I^atural History of Man; and simply 
for the reason, that their arguments are all based, more or less, on 
fabled analogies, which are at last proved by the monuments of Egypt 
and Assyria to be worthless. The whole method of treating the 
subject is herein changed. To our point of view, most that has been 
written on human Natural History becomes obsolete ; and therefore 
we have not burthened our pages with citations from authors, even 
the most erudite and respected, whose views we consider the present 
work to have, in the main, superseded. 

Such is not our course, however, where others have anticipated any 
conclusion we may have attained ; and we are happy to find that 
Jacquinot had previously recognized the principle which has over- 
thrown Prichard's unitary scheme : 

" If the great branches of the human family have remained distinct in the lapse of ages, 
with their characteristics fixed and unalterable, we are justified in regarding mankind as 
divisible into distinct species." ^'^ 



INTRODUCTION. 57 



" 11 

5 



Four years ago, in our " Biblical and Physical History of Mau 
we published the following remarks : — 

" If the Unity of the Races or Species of Men be assumed, there are but three supposi- 
tions on which the diversity now seen in the white, black, and intermediate colors, can be 
accounted for, viz. : 

" 1st. A miracle, or direct act of the Almighty, in changing one type into another. 
" 2d. The gradual action of Physical causes, such as climate, food, mode of life, &c. 
" 3d. Congenital, or accidental varieties. 
" There being no evidence whatever in favor of the first hypothesis, we pass it by. The 
second and third have been sustained with signal ability by Dr. Prichard, in his Physical 
History of Mankind." 

Although, even then, thoroughly convinced ourselves that the second 
and third hj^potheses were already refuted by facts, and that they 
would soon be generally abandoned \)y men of science, we confess 
that we had little hope of seeing this triumph achieved so speedily ; 
still less did w^e expect, in this matter-of-fact age, to behold a miracle, 
which exists too, not in the Bible, but only in feverish imaginations, 
assumed as a scientific solution. Certain sectarians'^ of the evange- 
lical school are now gravely attempting, from lack of argument, to 
revive the old hypothesis of a miraculous change of one race into 
many at the Tower of Babel ! Such notions, however, do not deserve 
serious consideration, as neither religion nor science has anything to do 
with unsustainable hypotheses. 

The views, moreover, that we expressed in 1849, touching Phy- 
sical Causes, Congenital Varieties, &c., need no modification at the 
present day ; but, on the contrary, Avill be found amply sustained by 
the progress of science, as set forth in the succeeding chapters. "We 
make bold to add an extract from our opinions published at that 
time: — 

" Is it not strange that all the remarkable changes of type spoken of by Prichard and 
others should have occurred in remote antehistoric times, and amongst ignorant erratic 
tribes ? Why is it that no instance of these remarkable changes can be pointed out which 
admits of conclusive evidence ? The civilized nations of Europe have been for many cen- 
turies sending colonies to Asia, Africa, and America ; amongst Mongols, Malays, Africans, 
and Indians ; and why has no example occurred in any of these colonies to substantiate 
the argument? The doubtful examples of Prichard are refuted by others, which he cites 
on the adverse side, of a positive nature. He gives examples of Jews, Persians, Hindoos, 
Arabs, &c., who have emigi-ated to foreign climates, and, at the end of one thousand or 
fifteen hundred years, have preserved their original types in the midst of widely different 
races. Does nature anywhere operate by such opposite and contradictory laws ? 

" A few generations in animals are sufficient to produce all the changes they usually 
undergo from climate, and yet the races of men retain their leading characteristics for 
ages, without approximating to aboriginal types. 

" In fact, so unsatisfactory is the argument based on the influence of climate to Prichard 
himself, that he virtually abandons it in the following paragraph : ' It must be observed,' 
says he, ' that the changes alluded to do not so often take place by alteration in the phy- 
sical character of a whole tribe simultaneously, as by the uprinying up of some new congenital 
peculiarity, which is afterwards propagated, and becomes a character more or less constant 

8 



Do INTRODUCTION. 

in the progeny of the individuals in -whom it first appeared, and is perhaps gradually com- 
municated by intermarriages to a whole stock or tribe. This, it is obvious, can only happen 
in a long course of time.' 

" We beg leave to fix your attention on this vital point. It is a commonly received error 
that the influence of a hot climate is gradually exerted on successive generations, until one 
species of mankind is completely changed into another ; a dark shade is impressed on the 
first, and transmitted to the second ; another shade is added to the third, -which is handed 
down to the fourth ; and so on, through successive generations, until the fair German is 
transformed, by climate, into the black African ! 

" This idea is proven to be false, and is abandoned by the well-informed writers of all 
parties. A sunburnt cheek is never handed down to succeeding generations. The exposed 
parts of the body alone are tanned by the sun, and the children of the white-skinned Euro- 
peans in New Orleans, Mobile, and the West Indies, are born as fair as their ancestors, and 
would remain so, if carried back to a colder climate. The same may be said of other 
acquired characters, (except those from want and disease.) They die with the individual, 
and are no more capable of transmission than a flattened head, mutilated limb, or tattooed 
skin. We repeat, that this fact is settled, and challenge a denial. 

" The only argument left, then, for the advocates of the unity of the human species to 
fall back upon, is that of ' congenital' varieties or peculiarities, which are said to spring up, 
and be transmitted from parent to child, so as to form new races. 

" Let us pause for a moment to illustrate this fanciful idea. The Negroes of Africa, for 
example, are admitted not to be offsets from some other race, which have been gradually 
blackened and changed in moral and physical type by the action of climate ; but it is asserted 
that, ' once in the flight of ages past,' some genuine little Negro, or rather many such, were 
born of Caucasian, Blongol, or other light-skinned parents, and then have turned about 
and changed the type of the inhabitants of a whole continent. So in America : the count- 
less aborigines found on this continent, which we have reason to believe (see Squier's work) 
were building mounds before the time of Abraham, are the offspring of a race changed by 
accidental or congenital varieties. Thus, too, old China, India, Australia, Oceanica, etc., 
all owe their types, physical and mental, to congenital or accidental varieties, and all are 
descended from Adam and Eve ! Can human credulity go farther, or human ingenuity 
invent any argument more absurd ? Yet the whole groundwork of a comtnon origin for 
some nine or ten hundred millions of human beings, embracing numerous distinct types, 
which are lost in an antiquity far beyond all records or chronology, sacred or profane, is 
narrowed down to this ' baseless fabric' 

" In support of this argument, we are told of the Porcupine family of England, which 
inherited for some generations a peculiar condition of the skin, characterized by thickened 
warty excrescences. We are told also of the transmission from parent to child of club feet, 
cross eyes, six fingers, deafness, blindness, and many other familiar examples of congenital 
peculiarities. But these examples merely serve to disprove the argument they are intended 
to sustain. Did any one ever hear of a club-foot, cross-eyed, or six-fingered race, although 
such individuals are exceedingly common? Are they not, on the contrary, always swallowed 
up and lost? Is it not strange, if there be any truth in this argument, that no race has 
ever been formed from those congenital varieties which we know to occur frequently, and 
yet races should originate from congenital varieties which cannot be proved, and are not 
believed, by our best writers, ever to have existed? No one ever saw a Negro, Mongol, or 
Indian, born from any but his own species. Has any one heard of an Indian child born 
from white or black parents in America, during more than two centuries that these races 
have been living here ? Is not this brief and simple statement of the case suflBcient to 
satisfy any one, that the diversity of species now seen on the earth, cannot be accounted 
for on the assumption of congenital or accidental origin ? If a doubt remains, would it not 
be expelled by the recollection' of the fact that the Negro, Tartar, and white man, existed, 
with their present types, at least one thousand years before Abraham journeyed to Egypt 
as a supplicant to the mighty Pharaoh ? 



INTRODTJCTIONi 59 

•' The unity of the human species has also been stoutly maintained on psychological 
grounds. Numerous attempts have been made to establish the intellectual equality of the 
dark races with the white ; and the history of the past has been ransacked for examples, 
but they are nowhere to be found. Can any one call the name of a full-blooded Negro who 
has ever written a page worthy of being remembered ? " 

The avowal of the above vievs^s drew down upon us, as might have 
been expected, criticisms more remarkable for virulence of hostility, 
than for the scientific education of the critics. Our present volume 
is an evidence that we have survived these transient cavils ; and while 
we have much satisfaction in submitting herein a mass of facts that, 
to the generality of readers in this country, will be surprising, we 
would remind the theologist, in the language of the very orthodox 
Hugh Miller [Footprints of the Creator), that 

" The clergy, as a class, suffer themselves to linger far in the rear of an intelligent and 
accomplished laity. Let them not shut their eyes to the danger which is obviously coming. 
The battle of the evidences of Christianity will have, as certainly to be fought on the field 
of physical science, as it was contested in the last age on that of the metaphysics." 

The Physical history of Man has been likewise trammelled for ages 
by arbitrary systems of Chronology ; more especially by that of the 
Hebrews, which is now considered, by all competent authorities, as 
altogether worthless beyond the time of Abraham, and of little value 
previously to that of Solomon ; for it is in his reign that we reach 
their last positive date. The abandonment of this restricted system 
is a great point gained ; because, instead of being obliged to crowd 
an immense antiquity, embracing endless details, into a few centuries, 
we are now fi-ee to classify and arrange facts as the requirements of 
history and science demand. 

It is now generally conceded that there exist no data by which we 
can approximate the date of man's first appearance upon earth ; and, 
for aught we yet know, it may be thousands or millions of years 
beyond our reach. The spurious systems, of Archbishop Usher on the 
Hebrew Text, and of Dr. Hales on the Septuagint, being entirely 
broken down, we turn, unshackled by prejudice, to the monumental 
records of Egypt as our best guide. Even these soon lose themselves, 
not in the primitive state of man, but in his middle or perhaps modern 
ages ; for the Egyptian Empire first presents itself to view, about 
4000 years before Christ, as that of a mighiy nation, in full tide of 
civilization, and surrounded by other realms and races already I 
emerging from the barbarous stage. 

In order that a clear understanding with the reader may be estab- 
lished in the following pages, it becomes necessary to adopt some 
common standard of chronolog}^ for facility of reference. 

An esteemed correspondent, Mr. Birch, of the British Museum, 
aptly observes to us in a private letter — "Although I can see what is 



60 INTRODUCTION. 

not the fact in chronology, I have not come to the conclusion of what 
is the truth." Such is precisely our own condition of mind; nor do 
we suppose that a conscientious student of the suhject, as developed 
under its own head at the close of this volume, can at the present 
hour obtain, for epochas anterior to Abraham, a solution that must not 
itself he vague for a century or more. l!^evertheless, in Egyptian 
chronology, we follow the system of Lepsius by assuming the age of 
Menes at B. C. 3893; in Chinese, we accept Pauthier's date for the 
1st historical dynasty at B. C. 2637 ; in Assyrian, the results of 
Layard's last Journey indicate B. C. 1250 as the probable extreme of 
that country's monumental chronicles ; and finally, in Hebrew com- 
putation, we agree with Lepsius in deeming Abraham's era to approxi- 
mate to B. C. 1500. Our Supplement offers to the critical reader every 
facility of verification, with comparative Tables, the repetition of 
which is here supei'fluous. 

To Egyptology, beyond all question, belongs the honor of dissi- 
pating those chronological fables of past generations, continued belief 
in which, since the recent publication of Chev'r Lepsius's researches, 
implies simply the credulity of ignorance. One of his letters from 
the Pyramids of Memphis, in 1843, contained the following almost 
prophetic passage : ^^ 

" We are still busy with structures, sculptures, and inscriptions, 'whicli are to be classed, 
by means of the now more accurately-determined groups of kings, in an epoch of highly- 
flourishing civilization, as far back as the fourth llillennium before Christ. We cannot suffi- 
ciently impress upon ourselves and others these hitherto incredible dates. The more 
criticism is provoked by them, and forced to serious examination, the better for the cause. 
Conviction will soon follow angry criticism ; and, finally, those results will be attained, 
which are so intimately connected with every branch of antiquarian research." 

We subscribe without reservation to the above sentiment; and 
hope we shall not be disappointed in the amount of "angry criticism " 
which we think the truths embodied in this volume are calculated to 
provoke. Scientific truth, exemplified in the annals of Astronomy, 
Geology, Chronology, Geographical distribution of animals, &c., has 
literally fought its way inch by inch through false theology. The last 
grand battle between science and dogmatism, on the primitive origin of 
races, has now commenced. It requires no prophetic eye to foresee 
that science must again, and finally, triumph. 

It may be proper to state, in conclusion, that the subject shall be 
treated purely as one of science, and that our colleague and ourself 
will follow facts wherever they may lead, without regard to imaginary 
consequences. Locally, the "Friend of Moses," no less than other 
"friends of the Bible" everywhere, have been, compelled to make 
large concessions to science. We shall, in the present investigation, 
treat the Scriptures simply in their historical and scientific bearings. 



INTRODUCTION. 61 

On former occasions, and in the most respectful manner, we had 
attempted to concihate sectarians, and to reconcile the plain teachings 
of science with theological prejudices ; hut to no useful purpose. In 
return, our opinions and motives have been misrepresented and vilified 
by self-constituted teachers of the Christian religion ! "We have, in 
consequence, now done with all this ; and no longer have any apologies 
to offer, nor favors of lenient criticism to ask. The broad banner 
of science is herein nailed to the mast. Even in our own brief day, 
we have beheld one flimsy religious dogma after another consigned to 
oblivion, while science, on the other hand, has been gaining strength 
and majesty with time, "l^fature," says Luke Burke, "has nothing 
to reveal, that is not noble, and beautiful, and good." 
In our former language, 

" Man can invent nothing in science or religion but falsehood ; and all the truths which 
he discovers are but facts or laws which have emanated from the Creator. All science, 
therefore, may be regarded as a revelation from Him ; and although newly-discovered laws, 
or facts, in nature, may conflict with religious errors, which have been written and preached 
for centuries, they never can conflict with religious truth. There must be harmony between 
the works and the words of the Almighty, and wherever they seem to conflict, the discord 
has been produced by the ignorance or wickedness of man." 

J. C. I^. 

Mobile, August, 1853. 



PAET I. 



CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, AND THE RACES OF MEN. 

Have all the living creatures of our globe been created at one 
common point in Asia, and thence been disseminated over its wide 
surface by degrees, and adapted to the varied conditions in which 
they have been found in historical times ? or, on the other hand, have 
different genera and species been created at points far distant from 
each other, with organizations suited to the circumstances in which 
they were originally placed ? 

Two schools have long existed, diametrically opposed to each other, 
on this question. The first may be termed that of the Theological 
!Katuralists, who still look to the Book of Genesis, or what they conceive 
to be the inspired word of Grod, as a text-book of Natural History, as 
they formerly reputed it to be a manual of Astronomy and Geology. 
The second embraces the Naturalists proper, whose conclusions are 
derived from facts, and from the laws of God as revealed in his works, 
which are immutable. 

Not only the authority of Genesis in matters of science, but the 
Mosaic authenticity of this book, is now questioned by a veiy large 
proportion of the most authoritative theologians of the present day ; 
and, inasmuch as its language is clearly opposed to many of the well- 
established facts of modern science, we shall unhesitatingly take the 
benefit of this liberal construction. The language of Scripture touching 
the point now before us is so unequivocal, and so often repeated, as 
to leave no doubt as to the author's meaning. It teaches clearly that 
the Deluge was universal, that every living creature on the face of the 
earth at the time was destroyed, and that seeds of all the organized 
beings of after times were saved in Noah's Ark./ The following is but 
a small portion of its oft-repeated words on this head : — 

(62) 



DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, ETC. 63 

" And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth, and all the high hills that were 
under the whole heaven, were covered. * * * Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail 
and the mountains were covered. * * * And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both 
of fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, 
and every man. All in whose nostrils was the breath of life ; of all that was in the dry 
land. * * * And Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the Ark." i* 

ITow we reiterate that speech cannot be more explicit than this ; and 
if it be true, it must apply with equal force to all living creatures — 
animals as well as mankind. It is really trifling with language to 
say, that the Text does not distinctly convey the idea that all the 
creatures of our day have descended from the seed saved in the Ark ; 
or that they were all created within a certain area around the point 
at which Adam and Eve are supposed first to have had their being. 

Although the same general laws prevail throughout the entire Fauna 
and Flora of the globe, yet in the illustration of our subject, we 
restrict our remarks mainly to the class of Mammifers, because a wider 
range would lead beyond our prescribed limits. 

It has been a popularly-received error, from time immemorial, that 
degrees of latitude, or in other words, temperature of countries, were 
to be regarded as a sure index of the color and of certain other physical 
characters in races of men. This opinion has been supported by many 
able writers of the present century, and even in the last few years by 
no less authority than that of the distinguished Dr. Priehard, in the 
'■'■Physical History of Mankind." A rapid change, however, is now 
going on in the public mind in this respect, and so conclusive is the 
recent e\ddence di'awn from the monuments of Egypt and other 
sources, in support of the pei-manence of distinctly marked types 
of mankind, such as the Egyptians, Jews, iNfegroes, Mongols, American 
Indians, etc., that we presume no really well-informed naturalist will 
again be found advocating such philosophic heresies. Indeed, it 
is difficult to conceive how any one, with the facts before him, (recorded 
by Priehard himself,) in connection with an Ethnographical Map, should 
believe that climate could account for the endless diversity of races 
seen scattered over the earth from the earliest dawn of history. "^ 

It is true that most of the black races are found in Africa ; but, on 
the other hand, many equally black are met with in the temperate cli- 
mates of India, Australia, and Oceanica, though difiering in eveiy 
attribute except color. A black skin would seem to be the best suited 
to hot climates, and for this reason we may suppose that a special 
creation of black races took place in Africa. The strictly white races 
lie mostly in the Temperate Zone, where they flourish best ; and they 
certainly deteriorate physically, if not intellectually, when removed 
to hot climates. Their type is not in reality changed or obliterated, 
but they undergo a degradation fi-om their primitive state, analogous 



64 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 

to the operation of disease. The dark-skinned Hyperhoreans are 
found in the Frigid Zone ; regions most congenial to their nature, and 
from which they cannot be enticed by more temperate climes. The 
Mongols of Asia, and the aborigines of America, with their peculiar 
4ypes, are spread over almost all degrees of latitude. 

So is it with the whole range of Mammifers, as well as birds, and 
other genera. The lightest and the darkest colors — the most gorge- 
ous and most sombre plumage, are everywhere found beside each 
other; though brilliant feathers and colors are commoner in the 
tropics, where men are generally more or less dark. 

Every spot on the earth's surface, from pole to pole — the moun- 
tains and valleys, the dry land and the water — has its organized 
beings, which find around a given centre all the conditions necessary 
for their preservation. These living beings are as innumerable as 
the conditions of the places they inhabit ; and their difierent stations 
are as varied as their instincts and habits. To consider these stations 
under the simple point of view of the distribution of heat on their 
surface, is absolutely to see but one of the many secondary natural 
causes that influence organized beings. 

Amidst the infinitude of beings spread over the globe, the Class of 
Mammifers stands first in organization, and at its head Zoologists 
have placed the Bimanes (Mankind). It is the least numerous, and 
its genera and species are almost entirely known. 

This class is composed of about 200 genera, which may be divided 
into two parts. 1st. Those whose habitations are limited to a single 
Zone. J. Those, on the contrary, which are scattered through all 
the Zones. There would at first seem to be a striking contrast 
between these two divisions ; on the one side, complete immobility, 
and on the other, great mobility ; but this irregularity is only apparent, 
for when we examine attentively the difierent genera, we find them 
governed by the same laws. Those of the first division, whose habitat 
is limited, are in general confined to a few species ; while those of 
the second, on the contrary, contain many species, bu.t which are 
themselves confined to certain localities, in the same manner as the 
fewer genera of the first division. Thus we find the same law 
governing species in both instances. We will cite a single example 
out of many. The White Bear is confined to the Polar regions, 
while other ursine species inhabit the temperate climates of the 
mountain chains of Europe and America; and finally, the Malay 
Bear, and the Bear of Borneo, are restricted to torrid climates. 

We may then consider the diflTerent species of Mammifers as ranged 
under an identical law of geographical distribution, and that each 
species on the globe has its limited space, beyond which it does not 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. 6"^ 

extend ; and that every country on the globe, whatever may he its 
temperature, its analogies, or differences of climate, possesses its 
own Mammifers, different from those of other countries, belonging 
to its region alone. There are apparent exceptions to this law, but 
they are aU susceptible of explanation.^^ 

A few species are really common to the two continents, but only in 
the Arctic region. America and Asia are there united by icy plains, 
which may be easily traversed by certain animals ; and, while the 
"White Bear, the "Wolf, the Red Fox, the Glutton, are common to 
both, the continents and climates may there be really considered as 
one. "We shall show, as we proceed, that with a few exceptions in the 
Arctic region, the Faunae and Florae of the two continents are entirely 
distinct, and that even the Temperate Zones of ITorth and South 
America do not present the same types, although they are separated 
by mere table-lands, presenting none of the extremes of climate 
encountered in the Tropic of Africa. 

But this immobility, imposed by nature on its creatures, is illustrated 
in a stUI more striking manner if we turn to those Mammifers that 
inhabit the ocean, where there are no appreciable impediments, none 
of those infinitely varied conditions which are seen upon land, even 
in the same parallels of latitude. The temperature of the ocean 
varies aU but insensibly with degrees of latitude ; and among the 
immense crowd of animals that inhabit it, we find numerous families 
of Mammifers. Although endowed with great powers of locomotion, 
and notwithstanding the trifling obstacles opposed to them -^hey are, 
like animals of the land, limited to certain localities. The genera 
Galoceplialus, Stemmatopes and Morse, are peculiar to the JSTorthern 
Seas. In the Southern, on the contrary, we find the genera Otarie, 
StenoryncTius, Platyrynchus, &c. Other species inhabit only hot or 
temperate regions. 

The various species of "Whales and Dolphins, despite their prodi- 
gious powers of locomotion, are confined each to regions originally 
assigned them ; and, while there is so little difference of temperature 
in the ocean, that a human being might, in the mild season, swim 
with delight from the North Temperate Zone to Cape Horn, along 
either coast of America, there is no degree of latitude in which we 
do not discover species peculiar to itself. 

After a resume of these and many kindred facts, M. Jacquinot 
uses this emphatic language : 

" To recapitulate, it seems to us, after all we have said, that we may draw the following 
conclusions, viz., that all Mammifers on the globe have a habitation, limited and circum- 
scribed, which they never overleap ; their assemblage contributes to give to each country its 
particular stamp of creation. What a contrast between the Mammifers of the Old and 
New World, and the creations, so special and so singular, of New Holland and Madagascar ! " 

9 



66 DISTKIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

Facts, therefore, point to numerous centres of creation, wherein we 
find creatures fixed, with pecuhar temperaments and organizations, 
which are in unison with surrounding circvimstances, and where all 
their natural wants are supplied. But the strongest barrier to volun- 
tary displacements would seem to be that of instinct — that force, 
unknown and incomprehensible, which binds them to the soil that 
has witnessed their birth. 

While passing these sheets through the press, we have enjoyed the 
privilege of perusing The G-eograpMcal Distribution of Animals and 
Plants,^^ by our valued friend, Charles Pickering, M. D., Naturalist 
to the United States' Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes. 
This is to be " regarded as an introduction to the volume on Geogra- 
phical Distribution, prepared during the voyage of the Expedition," 
and published in Volume IX. of the same compendium. 

In connection with our own work, the utterance of Dr. Pickering's 
views is most opportune; because, with thorough knowledge of 
Egypt, derived from personal travels, and acquaintance with hiero- 
glyphical researches, he has traced the i^atural History of that country 
from the remotest monumental times to the present day. The various 
pictorial representations of Faunae and Floree are thereby assigned to 
their respective chronological epochas; and, inasmuch as they are 
identified mth living species, they substantiate our assertions regarding 
the unexceptional permanence of types during a period of more than 
5000 years. Dr. Pickering's era for "the commencement of the 
Egyptian Chronological Reckoning" being B. C. 4493,^'' we find our- 
selves again in unison with him upon general principles of chronolo- 
gical extension. 

The gradual introduction of foreign animals, plants, and exotic 
substances, into the Lower Valley of the Mle — the extinction of 
sundry species once indigenous to that soil, during the hundred and 
fifty human generations for which we possess contemporaneous registry 

— and the infinitude of proofs that such changes could not have 
been efiected without the intervention of these long historical ages 

— are themes which Dr. Pickering has concisely and ingeniously 
elaborated : and although our space does not permit the citation of 
the numerous examples duly catalogued by him, it afibrds us pleasure 
to concur in the following results, viz. : 

" That the names of animals and plants used in Egypt are Scriptural \i. e. old Semitish] 
names. Further, in some instances, these current Egyptian names go behind the Greek 
language, supply the meaning of obsolete Greek words, and show international relationship, 
the more intimate the further we recede into antiquity." 18 

It will become apparent, in its place, that the philological views 
now held by Birch, De Rouge, and Lepsius, upon the primeval intro- 
duction of Semitic elements in Egypt, are confirmed by these indepen- 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. 67 

dent researches of Pickering into the ISTatural History of Egj-ptian 
animals and plants, as we trust will he now demonstrated through 
the monumental evidences of human physiology. 

Let us next turn to the races of Mankind in their geographical dis- 
tribution, and see whether they form an exception to the laws which 
have been established for the other orders of Mammifers. Does not 
the same physical adaptation, the same instinct, which binds animals 
to their primitive localities, bind the races of Men also ? Those races 
inhabiting the Temperate Zones, as, for example, the white races of 
Europe, have a certain degree of pliability, that enables them to bear 
climates to a great extent hotter or colder than their native one ; 
but there is a limit beyond which they cannot go with impunity 
— they cannot live in the Arctic with the Esquimaux, nor in the 
Tropic of Africa with the N'egro. The ISTegro, too, (like the 
Elephant, the Lion, the Camel, &e.,) possesses a certain pliability of 
constitution, which enables him to enter the Temperate Zone ; but 
his ISTorthern limit stops far short of that of natives of this Zone. 
The higher castes of what are termed Caucasian races, are influenced 
by several causes in a greater degree than other races. To them have 
been assigned, in all ages, the largest brains and the most powerful 
intellect ; theirs is the mission of extending and perfecting civiliza- 
tion — they are by nature ambitious, daring, domineering, and reckless 
of danger — impelled by an irresistible instinct, they visit all climes, 
regardless of difficulties ; but how many thousands are sacrificed 
annually to climates foreign to their nature ! 

It should also be borne in mind, that what we term Caucasian 
races are not of one origin : they are, on the contrary, an amalgama- 
tion of an infinite number of primitive stocks, of different instincts, 
temperaments, and mental and physical characters. Egj'ptians, Jews, 
Arabs, Teutons, Celts, Sclavonians, Pelasgians, Romans, Iberians, etc., 
etc., are all mingled in blood ; and it is impossible now to go back and 
unravel this heterogeneous mixture, and say precisely what each type 
originally was. Such commingling of blood, through migrations, 
wars, captivities, and amalgamations, is doubtless one means by which 
Providence carries out great ends. This mixed stock of many primi- 
tive races is the only one which can really be considered cosmopolite. 
Their infinite diversity of characteristics contrasts strongly with the 
immutable instincts of other human types. 

How stands the case with those races which have been less subjected 
to disturbing causes, and whose moral and intellectual structure is 
less complex ? The Greenlander, in his icy region, amidst poverty, 
hardship, and want, clings Avith instinctive pertinacity to his birth- 
place, in spite of all apparent temptations — the Temperate Zone, 



68 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

with, its luxuries, has no charm for him. The Afi'ieans of the Tropic, 
the Aborigines of America, the Mongols of Asia, the inhabitants of 
Polynesia, have remained for thousands of years where history first 
found them ; and nothing but absolute want, or self-preseiration, can 
di'ive them from tbe countries where the Creator placed them. These 
races have been least adulterated, and consequently preserve their 
original instincts and love of home. This truth is illustrated in a 
most remarkable degree by the Indians of America. We still behold 
the small remnants of scattered tribes fighting and dying to preserve 
the lands and graves of their ancestors. 

"We shall have more to say, in another chapter, on the amalgama- 
tion of races, but may here remark, that the infusion of even a minute 
proportion of the blood of one race into another, produces a most 
decided modification of moral and physical character. A small trace 
of white blood in the negro improves him in intelligence and morality; 
and an equally small trace of negro blood, as in the quadroon, will 
protect such individual against the deadly influence of climates which 
the pure white-man cannot endure. For example, if the population 
of ]^ew England, Germany, France, England, or other northern cli- 
mates, come to Mobile, or to l^ew Orleans, a large proportion dies 
of yellow fever : and of one hundred such individuals landed in the 
latter city at the commencement of an epidemic of yellow fever, pro- 
bably half would fall victims to it. On the contrary, negroes, under 
all circumstances, enjoy an almost perfect exemption from this dis- 
ease, even though brought in from our ITorthern States ; and, what is 
still more remarkable, the mulattoes (under which term we include 
all mixed grades) are almost equally exempt. The writer (J. C. I^ott) 
has witnessed many hundred deaths from yellow fever, but never more 
than three or four cases of mulattoes, although hundreds are exposed 
to this epidemic in Mobile. The fact is certain, and shows how diffi- 
cult is the problem of these amalgamations. 

That negroes die out and would become extinct in ITew England, if 
cut off from immigration, is clearly shown by published statistics. 

It may even be a question whether the strictly-white races of Europe 
are perfectly adapted to any one climate in America. We do not gene- 
rally find in the United States a population constitutionally equal to that 
of Great Britain or Germany ; and we recollect once hearing this remark 
strongly endorsed by Henry Clay, although dwelling in Kentuckj;, 
amid the best agricultural population in the country. Knox^^ holds that 
the Anglo-Saxon race would become extinct in America, if cut off 
from immigration. Now, we are not prepared to endorse this asser- 
tion ; but inasmuch as nature works not through a few generations, but 
through thousands of years, it is impossible to conjecture what time 



AND THE KACES OF MEN. 69 

may effect. It would be a curious inquiry to investigate tlie physio- 
logical causes wMcli have led to the destruction of ancient empires, 
and the disappearance of populations, like Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and 
Rome. Many ancient nations were colonies from distant climes, and 
may have wasted away under the operation of laws that have acted 
slowly but surely. The commingling of different bloods, too, under 
the law of hybridity, may also have played an important part. Mr, 
Layard tells us that a few wandering tribes only now stalk around 
the sites of the once-mighty ISTineveh and Babylon, and that, but for 
the sculptures of Sargan and Sennacherib, no one could now say 
what race constructed those stupendous cities. But let us return 
from this digression. 

To this inherent love of primitive locality, and instinctive dislike 
to foreign lands, and repugnance towards other people, must we 
mainly attribute the fixedness of the unhistoric types of men. The 
greater portion of the globe is still under the infl.uence of this law. 
In America, the aboriginal barbarous tribes cannot be forced to 
change their habits, or even persuaded to successful emigration : they 
are melting away from year to year ; and of the millions which once 
inhabited that portion of the United States east of the Mississippi 
river, all have vanished, but a few scattered families ; and their repre- 
sentatives, removed by our Government to the "Western frontier, are 
reduced to less than one hundred thousand. It is as clear as the sun 
at noon-day, that in a few generations more the last of these Red men 
will be numbered with the dead. We constantly read glowing ac- 
counts, from interested missionaries, of the civilization of these tribes ; 
but a civilized full-blooded Indian does not exist among them. We 
see every day, in the suburbs of Mobile, and wandering through our 
streets, the remnant of the Choctaw race, covered with nothing but 
blankets, and living in bark tents, scarcely a degree advanced above 
brutes of the field, quietly abiding their time. 'No human ingenuity 
can induce them to become educated, or to do an honest day's work : 
they are supported entirely by begging, besides a little tratfic of the 
squaws in wood. To one who has lived among American Indians, it 
is in vain to talk of civilizing them. You might as well attempt to 
change the nature of the buffalo. 

The whole continent of America, with its mountain-ranges and 
table-lands — its valleys and low plains — its woods and prairies — ex- 
hibiting every variety of climate which could influence the nature of 
man, is inhabited by one great family, that presents a prevailing typo. 
Small and peculiarly shaped crania, a cinnamon complexion, small 
feet and hands, black straight hair, wild, savage natures, characterize 



70 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

the Indian everywhere. There are a few trivial exceptions, easily 
acconnted for, particularly on the Pacific coast. 

The eastern part of Asia pi-esents a parallel case. From 65° north 
latitude to the Equator, it presents the greatest inequalities of surface 
and- climate, and is peopled throughout hy the yellow, lank-haired 
Mongols ; the darkest families lying at the ISTorth, and the fairest at 
the South. Their crania, their instincts, their whole moral and phy- 
sical characteristics, distinguish them from the American race, which 
otherwise they most resemble. 

The other half of this northern continent, that is to say Europe and 
the rest of Asia, may be divided into a northern and a southern pro- 
vince. The first extends from the Polar region to 45° or 50° north 
latitude — from Scandinavia to the Caspian Sea; and contains a group 
of men with light hair, complexion fair and rosy, and blue eyes. 
The second or southern division, running north-west and south-east, 
stretches from the British Isles to Bengal and the extremity of Hin- 
dostan — from 50° to 8° or 10° north. This vast area is covered by 
people with complexions more or less dark, oval faces, black smooth 
hair, and black eyes. 

ISTow, it is worthy of remark, that since the discoveiy of America, 
and during several centuries, the fair races have inhabited North 
America extensively, while the dark races, as the Spaniards, have 
occupied South and Central America, and Mexico ; both have dis- 
placed the Aboriginal races, and yet neither has made approximation 
in type to the latter, nor does any person suppose they could in a 
hundred generations. And so with the K'egroes, who have lived here 
through eight or ten generations. We have no more reason to sup- 
pose that an Anglo-Saxon will turn into an Indian, than imported 
cattle into buffaloes. We shall show, in another chapter, that the 
oldest Indian crania from the Mounds, some of which are probably 
several thousand years old, bear no resemblance to those of any race 
of the old continent. 

When we come to Africa, we shall perceive various groups of peculiar 
types occupying their appropriate zoological provinces, which they 
have inhabited for at least 5000 years. But, having to develop some 
new views respecting EgjqDt in another place, we shall take up the 
races of the African continent in extenso. 

Taking leave, for the present, of continents, let us glance for a 
moment at l^^ew Holland. This immense countiy, extending from 
latitude 10° to 40° south, attests a special creation — its population, its 
animals, birds, insects, plants, etc., are entirely unlike those found in 
any other part of the world. The men present altogether a very 
peculiar type : they are black, but without the features, woolly heads, 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. ' 71 

or other physical characters of ITegroes. Beyond, we have Van Die- 
men's Land, extending to 44° south latitude, which presents a tem- 
perate climate, not unlike that of France ; and w^hat is remarkable, 
its inhabitants, unlike those of ISTew Holland, are black, with frizzled 
heads, and very similar to the Afi-ican races. 

Not far from 'New Holland, under the same parallels, and extend- 
ing even farther south, we find Kew Zealand ; where commences the 
beautiful Polynesian race, of light-brown color, smooth black hair, 
and almost oval face. This race extends from 50° south, descends to 
the equator, then remounts to the Sandmch Islands, 20° north — 
scattered over islands without number — encircling about half the 
globe — without presenting any material differences in their color or 
forms — in a word, in their zoological characters. 

India affords a striking illustration of the fallacy of arguments 
drawn from climate. We there meet with people of all shades, from 
fair to black, who have been living together from time immemorial. 
"We have the well-known testimony of Bishop Heber, and others, on 
this point; and Desmoulins adds, " The Eohillas, who are blonds, and 
situated south of the Ganges, are surrounded by the N'epauleans with 
black skins, the Mahrattas with yellow skins, and the Bengalees of a 
deep brown ; and yet the Rohillas inhabit the plain, and the IsTepau- 
leans the mountains."^ Here we have either different races inhabit- 
ing the same climate for several thousand years without change ; or 
the same race assuming every shade of color. Of this dilemma, the 
advocates of unity may choose either horn. 

AVe might thus recite innumerable facts to the same effect, but the 
labor would be superfluous. 

The different shades of color in races have been regarded, by many 
naturalists, as one of their most distinctive characters, and still serve 
as the basis of numerous classifications ; but M. Jacquinot thinks too 
much importance has been attached to colors, and that the}^ cannot 
be relied upon. For example, all the intermediate shades fi'om white 
to black are found in those races of oval face, large facial angle, 
smooth. hair, etc., which Blumenbach has classed under the head 
Caucasian. Commence, for example, with the fair Fins and Sclavo- 
nians with blond hair, and pass successively through the Celts, Iberi- 
ans, Italians, Greeks, Arabs, Egyptians, and Hindoos, till you reach 
the inhabitants di Malabar, and you find these last to be as black as 
Is^egroes. 

Among the Mongols, likewise, we encounter various shades. Amid 
the Africans there exist all tints, from the pale-yellow Hottentots, 
Bushmen, and dusky Caftres, to the coal-black 'Negro of the Tropic and 
confines of Egypt. In short, the black color is beheld in Caucasians, 



72 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

ITegroes, Mongols, Australians, etc., while yellows or browns are 
visible througbout all the above types, as well as among Americans, 
Malays, and Polynesians. 

In tbe present mixed state of the population of the earth, it is per- 
haps impossible to determine how far this opinion of Jacquinot may 
be correct. We possess certainly many examples to prove that color 
has been permanent for ages ; while, on the contrary, it is impossible 
to show that the complexion of a pure primitive stock has been 
altered by climate. As before stated, we conceive that too much 
importance has been given to arbitrary classifications, and that the 
Caucasian division may include innumerable primitive stocks. . This 
fact is illustrated farther on, particularly in the history of the Jews, 
whose type has been permanent for at least 3000 years. We have 
no reason to beheve that the Hebrew race sprang from, or ever origi- 
nated, any other type of man. 

We therefore not merely regard the great divisions of Caucasian, 
Mongol, Malay, Negro and Indian, as primitive stocks, but shall estab- 
lish that History, Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, Analogy, all prove 
J that each of these stocks comprehends many original subdivisions. 

Let us acknowledge our large indebtedness to Prof. Agassiz, who 
has given the most masterly view of the geographical distribution of 
animals written in our language, or perhaps in any other. ISTot a 
line can be retrenched from his already condensed articles without 
inflicting a wound, and we take much pleasure in referring the reader 
q 1 '] to them.^' He shows, conclusively, that not only are there numerous 
centres of creation, or zoological provinces, for our pending geo- 
logical epoch, but that these provinces correspond, in a sui-prising 
manner, to those of former epochas ; thus proving that the Creator 
has been working after one grand and uniform plan through myriads 
of years, and through consecutive creations. 

" It is satisfactorily ascertained at present, that there have been many distinct successive 
periods, during each of which large numbers of animals and plants have been introduced 
upon the surface of our globe, to live and multiply for a time, then to disappear and be 
replaced by other kinds. Of such distinct periods — such successive creations — we know 
now at least about a dozen, and there are ample indications that the inhabitants of our globe 
have been successively changed at more epochs than are yet fully ascertained." 

In the earliest formations, but few and distant patches of land having 
emerged from the mighty deep, the created beings were comparatively 
few, simple, and more widely disseminated ; but yet many distinct 
species, adapted to localities where they were brought into existence, 
are discovered. In the more recent fossil beds, we find a distribu- 
tion of fossil remains which agrees most remarkably with the pre- 
sent geographical arrangement of animals and plants. The fossils 
of modern geological periods in iN'ew Holland are types identical with 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. 73 

M 

most of the animals now living there. Brazilian fossils belong to 
the same families as those alive there at the present day ; though in 
both cases the fossil species are distinct from the surviving ones. If, 
therefore, the organized beings of ancient geological periods had 
arisen from one central point of distribution, to be dispersed, and 
finally to become confined to those countries where their remains now 
exist in a fossil condition ; and if the animals now living had also 
spread from a common origin, over the same districts, and liad these 
been circumscribed within equally distinct limits; we should be led to 
the unnatural supposition, argues Agassiz, that animals of two distinct 
creations, difiering specifically throughout, had taken the same lines 
of migration, had assumed finally the same distribution, and had 
become permanent in the same regions without any other inducement 
for removal and final settlement, than the mere necessity of covering 
more extensive ground, after they had become too numerous to 
remain any longer together in one and the same district. 

K"ow it would certainly be very irrational to attribute such instincts 
to animals, were such a line of march possible ; but the veiy possi- 
bility vanishes, however, when we reflect upon the wide-spread phy- 
sical impediments opposing such migrations, and that neither the 
animals nor plants of one province can flourish in an adverse one. 
ISTo Arctic animals or plants can be propagated in the Tropics, nor 
vice versa. The whole of the Monkey tribe belong to a hot climate, 
are retained there by their temperaments and instincts, and cannot 
by any ingenuity of man be made to exist in Greenland. The same 
rule applies to the aboriginal men of the Tropical and the Arctic 
regions. "~"^ 

That the animals and plants now existing on the earth must be' 
referred to many widely-distant centres of creation, is a fact which 
might, if necessary, be confirmed by an infinite number of circum- 
stances ; but these things are nowadays conceded by every well- 
informed naturalist ; and if we have deemed it necessaiy to illustrate 
them at all, it is because this volume may fall into the hands of some 
possibly not versed in such matters. 

Another question of much interest to our present investigation is 
— Have all the individuals of each species of animals, plants, &c., 
descended from a single pair ? "Were it not for the supposed scientific 
authority of Genesis to this effect, the idea of community of origin 
would hardly have occurred to any reflecting mind, because it in- 
volves insuperable difiiculties ; and science can perceive no reason why 
the Creator should have adopted any such plan. Is it reasonable to 
suppose that the Almighty would have created one seed of grass, one 
10 



74 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

acorn, one pair of locusts, of bees, of wild pigeons, of herrings, of 
buffaloes, as the onty starting-point of these almost ubiquitous sjDecies ? 

The instincts and habits of animals diflFer widely. Some are soli- 
tary, except at certain seasons ; some go in pairs ; others in herds or 
shoals. The idea of a pair of bees, locusts, herrings, buflFaloes, is 
as contrary to the nature and habits of these creatures, as it is repug- 
nant to the nature of oaks, pines, birches, &c., to grow singly, and to 
form forests in their isolation. In some species males — in others, 
females predominate ; and in many it would be easy to show, that, if 
the present order of things were reversed, the species could not be 
preserved — locusts and bees, for example : the former appear in my- 
riads, and by far the greater number of those produced are destroyed; 
and though they have existed for ages, a naturalist cannot see that 
they have increased, nor can he conceive how one pair could continue 
the species, considering the number of adverse chances. As regards 
bees, it is natural to have but one female for a whole hive, to whom 
_many males are devoted, besides a large number of drones. 

Again, Agassiz gives this striking illustration : — 

" There are animals ■wrhicli are impelled by nature to feed on other animals. Was the 
first pair of lions to abstain from food until the gazelles and other antelopes had multiplied 
sufficiently to preserve their races from the persecution of these ferocious beasts ? " 

So with other carnivorous animals, birds, fishes, and reptiles. "We 
now behold all their various species scattered through land and water 
in harmonious proportions. Thus they may continue for ages to 
come. 

Hybridity has been considered a test for species ; but, when we 
come to this theme, it shall be proven that, in many instances, what 
have been called varieties are really distinct species : hence, that hybri- 
dity is no test. All varieties of dogs and wolves, for example, are pro- 
lific inter se; yet we shall prove that many of them are specifically 
distinct, that is, descended from difierent primitive stocks at distant 
points of the globe. Agassiz has beautifally illustrated the fact by the 
natural history of lions. These animals present very marked varieties, 
extending over immense regions of country. They occupy nearly 
the whole continent of Africa, a great part of Southern Asia, as, 
formerly, Asia Minor and Greece. Over this vast tract of countiy 
several varieties of lions are found, differing materially in their phy- 
sical characters : these varieties also are placed remotely from each 
other, and each one is surrounded by entirely distinct Fau.n8e and 
Florae : natural facts confirming the idea of totally distinct zoological 
provinces. It will readily be conceded by naturalists, that all the 
animals found in such a province, and nowhere else, must have been 
therein created; and although lions may possess in common that 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. 75 

assembla2:e of characters winch has been construed into e\'idence of 
community of species, yet it by no means necessitates community of 
origin. The same question here arises as in considering the varieties 
of mankind, with regard to the definition of the term species. We 
hold that a variety which is permanent, and which resists, without 
change, all known external causes, must be regarded as a primitive 
species — else no criteria exist by which science can be governed in 
iNTatural History. 

Monkeys afibrd another admirable illustration, and are doubly 
interesting from the fact of their near approach to the human family. 
The following paragraph is one of peculiar interest : — 

" As already mentioned, tlie monkeys are entirely tropical. But here again we notice a 
very intimate adaptation of their types to the particular continents ; as the monkeys of 
tropical America constitute a family altogether distinct from the monkeys of the old world, 
there being not one species of any of the genera of Quadrumana, so numerous on this con- 
tinent, found either in Asia or Africa. The monkeys of the Old World, again, constitute a 
natural familj' by themselves, extending equally over Africa and Asia ; and there is even a 
close representative analogy between those of different parts of these two continents — the 
orangs of Africa, the Chimpanzee and Orilla, corresponding to the red orang of Sumatra 
and Borneo, and the smaller long-armed species of continental Asia. And what is not a 
little remarkable, is the fact that the black orang occurs upon that continent which is 
inhabited by the black human race, while the brown orang inhabits those parts of Asia 
over which the chocolate-colored Malays have been developed. There is again a peculiar 
family of Qu.adrumana confined to the Island of Madagascar, the Makis, which are entirely 
peculiar to that island and the eastern coast of Africa opposite to it, and to one spot on the 
western shore of Africa. But in New Holland and the adjacent islands there are no mon- 
keys at all, though the climatic conditions seem not to exclude their existence any more 
than those of the large Asiatic Islands, upon which such high types of this order are found. 
And these facts, more than any other, would indicate that the special adaptation of animals 
to particular districts of the surface of the globe is neither accidental nor dependent upon 
physical conditions, but is implied in the primitive plan of creation itself. Whatever 
classes we may take into consideration, we shall find similar adaptations, and though per- 
haps the greater uniformity of some families renders the difference of types in various parts 
of the world less striking, they are none the less real. The carnivoi'a of tropical Asia are 
not the same as those of tropical Africa, or those of tropical America. Their birds and 
reptiles present similar differences. The want of an ostrich in Asia, when we have one, 
the largest of the family, in Africa, and two distinct species in Southern America, and two 
cassowaries, one in New Holland and another in the Sunda Islands, shows this constant 
process of analogous or representative species, repeated over different parts of the world, 
to be the principle regulating the distribution of animals ; and the fact that these analo- 
gous species are different, again, cannot be reconciled to the idea of common origin, as 
each type is peculiar to the country where it is now found. These differences are more 
striking in tropical regions than anywhere else. The rhinoceros of the Sunda Islands 
differs from those of Africa, and there are none in America. The elephant of Asia differs 
from that of Africa, and there are none in America. One tapir is found in the Sunda Islands ; 
there are none in Africa, but we find one in South America. . . . Everywhere speci.il adap- 
tation, particular forms in each continent, an omission of some allied type here, when in 
the next group it occurs all over the zone." 

The same authority has so well expressed his opinion on another 
point, that we cannot resist the temptation of making an additional 
extract. 



76 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

" We are thus led to distinguish special provinces in the natural distribution of animals, 
and we may adopt the following division as the most natural First, the Arctic province, 
with prevailing uniformity. Second, the Temperate Zone, with at least three distinct 
zoological provinces — the European Temperate Zone, west of the Ural Mountains; the 
Asiatic Temperate Zone, east of the Ural Mountains ; and the American Temperate Zone, 
which may be subdivided into two, the Eastern and Western, for the animals east and west 
of the Rocky Mountains differ sufficiently to constitute two distinct zoological provinces. 
Next, the Tropical Zone, containing the African Zoological province, which extends over 
the main part of the African continent, including all the country south of the Atlas and 
north of the Cape colonies ; the Tropical Asiatic province, south of the great Himalayan 
chain, and including the Sunda Islands, whose Fauna has quite a continental character, and 
differs entirely from that of the Islands of the Pacific, as well as from that of New Holland ; 
the American Tropical province, including Central America, the West Indies, and Tropical 
South America. New Holland constitutes in itself a special province, notwithstanding the 
great differences of its northern and southern climate, the animals of the whole continent 
preserving throughout their peculiar typical character. But it were a mistake to conceive 
that the Faunae, or natural groups of animals, are to be limited according to the boundaries 
of the mainlands. On the contrary, we may trace their natural limits into the ocean, and 
refer to the Temperate European Fauna the eastern shores of the Atlantic, as we refer its 
western shores to the American Temperate Fauna. Again, the eastern shores of the Pacific 
belong to the Western American Fauna, as the western Pacific shores belong to the Asiatic 
Fauna. In the Atlantic Ocean there is no peculiar Oceanic Fauna to be distinguished ; but 
in the Pacific we have such a Fauna, entirely marine in its main character, though inter- 
spread with innumerable islands, extending east of the Sunda Islands and New Holland to 
the western shores of Tropical America. The islands west of this continent seem, indeed, to 
have very slight relations, in their zoological character, with the western parts of the main- 
land. South of the Tropical Zone we have the South American Temperate Fauna and that 
of the Cape of Good Hope, as other distinct zoological provinces. Van Diemen's Land, 
however, does not constitute a zoological province in itself, but belongs to the province of 
New Holland by its zoological character. Finally, the Antarctic Circle encloses a special 
zoological province, including the Antarctic Fauna, which, in a great measure, corresponds 
to the Arctic Fauna in its uniformity, though it differs from it in having chiefly a maritime 
character, while the Arctic Fauna has an almost entirely continental aspect. 

" The fact that the principal races of men, in their natural distribution, cover the same 
extent of ground as the same zoological provinces, would go far to show that the differences 
which we notice between them are also primitive." 

Tliese facts prove conclusively that the Creator has marked out 
both the Old and 'New Worlds into distinct zoological provinces, and 
that Faunae and Florae are independent of climate or other known 
physical causes ; while it is equally clear that in this geographical dis- 
tribution there is evidence of a Plan — of a design ruling the climatic 
conditions themselves. 

It is very remarkable, too, that while the races of men, and the 
Fauna and Flora of the Arctic region, present great uniformity, they 
follow in the different continents the same general law of increasing 
dissimilarity as we recede from the Arctic and go South, irrespectively 
of climate. We have already shown that, as we pass down through 
America, Asia, and Africa, the farther we travel the greater is the dis- 
similarity/ of their Faunae and Florae, to their very terminations, even 
when compared together in the same latitudes or zones; and an 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. 77 

examination will show, that differences of types in the human family 
hecome more strongly marked as we recede from the Polar regions, 
and reach their greatest extremes at those terminating points of con- 
tinents where they are most widely separated, hy distance, although 
occupying nearly the same parallels of latitude, and nearly the same 
climates. For instance, the Fuegians of Cape Horn, the Hottentots 
and Bushmen of the Cape of Good Hope, and the inhabitants of Van 
Diemeu's Land, are the tribes which, under similar parallels, differ 
most. Such differences of races are scarcely less marked in the Tro- 
pics of the earth ; as testified by the ITegro in Africa, the Indian in 
America, and the Papuan in Polynesia. Li the Temperate zone, we 
have in the Old "World the Mongolians and the Caucasians, no less 
than the Indians in America, living in similar climates, yet wholly 
dissimilar themselves. 

History, traditions, monuments, osteological remains, every literarj'- 
record and scientific induction, all show that races have occupied sub- 
stantially the same zones or provinces from time immemorial. Since 
the discovery of the mariner's compass, mankind have been more dis- 
turbed in their primitive seats ; and, with the increasing facilities of 
communication by land and sea, it is impossible to predict what 
changes coming ages may bring forth. The Caucasian races, which 
have always been the representatives of civilization, are those alone 
that have extended over and colonized all parts of the globe ; and 
much of this is the work of the last three hundred years. The Creator 
has implanted in this group of races an instinct that, in spite of 
themselves, drives them through all diflUculties, to carry out their 
great mission of civilizing the earth. It is not reason, or philanthropy, 
which urges them on ; but it is destiny. ^Tien we see great divisions 
of the human family increasing in numbers, spreading in all direc- 
tions, encroaching by degrees upon all other races wherever they can 
live and prosper, and gradually supplanting inferior tj^es, is it not 
reasonable to conclude that they are fulfilling a law of nature ? "^^ 

We have always maintained diversity of origin for the whole range 
of organized beings. K it be granted, as it is on all hands, that 
there have been many centres of creation, instead of one, what reason 
is there to suppose that any one race of animals has sprung from a 
single pair, instead of being the natural production of many pairs ? 
And, as was written by us many years ago, " if it be conceded that 
there were two primitive pairs of human beings, no reason can be 
assigned why there may not have been hundreds." ^ 

Agassiz thus expresses himself: — 

"Under such circumstances, we should ask if we are not entitled to conclude that these 
races must have originated where they occur, as well as the animals and plants inhabiting 



78 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

the same countries, and have originated there in the same numerical proportions and over 
the same area in which they now occur; for these conditions are the conditions necessary 
to their maintenance, and what among organized beings is essential to their temporal exist- 
ence must be at least one of the conditions under which they were created. 

" We maintain that, lilve all organized beings, mankind cannot have originated in single 
individuals, but must have been created in that numerical harmony which is characteristic 
of each species. Men must have originated in nations, as the bees have originated in 
swarms, and, as the different social plants, have covered the extensive tracts over which 
they have naturally spread." 

We remarked, in tlie commencement of this chapter, that M. Agas- 
siz had presented his views in such a condensed and irrefragahle 
manner, that it would he impossible to attempt a resume, ox to do 
him justice without repeating the whole of his article ; hut although 
we have already borrowed freely, we cannot refrain from a concluding 
paragraph, our object being rather to give a synopsis, or "posting up" 
to date, of facts illustrative of our subject, than to claim any great 
originality : if we can bring the truth out, our goal is attained. 

" The circumstance that wherever we find a human race naturally circumscribed, it is 
connected in its limitation with what we call, in natural history, a zoological and botanical 
province — that is to say, with the natural limitations of a particular association of animals 
and plants — shows most unequivocally the intimate relation existing between manlcind 
and the animal kingdom in their adaptation to the physical world. The Arctic race of men, 
covering a treeless region near the Arctics in Europe, Asia, and America, is circumscribed, 
in the three continents, within limits very similar to those occupied by that particular com- 
bination of animals which are peculiar to the same tracts of land and sea. 

"The region inhabited by the Mongolian race is also a natural zoological province, 
covered by a combination of animals naturally circumscribed within the same regions. The 
Malay race covers also a natural zoological province. New Holland again constitutes a 
very peculiar zoological province, in which we have another particular race of men. And 
it is further remarkable, in this connection, that the plants and animals now living on the 
continent of Africa south of Atlas, within the same range within which the Negroes are 
naturally circumscribed, have a character differing widely from that of the plants and 
animals of the northern shores of Africa and the valley of Egypt ; while the Cape of Good 
Hope, within the limits inhabited by Hottentots, is characterized by a vegetation and a 
Fauna equally peculiar, and differing in its features from that over which the African race 
is spread. 

" Such identical circumscriptions between the limits of two series of organized beings so 
widely differing in men and animals and plants, and so entirely unconnected in point of 
descent, would, to the mind of the naturalist, amount to a demonstration that they origi- 
nated together within the districts which they now inhabit. We say that such an accumu- 
lation of evidence would amount to demonstration ; for how could it, on the contrary, be 
supposed that man alone would assume new peculiarities and features so different from his 
primitive characteristics, whilst the animals and plants circumscribed within the same limits 
would continue to preserve their natural relations to the Fauna and Flora of other parts of 
the world ? If the Creator of one set of these living beings had not also been the Creator 
of the other, and if we did not trace the same general laws throughout nature, there might 
be room left for the supposition that, while men inhabiting different parts of the world 
originated from a common centre, the plants and animals associated with them in the same 
countries originated on the spot. But such inconsistencies do not occur in the laws of 
nature. 

" The coincidence of the geographical distribution of the human races with that of 



AND THE RACES OF MEN. 79 

animals, tlie disconnection of tlie climatic conditions where we' have similar races, and 
the connection of climatic conditions where we have different human races, shows further, 
that the adaptation of different races of men to different parts of the world must be inten- 
tional, as well as that of other beings ; that men were primitively located in the various 
parts of the world they inhabit, and that they arose everwhere in those harmonious numeric 
proportions with other living beings which would at once secure their preservation and 
contribute to their welfare. To suppose that all men originated from Adam and Eve, is to 
assume that the order of creation has been changed in the course of historical times, and 
to give to the Mosaic record a meaning that it was never intended to have. On that ground, 
we would particularly insist upon the propriety of considering Genesis as chiefly relating 
to the history of the white race, with special reference to the history of the Jews." 

Zoologically, the races or species of mankind obey the same organic 
laws which govern other animals : they have their geographical points 
of origin, and are adapted to certain external conditions that cannot 
be changed with impunity. The natives of one zone cannot always 
be transferred to another without deteriorating physically and men- 
tally. Races, too, are governed by certain psychological influences, 
which difter among the species of mankind as instincts vary among 
the species of lower animals. These psychological characteristics form 
part of the great mysteries of human nature. They seem often to 
work in opposition to the physical necessities of races, and to drive 
individuals and nations beyond the confines of human reason. We 
see around us, daily, individuals obeying blindly their psychological 
instincts ; and one nation reads of the causes which have led to the 
decline and fall of other empires without profiting by the lesson. ■ 

The laws of God operate not through a few thousand years, but \ 
throughout eternity, and we cannot always perceive the why or where- 
fore of what passes in our brief day. Kations and races, like indivi- 
duals, have each an especial destiny : some are born to rule, and 
others to be ruled. And such has ever been the history of mankind. 
1^0 two distinctly-marked races can dwell together on equal terms. 
Some races, moreover, appear destined to live and prosper for a time, 
until the destroying race comes, which is to exterminate and supplant 
them. Obser\^e how the aborigines of America are fading away 
before the exotic races of Europe. 

Those groups of races heretofore comprehended under the generic 
term Caucasian, have in all ages been the rulers; and it requires 
no prophet's eye to see that they are destined eventually to conquer 
and hold every foot of the globe where climate does not inteipose an 
impenetrable baraer. 'No philanthropy, no legislation, no missionary 
labors, can change this law: it is written in man's nature by the I 
hand of his Creator. 

"WTiile the mind thus speculates on the physical history of races and 
the more or less speedy extennination of some of them, other prob- 
lems start Lip in the distance, of which the solution is far beyond the 



80 GENERAL REMARKS 

reach of human foresight. We have aheady hinted at the mysterious 
disappearance of many great races and nations of antiquity. 

When the inferior types of mankind shall have fulfilled their des- 
tinies and passed away, and the superior, becoming intermingled in 
blood, have wandered jfrom their primitive zoological provinces, and 
overspread the world, what will be the ultimate result? May not 
that Law of nature, which so often forbids the commingling of species, 
complete its work of destruction, and at some future day leave the 
fossil remains alone of man to tell the tale of his past existence upon 
earth? 




V. 



CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 

"We propose to treat of Mankind, both zoologically and historically ; 
and, in order that we may be clearly understood, it is expedient that 
we should define certain terms which will enter into frequent use as 
we proceed. 

T'YTE. — The definition of H. Cassini, given in Jourdan's Diction- 
naire des Termes, is adopted by us, as sutficiently precise : — 

" Typical characters are those which belong only to the majority of natural bodies com- 
prised in any group, or to those •which occupy the centre of this group, and in some sort 
serve as the ti/pe of it, but presenting exceptions when it approaches its extremities, on 
account of the relations and natural affinities which do not admit well-defined limits 
between species." 

In speaking of Mankind, we regard as Ti/pes those primitive or 
original forms which are independent of Climatic or other Physical 
influences. All men are more or less influenced by external causes, 
but these can never act with sufficient force to transform one type 
into another. 

SPECIES. — The following definition, by Prichard, maybe received 
as one of the most lucid and complete : — 

" The meaning attached to the term species, in natural history, is very definite and intel- 
ligible.. It includes only the following conditions : namely, separate origin and distinctness 
of race, evinced by a constant transmission of some characteristic peculiarity of organization. A 
race of animals or of plants marked by any peculiar character which it has constantly dis- 
played, is termed a ' species ' ; and two races are considered specifically different, if they 
are distinguished from each other by some characteristic which the one cannot be supposed 
to have acquired, or the other to have lost, through any known operation of physical causes ; 
for we are hence led to conclude, that tribes thus distinguished have not descended from 
the same original stock. 



ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 81 

" This is the import of the word species, as it has long been understood by writers on 
difiFerent departments of natural history. They agree essentially as to the sense which they 
appropriate to this term, though they have expressed themselves differently, according as 
they have blended more or less of hypothesis with their conceptions of its meaning." 

" VARIETIES," continues Prichard, "in natural history, are such diversities in indivi- 
duals and their progeny as are observed to take place within the limits of species. 

" PERMANENT VARIETIES are those which, having once taken place, continue to be 
propagated in the breed in perpetuity. The fact of their origination must be known by 
observation or inference, since, the proof of this fact being defective, it is more philosophical 
to consider characters which are perpetually inherited as spedjic or original. The term per- 
manent variety would otherwise express the meaning which properly belongs to species. The 
properties of species are two: viz., original difference of characters, and the perpetuity of 
their transmission, of which only the latter can belong to permanent varieties. 

" The instances are so many in which it is doubtful whether a particular tribe is to be 
considered as a distinct species, or only as a variety of some other tribe, that it has been 
found, by naturalists, convenient to have a designation applicable in either case." 23 

Dr. Morton defines species simply to be "a primordial organic 
form."^ He classes species, "according to their disparity or affi- 
nity," in the following provisional manner : — 

^ " REMOTE SPECIES, of the same genus, are those among which hybrids are never 
produced. 

" ALLIED SPECIES produce, inter se, an infertile offspring. 

" PROXIMATE SPECIES produce, with each other, a fertile offspring." 

GROUP. — Under this term we include all those proximate races, 
or species, which resemble each other most closely in type, and whose 
geographical distribution belongs to certain zoological provinces ; for 
example, the aboriginal American, the Mongol, the Malay, the Negro, 
the Polynesian groups, and so forth. 

It will be seen, by comparison of our definitions, that we recognize 
no substantial difierence between the terms types and species — ^perma- 
nence of characteristics belonging equally to both. The horse, the ass, 
the zebra, and the quagga, are distinct species and distinct types: and 
so with the Jew, the Teuton, the Sclavonian, the Mongol, the Austra- 
lian, the coast l!^egro, the Hottentot, &c. ; and no physical causes known 
to have existed dming our geological epoch could have transformed 
one of these types or species into another. A type, then, being a pristine 
or primordial form, all idea of common origin for any two is excluded, 
otherwise every landmark of natural history would be broken down. 

It has been sagaciously remarked by Bodichon : — 

"That when a people writes its history, time, and often space, have placed them very 
far from their origin. It is then composed of diverse elements, and its national traditions 
are altered : there happens to it that which occurs to the man who has arrived at adult 
age — the remembrance of his early years has seized upon his imagination more than upon 
his mind, and incites him to cast over his cradle a coloring, brilliant, but deceptive. Thus 
some pretend they are descended from Abraham, others from ^neas, some from Japhet, 
some from stones thrown by Deucalion and Psyche : the greatest number from some god 
or demigod — Pluto, Hercules, Odin." 25 

11 



J 



M 



82 GENERAL REMARKS 

It may then be truly said, that we possess no data by wbicb science 
can at all approximate to the epoch of man's first appearance upon 
earth; for, as shown in our chronological essay, even the Jewish 
history, whose fabulous chronology is so perseveringly relied on by 
many, does not reach back to the early history of nations. It cannot 
now reasonably be doubted, that Egypt and China, at least, existed 
as nations 3000 years before Christ; and there is monumental evidence 
of the simultaneous existence of various Types of Mankind quite as 
far back. Inasmuch as these types are more or less fertile inter se, 
and as they have, for the last 5000 years, been subjected to successions 
of wars, migrations, captivities, intermixtures, &c., it would be a vain 
task at the present day to attempt the unravelling of this tangled 
thread, and to make anything like a just classification of types ; or 
to determine how many were primitive, or which one of them has 
arisen from intermixture of types. This difficulty holds not alone 
with regard to mankind, but also with respect to dogs, horses, cattle, 
sheep, and other domestic animals, as we shall take occasion to show. 
All that ethnography can now hope to accomplish is, to select some 
of the more prominent types, or rather groups of proximate t^^DCs, 
compare them with each other, and demonstrate that they are, and 
have always been, distinct. 

^A vulgar error has been sedulously impressed upon the public mind, 
of which it is very hard to divest it, viz., that all the races of the globe 
set out originally from a single point in Asia. Science now knows that 
no foundation in fact exists for such a conclusion. The embarrassment 
in treating of types or races is constantly increased by false classifi- 
cations imposed upon us by prejudiced naturalists. It is argtied, 
for example, that all the Mongols, all the African l!^egroes, all the 
American Indians, have been derived from one common Asiatic pair 
or unique source ; whereas, on the other hand, there is no evidence 
that human beings were not sown broadcast over the whole face of 
the earth, like animals and plants : and we incline to the opinion of 
M. Agassiz, that men were created in nations, and not in a single pair. 

Since the time of Linnaeus, who first placed man at the head of the 
Animal kingdom and in the same series with monkeys, numerous 
classifications of human races have been proposed; and it may be 
well to give a rapid sketch of a few of them, in order to show the 
difficulties which encompass the subject, and how hopelessly vague 
eveiy definitive attempt of this kind must be, in the present state of 
our knowledge. 

BuFFON divides the human race into six varieties — viz.. Polar, 
Tartar, Austral-Asiatic, European, ISTegro, and American. 

Kant divides man into four varieties — White, Black, Copper, and 
Olive. 



ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 83 

Hunter, into seven varieties ; Metzan, into two — ^White and Black ; 
ViEBY, into three; Blumenbach, into Jive — viz., Caucasian, Mongol, 
Malay, IsTegro, and American ; Desmoulins, into sixteen species ; Bory 
DB St. Vincent Ta-akes fifteen species, subdivided into races. 

Morton classifies man into twenty-two families ; Pickering, into 
eleven races ; Luke Burke, into sixty-three, whereof twenty-eiglit are 
distinct varieties of the intellectual, and thirty-five of the physical races. 

Jacquinot^ divides mankind into three species of a genus homo — 
viz., Caucasian, Mongol, and Negro. 

The Caucasian, says Jacquinot, is the only species in which white 
races with rosy cheeks are found; but it embraces besides sundry 
brunette, brown, and black races — not regarding color as a satisfac- 
tory test of race. The principal races which he includes under the 
Caucasian head are, the Germanic, Celtic, Semitic, and Hindoo. The 
latter differ much in color, some being black, and others fair, com- 
prising all intermediate shades, and are probably a mixture of differ- 
ent primitive stocks. 

The Mongol species embraces the Mongol, Sinic, Malay, Polynesian, 
and American. 

The Negro species comprehends the Ethiopian, Hottentot, Oceanic- 
IvTegro, and Australian. The Ethiopian race comprises those Ifegroes 
inhabiting the greater part of Africa, having black skins, woolly 
heads, &c. ; Hottentots and Bushmen exhibiting light-brown com- 
plexions. 

This classification of M. Jacquinot is supported by much ingenuity. 
In many respects it is superior to others ; and inasmuch as some 
classification, however defective, seems to be indispensable, his may 
be received, as simple and the least objectionable. Like all his pre- 
decessors, however, who have written on anthropology, he seems not 
to be versed in the monumental literature of Egypt ; and, therefore, 
he classes together races which (although somewhat similar in t}q3e), 
having presented distinct physical characteristics for several thousand 
years, cannot be regarded as of one and the same species, any more 
than his Caucasians and S'egroes. 

Though many other classifications might be added, the above 
sufiice to testify how arbitrary all elassificatioHS ine\itably must be ; 
because no reason has yet been assigned why, if two original pairs 
of human beings' be admitted, we should not accept an indefinite 
number ; and, if we are to view mankind as governed by the same 
laws that regulate the rest of the animal kingdom, this conclusion 
is the most natural, no less than apparently most in accordance with 
the general plan of the Creator. We have shown that sundry groups 
of human beings, presenting general resemblances in physical char- 



84 GENERAL EEMAEKS 

acters, are found in certain zoological provinces where everytliing 
conveys the idea of distinct centres of creation ; and hence, we may 
conclude that mankind only constitutes a link in ISTature's great 
chain. 

Bvit many of our readers will doubtless he startled at being told 
that Ethnology was no new science even before the time of Moses. 
It is clear, and positive, that at that early day (fourteen or fifteen 
centuries b. c), the Egjnptians not only recognized, and faithfully 
represented on their monuments, many distinct races, but that they 
possessed their own ethnographic systems, and already had classified 
humanity, as known to them, accordingly. They divided mankind 
into four species: viz., the Red, Black, White, and Yellow; and, what 
is note-worthy, the same perplexing diversity existed in each of their 
quadripartite divisions which still pervades our modern classifica- 
tions. Our divisions, such as the Caucasian, Mongol, Negro, &c., each 
include many sub-tj^es ; and if different painters of the present day 
were called upon to select a pictorial type to represent a man of these 
arbitrary divisions, they would doubtless select difiPerent human 
heads. Thus with the Egyptians : although the Red, or Egyptian, type 
was represented with considerable uniformity, the White, Yellow, 
and Black, are often depicted, in their hieroglyphed drawings, with 
different physiognomies ; thus proving, that the same endless variety 
of races existed at that ancient day that we observe in the same 
localities at the present hour. So far from there being a stronger 
similarity among the most ancient races, the dissimilarity actually 
augments as we ascend the stream of time; and this is naturally 
explained by the obvious fact that existing remains of primitive types 
are becoming more and more amalgamated every day. 

There are several similar tableaux on the monuments ; but we shall 
select the celebrated scene from the tomb of Seti-Menephtha I. 
[generally called "Belzoni's Tomb," at Thebes], of the XlXth 
dynasty, about the year 1500 b. c, wherein the god HoRUS conducts 
sixteen personages, each/owr of whom represent a distinct type of the 
human race as known to the Egyptians ; and it will be seen that 
Egyptian ethnographei-s, like the writers of the Old and jS'ew Testa- 
ments, have described and classified solely those races dwelling within 
the geographical limits known to them. We cannot now say exactly 
how far the maximum geographical boundaries of the ancient Egyp- 
tians extended ; for their language, the names of places and names 
of races in Asia and Africa, have so changed with time that a margin 
must be left to conjecture ; although much of our knowledge is 
positive, because the minimum extent of antique Egyptian geography 
is determined. 



ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 



85 



Fig. 1. 
Tbs ancient Egyptian division of mankind into four species — fifteenth century b. c. 

A B C D 




Eed. 



Yellow. 



Black. 



White. 



The above figures, tvhieli may be seen, in plates on a folio scale, 
in the great works of Belzoni, Champollion, Rosellini, Lepsins, and 
others, are copied, with corrections, fi'om the smaller work of Chara- 
pollion-Figeac.^ They display the Rot, the Namu, the Nahsu, and 
the TamJiu, as the hierogl^^Dhical inscription terms them ; and al- 
though the effigies we present are small, they portray a specimen of 
each type with sufficient accuracy to show that /our races were very 
distinct 3300 years ago. "We have here, positively, a scientific quad- 
ripartite division of mankind into Red, Yellow, Black, and White, 
antedating Moses ; whereas, in the Xth chapter of Genesis, the sym- 
bolical division of "Shem, Ham, and Japhet," is only tripartite — the 
Black being entirely omitted, as proved in Part II. of this volume. 

The appellative '■'■Rot" applies exclusively to one race, -^az., the 
Egyptian; but the other designations may be somewhat generic, each 
covering certain groups of races, as do our tenns Caucasian, Mongol, 
&c. ; also including a considerable variety of types bearing general 
resemblance to one another in each group, through shades of color, 
features, and other peculiarities, to be discussed hereafter.^® 

EXPLANATION OF FIG. 1. 
A — This figure, together with his three fac-eimile associates, extant on the originul 
painted relievo, is, then, tjrpical of the Egyptians; who are called in the hieroglyphics 
"Rot" or Race; meaning the Human race, par excellence. Like all other Eastern nations 
of antiquity — like the Jews, Hindoos, Chinese, and others — the Egyptians regarded 
themselves alone as the chosen people of God, and contemptuously looked down upon other 
races, reputing such to be Gentiles or outside-barbarians. The above representation of the 
Egyptian type is interesting, inasmuch as it is the work of an Egyptian artist, and must 
therefore be regarded as the Egyptian ideal representation of their own type. Our con- 



86 GENERAL REMARKS 

elusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the same head is often repeated on different 
monuments. This and the other portraits of the Egyptian type to which we allude, were 
figured during the XVIIIth dynasty of Rosellini ; and possess, to Ethnologists, peculiar 
interest, from the fact of their vivid similitude to the oZrf Egyptian type, (subsequently resus- 
citated by Lepsius), on the earlier monuments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties ; at the 
same time that these particular effigies offer a marked dissimilarity to the Asiatico-Egyptian 
type, which becomes common on the later monuments of the XVIIth and subsequent 
dynasties ; that is, from 1500 b. c. downwards. 

B — This portrait is the representative of that Asiatic group of races, by ethnographers 
termed the Semitic. The hieroglyphic legend over his head reads "JVamu;" which, toge- 
ther with "Aamu," was the generic term for yellow-skimied races, lying, in that day, 
between the Isthmus of Suez and Tauric Assyria, Arabia and Chaldsea inclusive. 

C — N'egro races are typified in this class, and they are designated, in the hieroglyphics, 
"N'ahsu." The portrait, in colour and outline, displays, like hundreds of other Egyptian 
drawings, how well marked was the Negro type several generations anterior to Moses. We 
possess no actual portraits of Negroes, pictorially extant, earlier than the seventeenth cen- 
tury before Christ ; but there is abundant proof of the existence of Negro races in the 
Xllth dynasty, 2300 years prior to our era. Lepsius tells us that African languages ante- 
date even the epoch of Menes, b. c, 3893; and we may hence conclude that they were then 
spoken by Negroes, whose organic idioms bear no affinity to Asiatic tongues. 

ID — The fourth division of the human family is designated, in the hieroglyphics, by the 
name "TajnAw;" which is likewise a generic term for those races of men by us now called 
Japelhic, including all the wAjZe-skinned families of Asia Minor, the Caucasian mountains, 
and " Scythia" generally. 

But "we shall return to this Egyptian classification in another 
chapter. Our object, here, is simply to establish that the ancient 
Egyptians had attempted a systematic anthropology at least 3500 
years ago, and that their ethnographers were puzzled with the 
same diversity of types then, that, after this lapse of time, we encounter 
in the same localities now. They of course classified solely the races 
of men within the circumference of their own knowledge, which 
comprehended necessarily but a small portion of the earth's surface. 
Of their contemporaries in China, Australia, l^orthern and "Western 
Asia, Europe, and America, the Pharaonie Egyptians knew nothing ; 
because all of the latter types of men became known even to Europe 
only since the Christian era, most of them since 1400 A. b. 

"We have asserted, that all classifications of the races of men here- 
tofore proposed are entirely arbitrary ; and that, unfortunately, no 
data yet exist by which these arrangements can be materially im- 
proved. It is proper that we should submit our reasons for this 
assertion. The field we here enter upon is so wide as to embrace 
the whole physical history of mankind ; but, neither our limits nor 
plan permitting such a comprehensive range, we shall illustrate our 
views by an examination of one or two groups of races ; premising 
the remark that, whatever may be true of one human division — call it 
Caucasian, Mongol, iTegro, Indian, or other name — applies with equal 
force to all divisions. Kwe endeavor to treat of mankind zoologically, 



ON TYPES OF MANKIND, 87 

we can but follow ISL Agassiz, and map them off into those great 
groups of proximate races appertaining to the zoological provinces 
into which the earth is naturally cli\dcled. We might thus make 
some approach towards a classification upon scientific principles ; 
but all attempts beyond this must be wholly arbitraiy. 

"t/niYy of races" seems to be an idea introduced in comparatively 
modern times, and never to have been conceived by any primitive 
nation, such as Egypt or China. ]^either does the idea appear to have 
occurred to the author of Grenesis. Indeed, no importance could, in 
Mosaic days, attach to it, inasmu.ch as the early Hebrews have left no 
evidences of their belief in a future state, which is never declared in 
the Pentateuch.^ This dogma of " unity," if not borrowed from the 
Babylonians during the captivity of the Israelites, or from vague 
rumors of Budhistie suavity in the sixth century b. c, may be an 
outgrowth of the charitable doctrine of the "Essenes ;"^° just as the 
present Socialist idea of the '•'■ soUdarite of humanity" is a conception 
borrowed fi-om St. Paul. 

The authors have now candidly stated their joint views, and vdll 
proceed to substantiate the facts, upon which these deductions are 
based, in subsequent chapters ; unbiassed, they trust, by precon- 
ceived hypotheses, as well as indifferent to other than scientific 
conclusions. 

With such slight modifications as the progress of knowledge — 
especially in hieroglyphical, cuneiform, and Hebraical discovery — 
may have superinduced since the publication of his Crania ^gyptiaca, 
in 1844, they adopt the matured opinions of their lamented friend, 
Dr. Samuel George Morton, as, above all others, the most authorita- 
tive. In the course of this work, abundant extracts from Morton's 
writings render unmistakeable the anthropological results to which 
he had himself attained ; but the authors refer the reader particu- 
larly to Chapter XI. of the present volume, containing " Morton's 
inedited manuscripts,"' for the philosophical and testamentaiy deci- 
sions of the Pounder of the American School of Ethnology. 



88 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 



CHAPTER III. 

SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

"What is meant by tlie word " Caucasian ? " Almost every Ethno- 
logist would give a different reply. Commonly, it lias been received, 
since its adoption by Blumenbacli, as a sort of generic term- which 
includes many varieties of races. By some writers, all these varieties 
are reputed to be the descendants of one species ; and the manifest 
diversity of types is explained by them through the operation of 
physical causes. By others, the designations Caucasian, Mongol, 
Negro, &c., are employed simply for the convenience of grouping 
certain human varieties which more or less resemble each other, 
without paying due, if any regard, to specific characters. Under the 
head Caucasian are generally associated the Egyptians, the Berbers, 
the Arabs, the Jews, the Pelasgians, the Hindoos, the Iberians, the 
Teutons, the Celts, the Sclavonians : in short, all the so-called 
Semitic and Indo-Germanic races are thrown together into the same 
group, and hence become arbitrarily referred to a common origin. 

ISTow, such a sweeping classification as this might have been main- 
tained, with some degree of plausibility, a few years ago ; when it was 
gravely asseverated that climate could transform one type into an- 
other : but inasmuch as this argument, apart from new rebutting data, 
I'evealed through the decyphering of the monuments of Egypt and 
of Assyria, is now abandoned by every well-educated naturalist, (and, 
we may add, enlightened theologian,) it is difficult to conceive how it 
can any longer be accepted with favor. 'We know of no archaeologist 
of respectable authority, at the present day, who will aver that the 
races now found throughout the valley of the Mle, and scattered over 
a considerable portion of Asia, were not as distinctly and broadly 
contrasted at least 3500 years ago as at this moment. The Egyptians, 
Canaanites, I^ubians, Tartars, IlTegroes, Arabs, and other types, are 
as faithfully delineated on the monuments of the XVIIth and XVlLLth 
Dynasties, as if the paintings had been executed by an artist of our 
present age. 

Some of these races, owing to the recent researches of Lepsius, 
have even been carried backwards to the IVth Dynasty ; which he 
places about 3400 years before Christ. It becomes obvious, conse- 
quently, that all the countries known to Egyptians in those remote 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 89 

ages presented types wliicli were as essentially different then as they now 
exhibit. It is equally certain, that the Pharaonic Egyptians repudiated 
all idea of afcnity to these coetaneous races ; and it would seem to 
follow, as a corollary, that the other parts of the world were contem- 
poraneously occupied by many aboriginal species. Ancient history 
nowhere acquaints us with habitable countries known to be uninha- 
bited, and the earliest discoverers always found new types in distant 
lands. Hence, nothing short of a miracle could have evolved all the 
multifarious Caucasian forms out of one primitive stock ; because the 
Canaanites, the Arabs, the Tartars and Egyptians, were absolutely as 
distinct from each other in primeval times as they are now; just as they 
all were then from co-existent l^egroes. Such a miracle, indeed, has 
been invented and dogmatically defended ; but it is a bare postulate, 
unsupported by the Hebrew Bible, and positively refated by scientific 
facts. The Jewish chronology, (fabricated, as we shall render appa- 
rent, after the Christian era,) for the human family, since the Deluge, 
carries us back, according to Usher's computation, only to the year 
2348 B. c. ; or, at farthest, according to the Septuagint version (whose 
history we shall see is somewhat apocrj^hal), to 3246 b. c. ; but the 
monuments of Egypt remove eveiy shadow of doubt, by establishing 
that not merely races but nations existed prior to either of those 
imaginary dates. If then the teachings of science be true, there must 
have been many centres of creation, even for Caucasian races, instead 
of one centre for all the types of humanity. 

The multiform races of Europe, with trifling exceptions, have been 
classed under the Caucasian head ; and it has been assumed for ages, 
that each of these races must have been derived from Asia. It is 
strange, moreover, that natm'alists should have spent their time in 
studying remote, barbarous and obscure tribes, while they have passed 
in silence over the historical races, lying close at hand : nevertheless, 
we think this branch of our subject may be readily elucidated by 
analyzing those types of mankind which surround us. 

It is to M. Thierry and M. Edwards, the one honorably known as 
an historian and the other as a naturalist, that we are indebted for the 
first philosophical attempt to break in upon this settled routine. They 
have penetrated directly into the heart of Europe, and by a masterly 
examination of the history and physical characteristics of long-known 
races, have endeavored to trace them back to their several primitive 
sources. 

Ancient Gaul is the chosen field of their investigations; and, 
although we admit that, from the very nature of the case, it is impos- 
sible at this late day to arrive at definite results, yet their facts are so 
fairly posited, and their deductions so interesting, as to command 
12 



90 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

attention; no less tlian to induce tlie belief that their plan, if persevered 
in, may lend most efficient aid in classifying the races of men. They 
have at least shown, conclusively, that very opposite types have dwelt 
together in Europe for more than two thoiisand years ; that time and 
identical physical causes have not yet obliterated or blended them ; 
and that, while nations may become expunged, there is every reason 
to believe that primitive diversities are rarely, if ever, wholly effaced. 

Inasmuch as the labors of these gentlemen stand unparalleled, and 
possess very important bearings upon certain opinions long held by 
ourselves, and which we are about to develop, no apology need be 
ofiered for the following extended resume of their combined labors. 

C^SAR begins his commentaries with — 

"All Gaul is divided into three parts, of wMcli one is inhabited by the Belgians, another 
by the Aguitanians, and the third by those who, in their own language, call themselves 
Celts, and who in our tongue are called Galls (Galli). These people differ among them- 
selves by their language, their manners and their laws."3i 

To these three divisions, taken in mass, he applies the collective 
denomination of G-alli, corresponding to the French term Gaulois. 

Strabo confirms this account, and adds that the Aquitanians difier 
from the Celts, or G-alli, and from the Belgians, not only in language 
and institutions, but also in conformation of body ; and that they 
resemble much more the Iberians; while he regards the Celts and the 
Belgians as of the same national type, although speaking difierent 
dialects. There are, however, valid reasons for doubting the latter 
opinion. 

From their physical character and language, Strabo considers the 
Aquitanians, as well as the Ligurians, who occupied a part of the 
coast of France, to be a branch of the Iberians,^^ the ancient people 
of Spain. These Iberes, or "people beyond," seem to have been trans- 
planted, from time immemorial, on the soil of France, and are still 
beheld, distinct from all other men, in the modern Basques. 

In consequence of their position on the coast of the Mediterranean, 
the Ligurians became known to ancient navigators before the other 
populations of Gaul. Greek historians and geographers speak of 
them in very early times. They figure among the barbarous allies 
of the Carthaginians, as far back as 480 B. c. Thierry adopts, 
enforcing by many proofs, the opinion that the Aquitanians and 
Ligurians were both of the Iberian stock, and also that they were 
alien to the Gallic family, properly speaking.^ 

These races disposed of, Thierry says that the Celts, or Galli, and the 
Belgians remain to be examined ; and he views them as two branches 
of the same ethnic trunk : — 

"Two fractions of the same family, isolated during many ages, developed separately, 
and become, by means of their long separation, distinct races. The Galls, or Celts, were 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 91 

the most ancient inhabitants of the country, and it is from them that it derives its name : 
and an idea of their antiquity may be obtained from the statement that ' the Cells subju- 
gated Spain in the sixteenth century b. c. The Galls made a descent on Italy, under the 
name of Ombrce, about two centuries after ; and the Roman antiquaries designate these 
ancestors of the Ombrians by the name of Old Galls.' ... In short, we should consume 
much time, were we to cite all the authorities at command, to prove that the Galls were 
the most ancient population. On the contrary, the word Belgians is comparatively modern : 
it is found, for the first time, in CiESAR ; and they are recognized under the name of Cim- 
brians, in 113 b. c." 

It seems tolerably well established, that the Belgians invaded Gaul 
on their first advent from the JS'orth, and that the Celts were driven 
before them. The Belgians settled in the north of Gaul and in Italy, 
where they were not only located by ancient historians, but where, 
according to Thieriy and Edwards, they are still resident. The Celts, 
routed, and impelled to the South and East, took refuge in mountains, 
peninsulas, and islands — historical facts also elucidated by De 
Brotonne.^* 

M. Thierry has shown that the Armoricans and the Belgians are 
an identical people, and that the Welsh of Great Britain are also 
derived from the same stock. Prichard, it is true, does not concur 
in this opinion ; but Thierr}^, so far as we can perceive, is thoroughly 
sustained in his views by French, German, and other continental 
writers. He places the entrance into Gaul of the conquering Bel- 
gians between the years 349 and 290 b. c. The Armoricans apper- 
tained to the same stock, but their establishment in Gaul was still 
more ancient. 

The Celts, or G-alls proper, according to M. Thierry as well as to 
ancient historians, were already inhabitants of Gaul about 1500 b. c, 
or previously to the time of Moses. They then existed as a nation, 
warring with other races around them ; nor can a conjecture be formed 
as to the number of centuries, anterior to this date, during which they 
had occupied that territory. 

The Pre-Celtio researches of Wilson,^* among the peat-hogs of 
the British Isles, have carried the existence of man in England and 
Scotland back to ages immensely remote ; at the same time that those 
of Boucher de Perthes, amid the alluvial stratifications of the river 
Soame,^^ indicate a still more ancient epoch for the cinerary urns, 
bones, and instruments, of a primordial people in France ; who, if 
geological observations be correct, are yet posterior to the silex- 
e\'idences of human entity on the same spots before the " diluvial 
drift." These facts correspond with the exhumations of Retzius, in 
Scandinavia,^^ and the hitman vestiges discovered in European caves.^ 

But, lea\ing such points to another section (ably handled by our 
colleague. Dr. Usher,) it remains now for us to ask, who were the 
Belgians ? M. Thierry shows, from an elaborate historical investiga- 



92 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

tion, that tlie Cimhri, wlio played bo important a part in the history 
of early Europe, were of the same race as the Belgians ; and that old 
writers, coeval with the time of Alexander, or fourth century b. c, 
place this race on the iNTorthern Ocean, in Jutland. Between the 
years 113 and 101 b. c, the Cimbfi were set in motion, and eventually 
devastated Gaul, Spain, and Italy. It is a striking fact, that, in this 
invasion, when they reached Northern Gaul, where the Belgians were 
already seated, the latter immediately joined them, as allies, against 
the Celts ; and it seems to he clearly proven that the Cimbri and 
the Belgians spoke dialects of the same language. 

This Cimmerian race was diffusely scattered through the north of 
Europe, and even into Asia Minor, at an early period. 

" Down to the seventh century before our era, the history of the Cimbri near the Euxine 
remains enveloped in the fabulous obscurity of Ionian traditions ; it does not commence 
■with any certainty before the year 631 b. c. This epoch was fruitful in disturbances in the 
west of Asia and east of Europe." 

About this time, it is to be inferred from Herodotus, the Genesiacal 
GoMEi, Gromerians, or Kymri, abandoned the Tauric Chersonesus, and 
marched westward.^ 

"We pretend not to afford a complete analysis of M. Thierry's able 
work. He has tracked out, with vast research, the settlements and 
subsequent history of the various Caucasian races of ancient Gaul ; 
and to him we refer the reader for corroboration of the facts we are 
succinctly sketching. The resume at the end of his Introduction 
explains his general conclusions. He considers the following points 
to be unanimously demonstrated by authorities : — 

" Two great human families furnished to Gaul its ancient inhabitants: viz., the Iberian 
and the Gallic (Gauloises) families. The Aquitanians and Ligurians appertained to the 
Iberian family. The Gallic family occupied, out of Gaul, the British Isles. It was divided 
into two branches or races, presenting, under a common type, essential differences of lan- 
guage, manners, and institutions, and forming two individualities widely separated." 

M. Thierry, notwithstanding, asserts that the Cimbri and Celts 
were branches of the same family ; but this we doubt. They were 
both fair, and strikingly contrasted with the dark-skinned, black- 
haired, and black-eyed Iberians : M. Edwards, however, proves that 
their physical characters were exceedingly different. ITo proof can 
be adduced of their common origin, beyond some affinity between 
their languages : arguments that we shall show to be no longer satis- 
factory evidence of aboriginal consanguinity. 

" The first branch had preceded, in Gaul and the neighboring Archipelago, the dawn 
of history. The ancients considered them as autochthones. From Gaul they extended to 
Spain, Italy, and Illyria. Their generic name was Gael, or rather a word which the Romans 
rendered by Gallus, and the Greeks by Galas and Galates. The latter had improperly attri- 
buted to the whole stem the denomination of Celt, which properly belonged only to its 
southern tribes. The second branch, colonized in the west of Europe since historic times, 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 93 

•was represented in Gaul by the Armoricans and Belgians, and by their descendants in the 
British Isles. Armorican was a local designation ; Belgian, the name of a belligerent con- 
federation ; Cimbri, the name of a race. The relative position of the two Gallic branches 
was as follows : the Cimbrian branch occupied the north and west of Gaul — the east and 
south of Britain ; the Celtic branch, on the contrary, the east and south of Gaul, and the 
west and north of the British Isles." 

It becomes apparent, tlien, from the facts detailed, and which no 
historian ^A\\ question, that the territoiy of ancient Gaul was occupied, 
some 1500 years b. c, by at least two distinctly-marked Caucasian 
races — the Celts and the Iberians : the one fair-skinned and light- 
haired ; the other a dark race ; and each speaking a language bearing 
no affinity to that of the other — precisely, for instance, as the Euskal- 
dune of the present Basques is unintelligible to Gaelic tribes of Lower 
Brittany. But histoiy justifies us in going beyond this dual division. 
Each type was doubtless a generic one, including many subordinate 
types. There are no data to warrant the conclusion that either of these 
stocks was an ethnic unit. It will be made to appear, when we come 
to the monuments of Egj^t, that various Caucasian types existed in 
Egj-pt and Asia 2000 years before the most ancient Celtic history 
begins ; and the same diversity of races, without question, prevailed 
simultaneously in Europe. 

Let us inquire whether some positive infomiation cannot be obtained 
with regard to the types of primitive European races. The work of 
Edwards, to which we have already alluded,*" stands in many respects 
unrivalled. The high reputation of its author as a naturalist guaran- 
tees his scientific competency ; and he has directed his attention into 
an unexplored channel. After perusing Thierry's Sistoire des Gf-aulois, 
of which we have just spoken, M. Edwards made a tour of France, 
Belgium and Switzerland (i. e. ancient Gaul), and Italy, engaged in care- 
ful study of the present diversified races, in connection with their 
ancient settlements ; and he asserts that now, at the end of 2000 j^ears, 
the types of the Belgians (Cimbri), the Galls or Celts, the Iberians or 
Aquitanians, and the Ligurians, are still distinctly traceable among 
their living descendants, in the very localities where history at its 
earliest dawn descries these families. 

Gaul has been the receptacle of other races than those named, but 
these were comparatively small in popular multitude ; and although 
a great variety of types is now visible, yet M. Edwards contends 
that such exotic constituents of later times form but trivial exceptions, 
and that three major types stand out in bold relief. 

Edwards upholds sundiy physiological laws to account for this pre- 
sen-ation of types ; and a few shall be noticed incidentally, as we go 
on. He lays down a fundamental proposition, the importance of which 
will be at once recognized : — 



94 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

" Where there is no natural repugnance to each other, and races meet and mix on equal 
terms, the relative number of the two races influences greatly the result : the type of the 
lesser number may disappear entirely. Take, for example, a thousand white families and 
one hundred black ones, and place them together on an island. The result would be, that 
the black type would after a while disappear, although there is reason to believe that traces 
of it would ' crop out' occasionally during a very long time. Where two fair-skinned races 
are brought into contact, the extermination of one would probably sooner be effected; 
nevertheless, even here, it is impossible to destroy the germ entirely. The Jews form a 
convincing illustration of the influence of the larger over the smaller number. This, from 
the time of Abraham to the present, has been a more or less adulterated race ; yet its type 
has been predominant, is preserved, and is likely to be for ages to come. Such a law is 
well illustrated in the lower animals. Cross two domestic animals of difi"erent races ; take 
the oiFspring, and cross it with one of the parent stocks ; continue this process for a few 
generations, and the one becomes swallowed up in the other. 

" Even where two races meet in equal numbers, which is an extreme supposition, in order 
to make a uniform type they would have to pair off uniformly, one race with another, and 
not each race to intermarry among themselves. This equilibrium could not be maintained ; 
and without it, each race would preserve its own type. 

" There is another tendency in nature, that interests us here particularly, and which has 
been curiously and ingeniously illustrated by M. Coladon, of Geneva. He bred a great 
many white and ffray mice, on which he made experiments by crossing constantly a white 
with a gray one. The product invariably was a white or a grap mouse, with the characters 
of the pure race : ' point de metis, point de begarrure, rien d'interm^difere, enfin le type 
parfait de I'une ou de I'autre variety. Ce cas est extreme, a la verity ; mais le pr6c6dent 
ne Test point moins ; ainsi les deux precedes sont dans la nature : aucun ne rfegne exclu- 
sivement.' "*i 

The habit of reflecting on the relations in which primitive races 
are found, induces us to consider the following as the conditions 
which may make one or the other of these effects preponderate. 
"Where races differ considerably, which animals do whenever they 
are of different species, (like, for example, the horse and the ass, 
the dog and the wolf or fox,) their product is constantly hyhrid. 
If, on the other hand, they are very proximate, {tres voisines, says M. 
Edwards,) they may not give birth to mixtures {melanges), but repro- 
duce pure or primitive types. 

On examining facts closely, the greatest conformity is encountered 
precisely where we perceive, at first glance, the strongest contrast. 
In the crossing of widely different races, the hybrid presents a type 
diverse from that of the mother; notwithstanding certain conformities. 
So also when two proximate races reproduce the one and the other primi- 
tive type, the mother gives birth to a being which differs from herself 
Behold here an uniformity of facts ; but remark likewise, that in this 
last crossing, the mother produces a being more like herself than in 
the former case. She departs then less from the general tendency 
of nature, which is the propagation of the same types. 

" In the higher order of animals, the two sexes concur in the formation of two indivi- 
duals which represent them ; thus the mother gives birth sometimes to one made in her own 
image — at others to one after the image of the father. Here she produces two very distinct 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 95 

types, notwithstanding their relations, and to such a point that the male and female of the 
same species often differ more between themselves, than one or the other differs from indi- 
viduals of the same sex, in proximate species. This is so true, that the male and its 
female, among animals whose habits there has been no opportunity of examining, have 
frequently been classified as distinct species ; insects and birds especially have furnished 
numerous examples. 

" It is manifest that the observations of M. Coladon belong to this order of facts, consi- 
dered in their general bearing ; as the mother produces two types, of which one repre- 
sents that of her own race, and the other the physical characters of the race of the father. 
Other examples of the same kind might be presented, but this is suflSciently striking. 

" The most important consideration is, that the same phenomena are seen in the human 
races, and, further, in the same conditions indicated. Those human races which differ most 
produce constantly hybrids (metis). It is thus that a mulatto always results from the 
mixture of white and black races. The other fact, of the reproduction of two primitive 
types, when the parents are of two proximate [voisines) varieties, is less notorious, but is 
not, on that account, the less true. The fact is common among European nations. We 
have had frequent occasions to notice it. The phenomenon is not constant — but what of 
that? Crossing sometimes produces fusion, sometimes the separation of types; whence 
we arrive at this fundamental conclusion : that people appertaining to varieties of different, 
but proximate races, in vain unite, in the hypothetical manner we have described above ; 
a portion of the new generations will preserve the primitive types." 

These facts are no less true tlian curious ; and every American, 
especially, lias the means at hand for verifying them. Wlien a white 
man and a negress many, the product is a mulatto or intermediate 
type. "When a white man and white woman marry, the one having 
dark hair, eyes and complexion, A^dth one cast of features, and the 
other light hair and eyes, and fair complexion, with different features, 
some of the children ^vill generally resemble one parent, some the 
other ; while others may present a mixed type, being a reproduction 
of the likeness of an ancestor (generally forgotten) of either parent. 

Every race, at the present time, is more or less mixed. A nation, 
that is, a numerous population, may be dispossessed of, and displaced 
from, a large extent of its territory; but this is extremely rare — 
savages alone furnishing almost all such examples. In America, 
■witness the Indians driven before the whites, Avithout leaving a trace 
behind them. There is a fixed incompatibility between civilized and 
savage man : they cannot dwell together. On the Old Continent, it 
is not now a question of savages ; science has there to deal at most with 
harharians ; that is, people possessing the commencements of civili- 
zation. Otherwise, it would be neither the interest of conquerors to 
drive them all off, nor is it their inclination to abandon their native 
soil; of which history affords abundant proof. Mythology, fable, and 
ITtopian philanthropy, have traced imaginary pictures ; but history 
nowhere shows us a people who, first discovered in the savage state, 
afterwards invented a civilization, or learned the arts of their dis- 
coverers. The monuments of Egypt prove, that Negro races have 
not, during 4000 years at least, been able to make one solitary step, in 



96 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

Negro-land, from their savage state ; the modern experience of the 
United States and the "West Indies confirms the teachings of monu- 
ments and of history; and our remarks on Qrania, hereinafter, 
seem to render fugacious all probability of a brighter future for these 
organically-inferior types, however sad the thought may be. 

There is abundant evidence to show that the principal physical 
characters of a people may be preserved throughout a long series of 
ages, in a great part of the population, despite of climate, mixture of 
races, invasion of foreigners, progress of civilization, or other known 
influences ; and that a type can long outlive its language, history, reli- 
gion, customs, and recollections. The accession of new people, multi- 
plies races, but it does not confound them : their numbers are in- 
creased by those which the intruders introduce, and also by those 
which they create by commingling ; but all these incidents, neverthe- 
less, still leave the old type in existence. 

In tracing, at this late day, ancient types of men, we shall, of ne- 
cessity, meet chiefly with those of great and powerful nations, that have 
been able to maintain themselves more or less inviolate, through a 
thousand difficulties, by their force or knowledge. Small and feeble 
fractions of humanity have generally been swallowed up and oblite- 
rated, like the Guanches of the Canary Isles. The world now advances 
in civilization more rapidly than in former times, and mainly for the 
substantial reason that the higher types of mankind have so increased 
in power that they can no longer be molested by the inferior ; nor, 
arguing from the past and present, can we doubt that a time must 
come, when the very memory of the latter will survive solely on the 
page of history. The days of the aborigines of America are num- 
bered ; no victorious Tartar-hordes mil ever set foot again on Euro- 
pean soil; and the white races, or lapetidse, have commenced the 
career of Oriental conquest, and already " dwell in the tents of Shem." 

Examinations of Roman history throw important light on this 
subject. The Empire was crushed by successive hordes of barbarians ; 
but still their numbers, compared to the population of Italy, have been 
much overrated. The human waves of Visigoths, Vandals, Huns, 
Herules, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and IS'ormans, rolled successively into 
Italy ; and yet, it may be asked, what vestiges remain, in Italy itself, 
of these barbarian surges ? The first three passed over it like 
tornados. The two next, within a short time, had to contend with the 
Goths, and were expelled from the country ; and of the whole con- 
glomerate mass but small fragments were left, too insignificant mate- 
rially to influence the native Italic types. The Lombards, on the 
contrary, remained, and have implanted their name on a portion of 
Italy. The ISTormans were numerically but a handful. Gaul changed 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 97 

its government and name under the Franks ; however, the army of 
Clovis was small ; while "William the Conqueror subjugated England 
with 60,000 men: but, as if to illustrate our axioms of the indelibility 
of type and the vigor of the white race, not a head in Christendom 
that, legitimately, wears a crown — not an individual breathes in whose 
veins flows blood acknowledged to be "royal," but traces his or her 
genealogy to this JS'orman colossus, William the Conqueror ! *^ 

Such are some of the great conquests of European antiquity that 
have considerably affected the condition of men and things, but 
which, notwithstanding, have not produced much alteration in the 
type of the conquered people. Some mixture of types is still seen — 
here and there the alien races " crop out," but the indigenous thou- 
sands have swallowed up the exotic hundreds. 

Conquests are often merely political, resulting in territorial annexa- 
tion or in tributary accessions, where little or no mingling of races 
takes place. Other examples there are, where the conquerors continue 
to pour into a country from time to time, and thereby greatly influence 
native types. It is thus that the Saxons, taking possession of Eng- 
land, have perpetuated their race : but it is ever the higher type that 
in the end predominates. 

" The ignorant Turk, you say, subjected without difiBculty the intellectual and lettered 
Greeks ; the ferocious Tartar handcuflFed the polished and learned Chinese ; the violent 
Mongol bent under his scimetar the head of the studious Brahman ; the Vandal, finally, 
ravaged Rome and Italy, then the centre of European civilization. Take care not to accuse 
the sciences of a humiliation entirely due to despotism, which alone degrades and debases 
human hearts. Certainly, no one exposes his life to defend a government he abhors and 
despises. * * * Perhaps a new vanquisher may be more generous ; he cannot, at any rate, 
display himself more atrocious and more cruel than those monsters, in their infamies." ^3 

Creative laws, as we have said, work by myriads of ages. Six cen- 
turies have not elapsed since Turks, Tartars, and Mongols, appeared 
in Europe. The Vandal had already disappeared. At every point 
of, the European continent, the remnants of these Central- Asiatic 
swarms are melting away before the higher Caucasian types, wher- 
ever complete subserviency to the latter does not suspend the extermina- 
tion of the former. "Were it not that politics are eschewed in the present 
volume, events of the past five years might supply signal examples. 

In characterizing types, M. Edwards justly regards form and size 
of the head, and the traits of the face, as most important : all other 
criteria are delusive and changeable ; such as hair, complexion, 
stature, &c., though not to be neglected. Even these are less mutable, 
we think, than M. Edwards supposes. There are many examples of 
complexion and hair resisting climates for centuries, without the 
slightest alteration ; and, in fact, we know of no authentic instance 
where a radical change of complexion or hair has been produced. " 
13 



98 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 



We have mentioned tliat, in order to put the question to a practical 
test, M. Edwards made a journey through France, Italy, Belgium, 
and Switzerland. In passing through Florence, he took occasion to 
visit the Ducal gallery, to study the ancient Roman type. He selected, 
in preference, the busts of the early Roman emperors, because they 
were descendants of ancient families. They, too, are so alike, and 
withal so remarkable, that they cannot be mistaken. Augustus, 
Tiberius, Germanicus, Claudius, l!^ero, Titus, &c., exemplify this 
type in Florentine collections. The following is his description : — 

" The vertical diameter of the head is short, and, consequently, the face broad. As the 
summit of the cranium is flattened, and the inferior margin of the jaw-bone almost hori- 
zontal, the contour of the head, viewed in front, approaches a square. The lateral parts, 
above the ears, are protuberant ; the forehead low ; the nose truly aquiline, that is to say, 
the curve commences near the top and ends before it reaches the point, so that the base is 
horizontal; the chin is round, and the stature short." [A sailor came tor my office, a few 
months ago, to have a dislocated arm set. When stripped and standing before me, he pre- 
sented this type so perfectly, and combined with such extraordinary development of bone 
and muscle, that there occurred to my mind at once the beau-ideal of a Roman soldier. 
Though the man had been an American sailor for twenty years, and spoke English with- 
out foreign accent, I could not help asking where he was born. He replied in a deep strong 
voice, " In Rome, sir! " — J. C. N.] 

This is the characteristic type of a Roman ; but we cannot expect 
now to meet with absolute uniformity in any race, however seemingly 
pure. Such a type M. Edwards found to predominate in Rome and 
certain parts of Italy at the present day. It is the original type of 
the country, which has swallowed up all intruders, has remained 
unchanged for 2000 years, and probably existed there from the 
epoch of creation. 

The Etruscans present an extraordinary historical enigma. Science 
knows not whence they came, nor whence their institutions, arts, or 
language — whether, indeed, they were indigenous to the Italian soil, 
or strangers. "We can trace their civilization far beyond that of 

Rome — more than 1000 years b. c. Cita- 
tions from Etruscan archaeologists, to this 
effect, are given further on. Some of their 
descendants now resemble Romans, but 
they present a mixed type. The well-known 
head of Dante affords an illustration, pecu- 
liar, and strikingly typical ; for it is long 
and narrow, with a high and developed fore- 
head, nose long and curved, with sharp point 
and elevated wings. [Here is the portrait 
in question, to afford an idea of its style ; 
which, however, requires to be studied upon 
Dante.is designs of a larger scale.] M. Edwards was 



Fig. 2. 




SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 99 

struck by tlie great frequency of this type in Tuscany (ancient Etru- 
ria), among the peasantry ; in the statues and busts of the Medici 
family ; and also amid the illustrious men of the Republic of Flor- 
ence, in their effigies and bas-reliefs. This type is well marked since 
the time of Dante, as doubtless long before. It extends to Venice, 
and is \'isible over a large extent of countiy. In the Ducal palace, 
M. Edwards had occasion to observe that it is common among the 
Doges. The type became more predominant as he approached Milan ; 
hence he traced it through a great part of France, and through the 
settlements of the ancient Cymbri or Belgfe, who, Thierry has shown, 
occupied Cis- Alpine and Trans- Alpine Gaul. The physical charac- 
teristics of the present population, therefore, correspond exactly with 
the historical colonies ; showing that the ancient type of this wide- 
spread people, the Gymhri, has been preserved for more than 2000 
years. 

After visiting and analyzing thoroughly the population and histoiy 
of Italy, M. Edwards next investigated Gaul, passing by the southern 
and western part, where Thierry places the Basques or ancient Ligu- 
rians. In the other parts of France, as we have seen, there existed, 
at a remote epoch, two great families, differing in language, habits 
and social state ; and these two formed the bulk of the ancient popula- 
tion. Examination ascertains that two dominant types even yet prevail 
throughout the kingdom, too saliently marked and distinct from each 
other to be confounded. There have been many conquests and com- 
miuglings of races ; but inasmuch as the greater number has swal- 
lowed up the lesser, no very obvious impression has been produced 
by these causes. Of the two families, the Grails, or Celts, and the 
Cymbri, or Belgce, the former should be the most numerous, because 
they are the most ancient, and had covered the whole country before 
the entrance of the latter : in consequence, we find that the type with 
round heads and straight noses, that of the Galls, has prevailed over 
that of the Cpnbri. 

Oriental Gaul was occupied by the Galli proper of Caesar, whom 
Thierry denominates ^'Grails." JSTorthern Gaul, including the Belgica 
and Armorica of Caesar, on the other hand, was occupied by the 
Cymbri. The population of Eastern Gaul — the G-aids proper — 
according to the historical facts, ought to be the least mixed, because 
the Belgje never peneti'ated among them by force of arms, but took 
quiet possession of their outskirts, along the northern parts of the 
country. 

"In traversing the part of France whicli corresponds to Oriental Gaul, from north to 
south, viz. : Burgundy, Lyons, Dauphiny, and Savoy, I have distinguished (says M. Ed- 
wards,) that type, so well marked, to which we have given the name oi-Galh." 



100 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

He tlius describes the type of the Gall : 

" The head is so round as to approach the spherical form ; the forehead is moderate, 
slightly protuberant, and receding towards the temples ; eyes large and open ; the nose, 
from the depression at its commencement to its termination, almost straight — that is to 
say, without any marked curve ; its extremity is rounded, as well as the chin ; the stature 
medium. It will be seen that the features are perfectly in harmony with the form of the 
head." 

In the northern part of Gaul, the principal seat of the Belgse, you 
again encounter the same striking coincidence. 

" In a previous journey I traversed a great part of the coast of Gallia Belgiea of Caesar, 
from the mouth of the Somme to that of the Seine. It was here that I distinguished, for 
the first time, the assemblage of traits which constitutes the other type, and often to such 
an exaggerated degree that I was very forcibly struck ; the long head, the broad, high fore- 
head ; the curved nose, with the point below and wings tucked up ; the chin boldly de- 
veloped ; and the stature tall." 

M. Edwards has pursued this type in its various settlements, with 
numerous and valuable scientific results. He concludes a division of 
his subject with the following strong language : 

"Without the preceding discussions, and the facts we have just unravelled, how could 
we recognize the Gaulois in the north of Italy, among the Sicules, the Ligures, the Etrus- 
cans, the Veneies, the Romans, the Goths, the Lombards? But we possess the thread to 
guide us. Pirst, whatever may have been the anterior state, it is certain, from your re- 
searches (M. Thierry's), and the unanimous accord of all historians, that the Peuples Gaulois 
have predominated in the north of Italy, between the Alps and Apennines. We find them 
established there in a permanent manner, according to the first lights of history. The 
most authentic testimony represents them with all the characters of a great nation, from this 
remote period down to a very advanced point of Roman history. Here is all I demand. 
I have no need to occupy myself with other people who have mingled with them since ; to 
discuss their relative numbers — the nature of their language — the duration of their estab- 
lishment. It is sufficient for me to know that the Gaulois have existed in great numbers. 
I know the features of their compatriots in Trans-Alpine Gaul. I find them again in Cis- 
Alpine Gaul." 

It has often struck us, that, even in the heterogeneous population 
of our United States, we could trace these European ancient races. 
The tall figure and aquiline nose of the Cymbrian are generally seen 
together ; while the traits of the Gaul are more frequently accompa- 
nied by short stature. 

The Celts and Cj^mbri have spread themselves extensively through 
Eastern Europe, beyond the limits of Gaul and Italy : but, for our 
objects their pursuit being irrelevant, we resume the explorations of 
M. Edwards ; who, after his survey of "Western, takes a glance at 
several other races of Eastern Europe, although he does not claim to 
have analyzed these with the same rigorous detail as those of Gaul. 

The Sclavonic tj-pe, another of the thousand-and-one Caucasians 
whose types stretch beyond the reach of history, is thus described by 
our observant ethnologist ; and it seems to be just as distinct and 
sharply marked over half of Europe, as that of the Jews eveiywhere : 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 



101 



" The contour of the head, viewed in front, approaches nearly to a square ; the height 
surpasses a little the breadth ; the summit is sensibly flattened ; and the direction of the 
jaw is horizontal. The length of the nose is less than the distance from its base to the 
chin ; it is almost straight from the depression at its root, that is to say, without decided 
curvation ; but, if appreciable, it is slightly concave, so that the end has a tendency to turn 
up ; the inferior part is rather large, and the extremity rounded. The eyes, rather deep- 
set, are perfectly on the same line ; and when they have any particular character, they are 
smaller than the proportion of the head would seem to indicate. The eyebrows are thin, 
and very near the eyes, particularly at the internal angle ; and from this point, are often 
directed obliquely outwards. The mouth, which is not salient, has thin lips, and is much 
nearer to the nose than to the top of the chin. Another singular characteristic may be 
added, and which is very general: viz., their small beard, except on the upper lip. Such 
is the common type among the Poles, Silesians, Moravians, Bohemians, Sclavonic Hunga- 
rians, and is very common among the Russians." 

This t}^e is also frequent through eastern Germany, and although 
it has hecome much mixed with the German, their separate historical 
settlements may yet be followed, and the two races traced out and 
identified, like those of the Celts and Cymbri in Gaul. 

History, from its commencement, has mentioned immense Cauca- 
sian populations, ranging throughout northern and eastern Europe and 
western Asia, to the confines of Tartar and Mongol races. From their 
remoteness, and the absence of communication, little was known an- 
ciently about them ; and even at the present day, they are looked upon 
as " outside barbarians," exciting trivial interest among general readers. 
This group, however,, at all times, has comprised the most numerous 
of all the fair-skinned races upon earth : intellectually equal to any 
others. To give the reader an idea of the actual extent of Sclavonic 
races, we subjoin statistics, as quoted by Count Krasinski, from the 
Sclavonian Ethnography of Schafferick : — , 



Moscovites, or ) 
Great Russians \ 
Little Russians, ( 
Ruthenians ^ 
White Russians.... 

Bulgarians 


Russia. 


Austria. 


Prussia. 


Turkey. 


Cracow. 


Saxony. 


Total. 


35,314,000 

10,370,000 

2,726,000 

80,000 

100,000 

4,912,000 

• 


2,774.000 

7,000 

2,594,000 

801,000 
1,151,000 
2,341,000 

4,370,000 
2,753,000 


1,982,000 
44,000 

82,000 


3,500,000 
2,600,000 

6,100,000 


i3o[o6o 


60,000 


35,314,000 

13,144,000 

2,726,000 

3,587,000 

5,294,000 

801,000 
1,151,000 
9,365,000 

4,414,000 

2,753,000 

142,000 


Servians and ( 
Illyrians \ '" 
Croats 


Carinthians 

Poles 


Bohemians and I 
Moravians ^ 
Slovacks in > 
Hungary ^ "" 
Lusatians, or i 
Wends ^ "• 

Total 


53,502,000 


16,791,000 


2,108,000 


130,000 


60,000 


78,691,000 





From the same North British Review we extract sufiicient to illus- 



102 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

ti'ate our own views ; but nothing adequate to evince tlie ability 
of the best article we have met with on these SJdaves. 

" Much confusion has been produced by the constant use in books of words denoting the 
supposed state of flux and restlessness in which the early nations of Europe lived. The 
natural impression, after reading such books, is, that masses of people were continually 
coming out of Asia into Europe, and driving others before them. . . . But care must be 
taken to confine these stories of wholesale colonization to their proper place in the ante- 
historic age. For all intents and purposes, it is best to conceive that at the dawn of the 
historic period the leading European races were arranged on the map pretty much as they 
are now. Eegarding the Slavonians, at least, this has been established ; they are not, as 
has generally been supposed, a recent accession out of the depths of Asia, but are as much 
an aboriginal race of Eastern, as the Germans are of Central Europe. In short, had a 
Koman geographer of the days of the Empire advanced in a straight line from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific, he would have traversed the exact succession of races that is to be met in 
the same route now. First, he would have found the Celts occupying as far as the Rhine ; 
thence, eastward to the Vistula and the Carpathians, he would have found Germans ; 
beyond them, and stretching away into Central Asia, he would have found the so-called 
Scythians — a race which, if he had possessed our information, he would have divided into 
the two great branches of the Slavonians or European Scythians, and the Tatars, Turks, 
or Asiatic Scythians ; and, finally, beyond these, he would have found Mongolian hordes 
overspreading Eastern Asia to the Pacific. These successive races or populations he would 
have found shading off into each other at their points of junction ; he would have remarked 
also a general westward pressure of the whole mass, tending toward mutual rupture and 
invasion, the Mongolian pressing against the Tatars, the Tatars against the Sclavonians, 
the Slavonians against the Germans, and the Germans against the Celts. 

" The Slavonians, we have said, are an aboriginal European branch of the great 
Scythian race.''^^ 

One of the most striking examples in history of preservation of 
type, after the Jews, is that of the Magyar race in Hungary. Com- 
pletely encircled by Sclavonians, they have been living there for 1000 
years, speaking a distinct language, and still presenting physical 
characters so peculiar as to leave no doubt of their foreign origin. 

"Head nearly round, forehead little developed, low, and bending; the eyes placed 
obliquely, so that the external angle is elevated; the nose short and flat ; mouth prominent, 
and lips thick ; neck very strong, so that the back of the head appears flat, forming almost 
a straight line with the nape; beard weak and scattering ; stature small." ^^ 

This picture, which is a faithful description of a modern Hungarian 
of the Magyar race, corresponds with the accounts given of this people 
by older writers, and of the ancient Huns. 

History teaches that the Huns settled in Hungary in the fifth cen- 
tury after Christ, and to these succeeded a body of the Magyars, under 
Arpad, in the ninth. The type of the two races was identical. This 
type, so peculiarly exotic, is totally unlike any other in Europe. It 
belongs to the great IJralian-Tatar stem of Asia. The derivation is 
conceded by every naturalist, from Pallas to the present day : but it is 
a curious fact that, although differing in type, the Magyars speak a 
dialect of the language of the Fins; and the two races must have been 
associated in some way at a remote epoch, previously to the settle- 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 103 

ment of the Magyars in Hungary. De Guignes had traced other 
connections, making also the grand error of confounding the Huns 
with the Chinese Houng-nou : but that identity of language is no 
irrefragable argument in favor of identity of race, "v^nll be a positive 
result of the researches in this volume. 

Grecian annals aiford an instructive lesson in the histor}' of types 
of mankind. "We trace her circumstantial history, with sufficient 
truthfulness, some centuries be^'ond the foundation of Rome, and her 
traditions hack to about the epoch of Moses. This we can do with 
enough certainty to know, that Hellenic Europe was then populated, and 
marching toward that mighty destiny which has been the wonder and 
object of imitation of all subsequent ages. Who were the people that 
achieved so much more than all others of antiquity ? And what was 
there in climate and other local circumstances that could produce 
such intelligence, coupled with the noblest physical type ? Or, we 
may ask, did Greece owe her marvellous superiority to an indigenous 
race ? The Sellenes and Pelasgi are the two races identified with her 
earliest traditions ; but when we appeal to history for their origin, or 
seek for the part that each has played in the majestic drama of anti- 
quity, there is little more than conjecture to guide us. Greece did 
not come fairly within the scope of M. Edwards's researches, yet he 
has ventured a few note-worthy observations, in connection with the 
point before us. He thinks the same principles that governed his exami- 
nation of Gaul may be applied to Greece ; and that the Hellenes and 
Pelasgi might be followed, ethnologically, like the Celts and Cymbri. 
Everybody speaks of the Greek type, regarded as the special charac- 
teristic of that country, referring it to a beau-ideal conformation. 
IS^evertheless, all ancient monuments of art in Greece exhibit a wide 
diversity of types, and this at eveiy period of their sculpture. M. Ed- 
wards draws a happy distinction between the heroic and the historic 
age of Greece : the first, if chiefly fabulous, has doubtless a semi- 
historical foundation ; the latter is the true historic age — although 
no people of antiquity appears to have conceived the "historical idea" 
correctly ; nor is it popularly understood, even at the present day, 
among ourselves. 

"Most of the divinities and personages of the heroic times," says jM. Edwards, "are 
formed on the same model that constitutes -what we term the beau-ideal. The forms and 
proportions of the head and features are so regular that we may describe them with mathe- 
matical precision.- A perfectly oval contour, forehead and nose straight, without depres- 
sion between them, would suflBce to distinguish this type. The harmony is such that the 
presence of these traits implies the others. But such is not the character of the person- 
ages of truly historic times. The philosophers, orators, warriors, sini poets, almost all diifer 
from it, and form a group apart. It cannot be confounded with the first — I will not 
attempt to describe it here. It is sufficient to point it out, for one to recognize at once 
how far it is separated. It greatly resembles, on the contrary, the type which is seen in 
other countries of Europe, while the former is scarcely met with there." 



104 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 



To facilitate the reader's appreciation of the differences betwixt 
the heroic and the historic tj^ies, the following heads are selected : 

Fig. 3 — Heroic type; especially No. 4.48 




Fig. 4 — Historic type. 



Fig. 5. 



Fig. 6. 




Philip Aiirid.eus.52 



Cleopatra.53 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 10'5 

The lineaments of Lycurgus and Eratosthenes, excepting the 
beard, are such as those one meets with daily in our streets ; and the 
same applies to the other familiar personages whose portraits we 
present. 

"Were we to judge solely by the monuments of Greece, on account of the contrast I 
have pointed out, we should be tempted to regard the type of the fabulous or heroic per- 
sonages as ideal. But imagination more readily creates monsters than models of beauty ; 
and this principle alone will suffice to convince us that it has existed in Greece, and the 
countries where its population has spread, if it does not still exist there." 

The learned travellers, 'hHsL db Stackelberg and de Bronsted, 
have journeyed through the Morea, and closely investigated the popu- 
lation. They assert that the heroic type is still extant in certain 
localities.^ Here, then, there has been a notable preservation of a 
peculiar type — within a small geographical space — through time, 
wars, famines, plagues, immigrations, multifarious foreign conquests ; 
although the Greeks of the historic type are, out of all proportion, 
the most abundant at the present day ; which is precisely what, 
under the circumstances, an ethnographer would have expected. 

" Nul peuple n'a conserve avec plus de fid^litg la langue de ses aieux. Nul peuple n'a 
conserve plus d'usages, plus de coutumes, plus de souvenirs des temps antiques ; au milieu 
d'eux les murs d'Argos, de Mycfene et de Tyrinthe, qui deja du temps d'Homere ^talent 
d'une haute antiquity, sont encore debout : des Eapsodes parcourent encore le pays, et 
chantent avec le meme accent et les memes paroles, les €v€nements memorables : eux- 
memes sont I'image de ceux que ces souvenirs rappelent avec tant de force ; et la ressem- 
blance des traits est rehauss^e par la similitude des 6v6nements. S'ils ne repr^sentent pas 
sous le rapport de la civilisation leurs ancetres des beaux sifecles de la Grece, lis repr^sen- 
tent ceux qui les ont am^n^s." 

Of the two types indicated, it is positive, M. Edwards thinks, 
that the first [heroic) is pure: but not certain that the second (historic) 
is. It may be, that the latter is the result of a mixture of the first 
with some other, the elements of which are now unknown to us ; 
because it does not seem to be sufficiently uniform to be original. 
Albeit, if we set forth with M. Edwards to hunt for the required 
elements of modification through Greece, (giving to this name its 
most extensive sense) — 

" We discover a people that has not been sufficiently studied. They speak a language 
peculiar to themselves. It is not known whence they come, nor when they established 
themselves there. The Albanians seem to be in some respects in Greece, what the Basques 
are on the two sides of the Pyrenees, the Bretons in France, the Gaels in England, and 
those who speak the Erse in Scotland and Ireland — a remnant of ancient inhabitants. 
Why not regard them as such, if it be true that we can find no trace of their foreign origin 
in their traditions, history, nor in the comparison of language ? Why may they not be 
descendants of the Pelasgi?" [They call themselves " Skippetar ;" but their Turkish name 
is Arnaoot.'^ 

This ethnological question of heroic and historic t^'pes, mooted by 
Edwards, is worthy of careful study ; but we must pass on. 
14 



106 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

M. BoDiCHON, a surgeon distinguished for fifteen years in the French 
army of Algeria, exanaines the races of Europe from another point 
of view ; throwing considerable light on this abstruse subject, con- 
firmatory of the very early, no less than permanent, diversity of 
types in the populations of Ga,ul and other European countries. 

After establishing the insufiiciency of Philology in tracing the 
origin of races, Bodichon makes the following forcible remarks in 
\4ndication of Physiology, as a more certain instrument of analysis : 

" To throw light upon the question of orir/ins, it is necessary to appeal to a science more 
precise, and founded on the nature of the object which we examine. This science is the 
Physiology of races, or, in other words, a knowledge of their moral and physical characters. 
Through Physiology has been established the existence of antediluvian beings, their genera, 
their species and their varieties ; by it also we shall discover the origin of races of men, 
even the most mysterious. Through it we shall one day be able to classify populations as 
surely as we now class animals and plants : history, philology, annals, inscriptions, the 
monuments of arts and of religion, will be auxiliaries in these researches. Herein we con- 
sider its indications as motives of certitude, and its decisions as a criterion."55 

The first inhabitants of southern and western Europe, according 
to his system, belonged to two very distinct races ; but that region, 
from time to time, received many accretions from other tribes, mainly 
Oriental, such as Phoenicians, Pelasgians, Cretans, Ehodians, Hel- 
lenes, Carthaginians, Phocians, Saracens, Huns, &c. 

His generic characters of the two primitive races may be gathered 
from the comparative columns we subjoin; and, although, at this late 
day, it is impossible to separate completely elements so ihterblended, 
we think there is much truth in his observations, and refer at the 
same time to a book that teems with solid material for reflection. 

"BLOND RACE. "BROWN RACE. 

" Head generally large, of elongated, and " Head generally small, of round, but 

often square, form ; eyes blue, or bordering rarely square, form ; eyes black or brown, 

on blue ; hair and beard blond, often red, or bordering on these colors ; hair and beard 

but without Albinism. black, sometimes red ; but then there is Al- 
binism, which is a pathological state. 

" Stature tall, and skin fair. In love, na- " Short stature, and brown skin. In love, 

tural chastity, with inclination to sentiment sensuality more developed than sentiment, 
rather than sensuality. 

" Aptitude to unite in great assemblies, to " Aversion to all unitary systems, for 
make leagues, to choose a system of poll- great assemblies or leagues. Peculiar dis- 
tical unity, to live under the monarchical position to live in a social state by pre- 
form, vinces. 

"Fond of navigation, long voyages, ad- "Tenacious of their locality ; opposed to 

venturous expeditions. distant expeditions. 

" Commenced by the pastoral or nomadic "Have commenced by the agricultural 
state, have been developed in plains, on the state, and fixed habitations. Have been de- 
borders of great rivers, on the coasts of large veloped in mountains, islands, and coun- 
bodies of water, and in countries which pos- tries, lacking natural channels of communi- 
Bess natural modes of communication. cation. Have at all times been addicted to 

the exploration of mines. 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 



107 



" In -war, prefer cavalry to infantry, the 
attack to defence, open movements to am- 
buscades, pitched battles to small combats. 

" Rush impetuously into danger. 

" Unreserved, gay, fond of noise, orations, 
strong drinks, and good eating. Frank and 
naive. 

"Minds naturally open to doubt, to ex- 
mination, to discussion. Tolerant, and hold 
to the religious idea rather than to forms. 

" Seek strangers, novelties, and ameliora- 
tions. Inconstant, violent, and impetuous, 
but easily forgive injuries. 

"Are eminently sympathetic, initiatory, 
marching incessantly towards new ends. 

" From its origin, has been under the in- 
fluence of cold climates. 

" Its faculties develop in the North. 

" It produces, in preference, savans, re- 
formers, creators of systems — philosophers: 
men whose genius is manifested by profound 
meditations, by elevated reason, by sang 
froid, by coldness and investigation. Thus, 
Bacon, Luther, Descartes, Liebnitz, New- 
ton, Cuvier, Washington, and Franklin. 

" Predominance of the aristocratic ele- 
ment, and political influence accorded to 
women. 

" Its varities are, the Celtic, which is di- 
vided into the Gaelic, Belgic, and Cymbric ; 
then the Germanic, divided into Germans, 
Franks, Vandals, Goths, Angles, Saxons, 
Scandinavians, and other blue-eyed nations, 
which have played so important a part in 
the formation of the modern nations of 
Europe. 

" Of Asiatic origin, it penetrated Europe 
from the East and North ; thus, the Volga 
and the Baltic. 

" Considered in relation to the countries 
where we first see them, they are Stran- 
gers." 



" In war, prefer infantry to cavalry, de- 
fence to attack, ambuscades to open move- 
ments, and guerillas to pitched battles. 

" Await danger with firmness. 

" Uncommunicative, sober. Perfidious and 
reserved. 

"Credulous, intolerant, fanatical ; attach- 
ed to religious forms rather than the idea ; 
and reject discussion, doubt, and inquiry. 

" Hold strongly to ancient usages ; feel a 
repugnance with regard to strangers. 

" Unsympathetic ; possess, to an exti-eme 
point, the genius of resistance ; tend pecu- 
liarly to immobility and isolation. 

" From its origin, has been under the in- 
fluence of hot climates. 

" Its faculties develop in the South. 

" It produces, in preference, orators, war- 
riors, artists, poets : men whose genius ma- 
nifests itself by the exaltation of sentiments 
and ideas, by enthusiasm, a rapid concep- 
tion. Thus, Hannibal, Cicero, Ccesar, Mi- 
chelangelo, Tasso, Napoleon. 

" Predominance of the democratic ele- 
ment, and little political influence granted 
to women. 

" Its varieties are, the Atlanies, divided 
into Libyans and Berbers ; next, the Iberi- 
ans, divided into the Sicanians, Ligurians, 
Cantabrians, Asturians, Aquitanians, and 
other people of brown skins, who have 
played an important part in the formation 
of the ancient nations of Europe. 

" Aborigines of Atlantis [ ? ] ; penetrated 
Europe from the South and West; thus, 
Spain and the Ocean. 

" Considered in relation to the countries 
where we first see them, they are Atitoc- 
tkones." 



M. Bodielion, \A-itli most writers, thinks that the blond race entered 
Europe originally from Asia, and many strong reasons support this 
po.«ition, in respect to those races found in Gaul and in countries 
north of it, during the recent times of the Greeks and Romans. Older 
races, notwithstanding — fated like our American aborigines — may 
have been exterminated by them, or have become amalgamated 
with them. He supposes these blond immigrants from Asia to have 
been of the same race as the Il^/Jcsos, who conquered and took posses- 



108 



SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 



Fig. 9.S6 



sion of Egypt some 2000 years B. c. ; but our modifications of this 
view, from the study of her monuments, will appear in their place, 

" On arriving in Gaul, the Gaels found the banks of the Rhone, the Garonne and the Loire, 
in possession of a people who spoke a different language and had different usages. They, 
from time immemorial, had crossed the Pyrenees, and held the soil as first occupants. 
They were Iberians." 

About the time alluded to, there seems to have been a great com- 
motion among the white races of Asia; and the Gauls or Celts, and 
perhaps the Hyksos, (whose name means "royal shepherd,") may 
have been diverging streams of the same stock. Dr. Morton points 
out a head, often repeated on the monuments of Egypt, which he 

regards as of Celtic stock. These people, 
called "Tokkari" in hieroglyphics, are pri- 
soners in a sea-fight of Eamses IH., of the 
XXth dynasty, about the thirteenth century 
B. c. They are, without question, the 
Tochari of Strabo. In his manuscript 
"Letter to Mr. Gliddon," Dr. Morton re- 
putes these people to 

"Have strong Celtic features; as seen in the sharp 
face, the large and irregularly-formed nose, wide mouth, 
and a certain harshness of expression, which is character- 
istic of the same people in all their varied localities. 
Those who are familiar with the Southern Highlanders 
(of Scotland) may recognize a speaking resemblance." 57 

But the interest in them is greatly en- 
hanced by cuneiform discovery. 

Here are the same "Tokkari," from 
Assyrian monuments of the age of Senna- 
cherib, about B. c. 700.*^ 

It is, to say the least, a very remarkable 
fact, that we find upon Egyptian monu- 
ments, beginning from the XVTIth dy- 
nasty, -B. c. 1600, portraits in profusion, 
corresponding in all particulars with the 
blond races of Europe, whose written 
history opens • as far west as Gaul and 
Germany: and now Assyrian sculptures 
present us with the same blond races in 
the Vnth and Vmth century before our 
era. 

When the two races first met in Europe, 
the blond from the south-east and the darh 
from the west, they encountered each other 
as natural enemies, and a severe struggle 





SPECIFIC TIPES — CAUCASIAN". 109 

ensued. The Gaels finally forced their way into Spain, and esta- 
blished themselves there ; became more or less amalgamated with 
the darker occupants, and were called the Celt-Iberians. These two 
types have ever since been commingling ; but a complete fusion has 
not taken place, and the types of each are still clearly traceable. 
One pristine population of the British Isles was probably Iberian ; 
and their type is still beheld in many of the dark-haired, dark-eyed 
and dark-skinned Irish, as well as occasionally in Great Britain itself. 

The enormous antiquity of the Iberians in Europe is admitted on 
all hands ; but their origin has been a subject of infinite disputes. 
Their type, both moral and physical, is so entirely distinct from that 
of the ancient fair-skinned immigrants from Asia, that it would be 
unphilosophical to claim for both a common source, in the present 
state of knowledge. 

DupoNCEAU long ago wi'ote of the Basque, living representative 
of the Iberian tongue — 

"This language, preserved in a corner of Europe, by a few thousand mountaineers, is 
the sole remaining fragment of, perhaps, a hundred dialects, constructed on the same plan, 
■which probably existed, and were uniyersally spoken at a remote period, in that quarter 
of the world. Like the bones of the mammoth, and the relics of unknown races which 
have perished, it remains a monument of the destruction produced by a succession of ages. 
It stands single and alone of its kind, surrounded by idioms whose modern construction 
bears no analogy to it." 

We borrow the quotation from Prichard,*^ who has profoundly in- 
vestigated the theme ; and this idea of the antiquity of the Basque or 
" liberie " tongue, termed "Euskaldune " by its speakers, is eloquently 
exemplified by Latham. 

"Just as, in geology, the great primary strata undei-lie the more recent superimposed 
formations, so does an older and more primitive population represent the original occu- 
pants of Europe and Asia, previous to the extension of the newer, and (so to say) second- 
ary — the Indo-Germans. 

" And just as, in geology, the secondary and tertiary strata are not so continuous but 
that the primary formations may, at intervals, show themselves through them, so also do 
the fragments of the primary population still exist — discontinuous, indeed, but still capable 
of being recognized. 

" With such a view, the earliest European population was once homogeneous, from Lap- 
land to Grenada, from Tornea to Gibraltar. But it has been overlaid and displaced : the 
only remnants extant being the Finns and Laplanders, protected by their Arctic climate, 
the Basques by their Pyrenean fastnesses, and, perhaps, the next nation in order of notice. 
The Euskaldune is only one of the isolated languages of Europe. There is another — the 
Albanian." 60 

There was, truly then, an Iberian world before the Celtic world.®^ 

"Persons," continues Bodichon, "who have inhabited Brittany, and then go to Algeria, 
are struck with the resemblance which they discover between the ancient Armoricans (the 
Br(lons) and the Cabyles [of Algeria). In fact the moral and physical character is identical. 
The Br6ton of pure blood has a bony head, light yellow complexion, of bistre tinge, eyes 
black or brown, stature short, and the black hair of the Cabyle. Like him, he instinct- 
ively hates strangers. In both the same perverseness and obstinacy, same endurance of 



110 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 

fatigue, same love of independence, same inflexion of voice, same expression of feelings. 
Listen to a Cabyle speaking his native tongue, and you will think you hear a Breton talking 
Celtic." 

The Bretons to tliis day form a striking contrast with the people 
around them, who are — 

"Celts, of tall stature, ■with blue eyes, ■white skins and blond hair — they are com- 
municative, impetuous, versatile ; they pass rapidly from courage to timidity, and from 
audacity to despair. This is the distinctive character of the Celtic race, no^w, as in the 
ancient Gauls. 

" The Bretons are entirely different: they are taciturn ; hold strongly to their ideas and 
usages ; are persevering and melancholic ; in a ■word, both in morale and physique, they 
present the type of a southern race — of the Ailanteans [Atalantidee, Berbers?']." 

The early history of the world is so enshrouded in darkness, that 
science leaves us to probabilities in all attempts to explain, the manner 
of the wandering of nations from primitive seats. 

"Formerly," says Bodichon, "northern Africa was joined to Europe by a tongue of 
land, afterwards divided by the Straits of Gibraltar. The ensemble of the Atlantic coun- 
tries formed the [imaginary] island of Atlantis. Is it not probable that the Atlanteans, fol- 
lowing the coast, penetrated Spain, Gaul, and reached Armorica? In contact with the 
Celts, may they not have adopted some of their usages ? These African tribes, too, might 
have reached Europe by sea. The Atlanteans, among the ancients, passed for the favorite 
children of Neptune ; they made known the worship of this god to other nations — to the 
Egyptians, for example. In other words, the Atlanteans were the first known navigators. 
Like all navigators, they must have planted colonies at a distance — the Bretons (race Bre- 
tonne) in our opinion sprang from one of them." 62 

Our historical proofs of the early diversity of Caucasian tj^es in 
Europe might be greatly enlarged ; but the fact will be admitted by 
every candid student of ancient history, who, to the propositions that 
we have already supported by cumulative testimony, will add those 
more recently established in Scotland, through the inestimable re- 
searches of Dr. Daniel Wilson and his erudite fellow-laborers : 

" The Celtse, we have seen reason to believe, are by no means to be regarded as the 
primal heirs of the land, but are, on the contrary, comparatively recent intruders. Ages 
before their migration into Europe, an unknown Allophylian race had wandered to this 
remote island of the sea, and in its turn gave place to later Allophylian nomades, also des- 
tined to occupy it only for a time. Of these antehistorical nations, Archasology alone 
reveals any traces." ^3 

For our immediate objects, however, the acknowledgment that 
Europe and Asia Minor were covered, at epoehas antecedent to all 
record, by dark as well as by fair-skinned races, suffices. The farther 
back we journe}^ chronologically, the more conflicting become the 
tribes, and the more salient their organic diversities • and no reflecting 
man can, at the present day, cast his eye upon the infinitude of types 
now extant over this vast area, and disbelieve that their originals 
were already located in Europe in ages j)arallel with the earliest pyi'a- 
mids of Egj^Dt, nor that some of them were indigenous to the European 
soil. The reader will hardly controvert this conclusion, after he has 
followed us through the types of mankind depicted upon ancient 
monuments. 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Ill 



CHAPTER IV. 

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

This histoiical people fornishes so striking an example of the perma- 
nence of a Caucasian type, throughout ages of time, and in spite of 
all the climates of the globe, that we assign it a chapter apart ; and 
if indelibility of type be a test of specific character, the Jews must be 
regarded as a primitive stock. 

K the opinion of M. Agassiz, which coincides with what we have 
long maintained, viz., that mankind were created in nations, be cor- 
rect, it follows that, in reality, there is no such thing as a pure Abra- 
hamic race; but that this so-called " race" is made up of the descend- 
ants of many proximate races, which had their origin around " Ur of 
the Chaldees." 

We have already set forth that the various zoological provinces 
possess their groups of proximate species of animals, plants, and 
races of men ; which differ entirely from those of other pro^dnces. 
In like manner, around the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, for 
an indefinite distance, and extending westward to the land of Canaan 
on the Mediterranean, were grouped certain races bearing a general 
resemblance to each other, although of distinct origins. This is not 
simply a conjecture ; because we see these races painted and sculp- 
tured on the monuments of Assyria and Egj-pt. The striking 
resemblance of physical characters among the Avhole of them is unmis- 
takeable, and wherever the portrait of another foreigner to their stock 
is introduced, the contrast is at once evident. 

Let us, in the first place, take a glance at the history of the Jews, 
as given by their own chi-oniclers. In Genesis, chap, xi., we are told 
that Abraham, their great progenitor, is descended in a direct line 
from Shem, the son of iToah. Only ten generations intervene between 
Shem and Abraham ; and the names, ages, and time of birth of each, 
being given by the Hebrew writers themselves, we are enabled to 
ascertain, with much precision, the length of time they estimated 
between the JeAvish date of the flood and the birth of Abraham. 
According to the Hebrew text, which must be regarded as the most 
autlientic, it was 292 years. 

It is certainly reasonable to infer that Abraham inherited, through 
these few generations, the type of Shem and ISToah (supposing the 



112 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

latter to he historical personages) ; for there are many examples where 
races have preserved their types for a much longer time ; and the 
Jews themselves, as we shall show, have maintained their own t}^e, 
from the epoch assigned to Abraham, do■v^^l to the present day. The 
era of Abraham has been variously estimated, from 1500 even to 
2200 years B. c. ; which would give to his descendants at least one 
hundred generations, according to the common rules of vital statistics. 

It should be kept in view that we are here treating the Book of 
Genesis according to the vulgar understanding of its language. In 
Part II., and in the Supplement, it is shown that a far different con- 
struction has been adopted by the best scholars of the day ; who 
regard the so-called ancestors of Abraham, as geographical names of 
nations, and not as individuals. 

The inadequacy of King James's Version to express literally the 
meaning of Hebrew writers, compels us to follow the Bible of Cahen, 
Director of the Israelite School of Paris, and one of the ablest trans- 
lators of the day. This work, printed under the patronage of Louis- 
Philippe, commenced in 1831, and completed its twenty-two 
volumes in 1848 : " La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, avec VHehreu 
en regard; accompagne des points-voyelles et des accens-toniques, avec 
des notes philologiques, geographiques et litter air es ; et les variantes 
des Sept ante et du texte Samaritain." There is nothing like it 
in the English language ; nor shall we discuss Old Testament ques- 
tions with those who are unacquainted with Cahen and the Hebrew 
Text. ISTeither must the reader infer, from our general conformity with 
the ordinary mode of expression, that we regard the documents of 
Genesis otherwise than from the scientific point of view. 

The country of Abraham's birth was Upper Mesopotamia, between 
the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, not very far from the site of 
Mneveh ; and, after his marriage with Sarai, his history thus con- 
tinues : — 

" And Terali took Abram, Ms son, and Lot tlie son of Haran his son's son, and Sarai his 
daughter-in-law, his son Abram's wife ; and they went forth together from Ur of the Chal- 
dees [AUR-KaSDIM], to go into the land of Canaan ; and they came unto Haran and 
dwelt there, and the days of Terah were 205 years, and Terah died in Haran. 

" Now leHOuaH said unto Abram, Get thee out of thy country and from thy birth-place and 
from thy father's house, unto a land which I will show thee. And I will make of thee a 
great nation, and I will bless thee, and I will aggrandize thy name, and thou shalt be a 

, "64 



Accordingly, Abraham and Lot, with their families and their flocks, 
journeyed on, "and in the land of Canaan they arrived." "And 
leHOuall appeared unto Abram and said. Unto thy seed will I give 
this land." 

They were soon driven to Egypt, by a grievous famine, to beg corn 



PHYSICAL HISTOUT OF THE JEWS. 113 

of the Pharaoh who then ruled over that country ; but, after a short 
sojourn there, they returned to the Promised Land, and pitched their 
tents again on the veiy spot fi'om which they had been taken. "And 
the Canaanite and the Perizzite then dwelled in the land." 

Abram and Lot soon separated; and "Abram struck his tents, and 
came, and established himself in the grove of Manure, which is near 
Eliebron, and there he built an altar to lellOuaH." In his eighty- 
sixth year of age,Abram's Egyptian concubine Hagar (whose name 
means desert, stone) gave birth to Ishmael ; who, launched into Ara- 
bian deserts, became the legendary parent of Bedouin tribes ; while, 
to us, he is the earliest Biblical instance of the mixture of two types 
— Semitic and Egyptian. 

Then the patriarch's name was changed : " Thou shalt no longer 
be called ABEaM {father of high-land) ; thy name shall be ABRaHaM 
(father of a multitude), because I have rendered thee parent of many 
nations." ^ 

Sarah, at ninety years of age, gave birth to Isaac, ITsK^aK, 
"laughter." Her own name, also, had previously been changed: 
" Thou shalt no longer call her SaRal [ladyship], her name is now 
SaRaH [a woman of great fecundity']." ^ She died at the age of one 
hundred and twenty-seven years, and was buried in the family cave, 
which Abram had purchased in Canaan. "Wishing then to dispose 
of his son Isaac in marriage, Abraham said to his most aged slave, " I 
will make thee swear by leHOuaH, God of the skies and God of the 
earth, that thou shalt not take for my son of the daughters of the Ca- 
naanite [nether-landers] amongst whom I dwell, but thou shalt go 
into my country, and to my birth-place, to take a woman for my son 
Isaac." ^ And, accordingly, the slave went back into Mesopotamia, 
unto the city of l^ahor, and brought Rebecca, the cousin of Isaac, 
whom the latter married. 

The next link in the genealogy is Jacob ; who, after defrauding his 
brother Esau of his birthright, retired, from prudential motives, into 
the land of his forefathers, and there married Leah and Rachel, the 
two daughters of Laban. Isaac lived to be one hundred and eighty, 
and Jacob one hundi-ed and forty-seven years old ; and they were 
both deposited in the family cave, or mausoleum. So tenacious were 
they of their customs, that Jacob, after being embalmed with great 
ceremony, was carried all the way back from Egypt, as was afterwards 
his son Joseph, to repose in the same family burial-place ; which, 
our Supplement shows, is not a cave called "Machpelah," but "the 
cavern of the field contracted for, facing Mamre." 

Here closes the histoiy of those generations which preceded the 
departure of the Israelites for Egypt ; and the evidence is clear, up to 
15 



114 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

this epocli, as to the extreme particularity (Ishmabl being outlawed) 
with which they preserved the purity of their blood, as well as the 
custom of " sleeping with their fathers." 

Who the Canaanites were has been amply treated in Part II. It 
suffices here to note that Knd means "low;" and that Canaanites, 
as lowlanders, were naturally repugnant, at first, to the ASRoMAdse^ 
or " highlanders" of Chaldsean hills. 

Let us follow this peculiar people through the next remarkable page 
of their history. The whole sept amounted to seventy persons in 
number, viz. : Jacob and his eleven sons, who, with their families, 
by the invitation of Joseph, the twelfth, migrated to Egypt; and were 
thereupon settled in the land of Goshen, apart from the Egyptians. 
Thus secluded, they must have preserved their national type tolerably 
unchanged down to the time of the Exodus, when they carried it back 
with them to the land of Canaan. Exceptional instances fortify the 
rule : else why should the genesiacal writer particularize the marriage 
of Joseph with ASJ^eiTA (the devoted to the goddess JVeith), daughter 
of PoTiPHAR (PET-HER-PHRE, the belonging to the gods fforus and 
Ba — "priest of On," lleliopolis), an Egyptian woman ? ^ Judah had 
begotten illegitimate children by the Canaanite Shuah f^ Moses, born, 
and educated in Egypt so thoroughly as to be called a '^ Mizrite- 
man,'"^" had wedded an Arabian Zipporah, Tsi-PARaH (literally, 
daughter of the god Ra), the daughter of Jethro, a pagan " priest 
of Midian:"''^ and, besides the GouM AdRaB, Arab-horde (falsely 
rendered "mixed multitude"''^), that journeyed with the Sinaic Israel- 
ites, and with whom there must have been illicit connexions, there was 
at least one son of an Egyptian man, by an Israelitish woman, in the 
camp.'^ Other examples of early Hebrew prochvity can be found ; 
but these suffice to indicate exceptions to the law afterwards promul- 
gated. Under the command of Joshua, the land of Canaan was con- 
quered, and divided amongst the twelve tribes ; and from that time 
down to the final destruction of the Temple by Titus (70 a. d.), a 
period of about 1500 years, this country was more or less occupied by 
them- They were, however, almost incessantly harassed by civil and 
foreign wars, captivities, and calamities of various kinds ; and their 
blood became more or less adulterated with that of Syro-Arabian races 
around them ; the type of whom, however, did not differ materially 
from their own. 

We shall not impose on the patience of the reader, by recapitulat- 
ing the long list of evidences which are found in history, both sacred 
and profane, to prove the comparative purity of the blood of the 
Israelites down to the time of their dispersion (70 A. d.). The avoid- 
ance of marriages with other races was enjoined by their religion, 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 115 

and this custom has been pei'petuated, in an extraordinary degree, 
through all their wanderings, and under all their oppressions, down 
to the present day. 

But, while all must agree that the Jews have, for ages, clung 
together with an adhesiveness and perseverance unknown, perhaps, to 
any other people, and that their lineaments, in consequence, have 
been preserved with extraordinary fidelity; it must, on the other 
hand, be admitted that the race has not entirely escaped adultera- 
tion ; and it is for this reason that we not unfrequently see, amongst 
those professing the Jewish rehgion, faces which do not bear the 
stamp of the pure Abrahamic stock. We have only to turn to 
the records of the Old Testament, to find proofs, on almost every 
page, that the ancient Hebrews, like the modern, were but human 
beings, and subject to all the infirmities of our nature. Even those 
venerable heads of the Hebrew monarchy, whose names stand out 
as the land-marks of sacred history, were not untarnished by the 
moral darkness which covered the early inhabitants of the earth. 

The history of the connubial life of the patriarchs, Abraham and 
Jacob, presents a picture quite revolting to the standard of our day. 
After the promulgation of the Mosaic laws, the Israelites were 
expressly forbidden to intermarry with aliens; and yet the injunction 
was often disregarded. Abraham, besides his Arab wife Ketourah, 
. and Joseph, as just shown, had both taken women from among the 
Egyptians ; and Moses had espoused an Arab (Cushite ?). David, the 
man after God's own heart, long after the promulgation of the law, 
not only had his concubines, but so far forgot himself as to commit 
adultery with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, the Hittite ; and, after 
murdering the husband, married her, and she became the mother of 
the celebrated Solomon. !N'ext, on the throne, came Solomon him- 
self, whose career, opening with murder, closed in Paganism. He also 
married an Egyptian (a princess); enjoying, besides, seven hundred 
other wives and three hundred concubines: for " King Solomon loved 
many strange women, together with the daughter of Pharaoh — wo- 
men of the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Sidonians, Sittites, and of 
other nations:"'* and so promiscuous was his philogamy, that some 
commentators have imputed scandal even to the "Queen of Sheba," 
the sombre belle of Southern Arabia. Even the noble-hearted Judah, 
the ^^ Lion's Whelp," the last column of the twelve that stood erect 
in the sight of Jehovah, and whose especial mission it was to rege- 
nerate and raise up the fallen race in purity and power, even he, not 
only wedded an impure Canaanite, but was tempted to crime by his 
own daughter-in-law, disguised as a harlot, on the road-side ; and, so 
far from repenting the sin, he had two children by her. !N"or need 



116 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



Fig. 11. 



we remind tlie reader of the unfortunate affair of Sarah with. Pharaoh, 
and again w^th Ahimelech. 

"We might thus go on, and multiply examples of similar import 
from Jewish annals ; but to us it is much more pleasing to draw 
the veil of oblivion over the depravity of those primitive days, and to 
remember only the noble moral precepts bequeathed us by the kings 
and prophets of Judea. These, however, are historical facts, having 
important bearings on the subject before us, and must not, therefore, 
be passed over in silence. They show clearly that the ancient Israel- 
ites were restrained by no moral force which could keep their gene- 
alogies pure ; but, in comparison with every other people, there is 
enough to justify us in believing that their pedigrees are to be relied 
on for a long series of generations. Those among Jews of the present 
day who preserve what is regarded as the national type, must neces- 
sarily be of pure Hood ; while those who do not, must be traced up 
to foreign alliances. 

It will illustrate the indelibility of 
the Abrahamic type to present here 
a mummied Shemitish head, fi'om 
Morton's collection.''^ Being bitu- 
minized, the skull cannot be much 
older than the time of Moses — say, 
fifteenth century b. c. ISTor, inas- 
much as general mummification 
ceased about 300 years after Christ, 
can it be less than 1500 years old, 
From its style and Theban extrac- 
tion, it may be referred to Solomonic 
days ™ — yet, how perfectly the He- 
brew type is presei'ved ! 

Fresh from exhumations in the 
father-land of Abraham, we add a 
higher variety of the same t}^e — 
Part of a Colossal Head from, Kou- 
yunjikl" Its age is fixed between 
the reign of Sennacherib and the 
fall of Nineveh, about the seventh 
century b. c. And still, after 2500 
years, so indelible is the type, every 
resident of Mobile will recognize, 
in this Chaldsean effigy, the fac- 
simile portrait of one of their city's 
most prominent citizens, who is 




Fig. 12. 




PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. ll7 

honored alike by tlie affection of his co-religionists, and the confi- 
dence of the community which has just elevated him to a seat in the 
National Councils. 

All written descriptions of early times, relative to the Jewish 
race, concur in establishing the permanence of their type. We are 
informed, by modern travellers, that the same features are common 
in Mesopotamia, their original seat, and also scattered through Persia, 
Afghanistan, &c. ; the direction in which, we are taught by the annals 
of modern times, some descendants of the ten tribes were dispersed, 
long after the Assyrian captivit}^ in the eighth century b. c. In short, 
the Jewish features meet one in almost every country under the sun ; 
but it is worthy of special remark, that Hebrew lineaments are found 
in no region whither history cannot track them, and rarely where their 
possessors do not acknowledge JcAvish origin. i«ror will the fact be 
questioned, we presume, that M'ell-marked Israelitish features are 
never beheld out of that race ; althovigh it has, as we shall show, 
been contended that Jews in certain climates have not only lost their 
own type, but have become transformed into other races ! 

The number of Jews now existing in the world, (of those that are 
regarded as descendants in a direct line from, and maintaining the 
same laws with, their forefathers, who, above 3000 years ago, retreated 
from Egypt under the guidance of the lawgiver, Moses,) is estimated 
by Weimer, Wolff, Milman,''*' and others, variously, from three to 
five millions. In all climates and countries, they ai'e recognized as 
the same race. Weimer, whose statistics are lowest, gives the fol- 
lowing : — 

" Africa. — They are scattered along the ■whole coast, from Morocco to Egypt, besides 
being found in many other parts. Morocco and Fez, 300,000; Tunis, 130,000 ; Algiers, 
30,000; Gabes or Habesh, 20,000 ; Tripoli, 12,000; &c. Total, 504,000. 

" Asia. — la Mesopotamia and Assyria. The ancient seats of the Babylonian Jews are 
still occupied by 5,270 families, exclusive of those of Bagdad and Bassora. Asiatic Turkey, 
330,000 ; Arabia, 200,000 ; Hindostan, 100,000 ; China, 60,000 ; Turkistan, 40,000 ; Pro- 
vince of Iran, 35,000; &c. Total, 738,000. 

" Europe. — Russia and Poland, 608,000; European Turkey, 321,000; Germany, 
138,000; Prussia, 134,000; Netherlands, 80,000; France, 60,000; Italy, 36,000; Great 
Britain, 12,000; &c. Total in Europe, 1,918,053." 

In America, Milman averages them at 6000 only; but this was 
certainly very far below the mark, even when his book was published, 
and they have since been increasing, with immense rapidity. We 
should think that' an estimate of 100,000, for ]N"orth and South 
America, would not be an exaggeration. 

This sketch suffices to show how the Judaic race has become scat- 
tered throughout the regions of the earth ; many families being domi- 
ciliated, ever since the Christian era, in climates the most opposite : 
and, yet, in obedience to an organic law of animal life, they have pre- 



118 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF THE JEWS. 

served, unchanged, the same features which the Almighty stamped on 
the first Hebrew pairs created. It may be well to denounce, as vulgar 
and unseriptural, the notion that the featui*es of the Jews are attri- 
butable to a subsequent miracle, or that God has put a mark upon 
them, by which they may be always known, and for the mere purpose 
of distinguishing them from other races. If we are correct in carry- 
ing their type back to times preceding the Exodus, this superstition 
must fall to the ground. The Almighty, no doubt, individualized 
all human races, from the beginning. 

It is admitted, by ethnographers of every party, that mankind are 
materially influenced by climate. The Jewish skin, for example, may 
become more fair at the north, and more dark at the tropics, than in 
the Land of Promise ; but, even here, the limit of change stops far short 
of approximation to other types. The complexion may be bleached, or 
tanned, in exposed parts of the body, but the Jewish features stand 
unalterably through all climates, and are superior to such influences. 

Nevertheless, it is stoutly contended, even at the present day, that 
Jews, in various parts of the world, have been transmuted into other 
types. Several examples (so supposed) have been heralded forth to 
sustain the doctrine of the Unity of the human species. "We have 
examined, with care, all these vaunted examples, and feel no hesitation 
in asserting that not one of them possesses any evidence to sustain it, 
while the proof is conclusive on the opposite side. 

The most prominent of these mendacious instances is that of the 
black Jews in Malabar ; and this has been confidently cited by all 
advocates of the doctrine of Unity, down to the Edinburgh Review, 
1849. Prichard, in his great work, has dodged this awkward 
point, in a manner that we are really at a loss to understand. In 
the second edition (1826) of his "Physical History of Mankind," he 
stated the facts with sufiicient fairness ; whereas, in the last, he sup- 
presses them entirely, and passes over them without uttering one word 
in support of his previous assertions — merely saying that there is 
"no evidence" to show that the hlaeh Jews are not Jews. "We shall 
here introduce testimony to prove our position, that the subjoined 
facts, though familiar to our author, are eluded by him with most 
ominous silence. 

Under the protection and patronage of the British government, the 
Rev. Claudius Buchanan, D.D., late Vice Provost of the College of 
Port "William, in Bengal ; well known for his learning, fidelity, and 
piety ; visited and spent some time amongst the white and the hlach Jews 
of Malabar, near Cochin, in 1806-7-8 ; and the testimony given in 
his "Asiatic Researches" is so remarkable, and the subject so im- 
portant, that we venture a long extract. The " Jerusalem, or white 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 119 

Jews," he tells us, live in Jeivs town, about a mile from Cochin, and 
the " ancient, or black Jews," with small exceptions, inhabit towns in 
the interior of the province. 

" On my inquiry (continues Dr. Buchanan) into the antiquity of the white Jews, they 
first delivered me a narrative, in the Hebrew language, of their arrival in India, which has 
been handed down to them from their fathers ; and then exhibited their ancient brass plate, 
containing their charter and freedom of residence, given by a king of Malabar. The fol- 
lowing is the narrative of the events relating to their first arrival : — 

"'After the second Temple was destroyed, (which may God speedily rebuild!) our 
fathers, dreading the conqueror's wrath, departed from Jerusalem — a numerous body of 
men, women, priests and Levites — and came into this land. There were among them men 
of repute for learning and wisdom ; and God gave the people favor in the sight of the king 
who at that time reigned here, and he granted them a place to dwell in, called Cranganor. 
He allowed them a patriarchal jurisdiction in the district, with certain privileges of nobility ; 
and the royal grant was engraved, according to the custom of those days, on a plate of 
brass. This was done in the year from the creation of the world 4250 (A. D. 490) ; and 
this plate of brass we still have in possession. Our forefathers continued at Cranganor for 
about one thousand years, and the number of heads who governed were seventy-two. Soon 
after our settlement, other Jews followed us from Judea; and among them came that man 
of great wisdom, Rabbi Samuel, a Levite, of Jerusalem, with his son. Rabbi Jehuda Levita. 
They brought with them the silver trumpets made use of at the time of the Jubilee, which 
were saved when the second Temple was destroyed ; and we have heard, from our fathers, 
that there were engraven upon those trumpets the letters of the Ineffable Name, There 
joined us, also, from Spain and other places, from time to time, certain tribes of Jews, who 
had heard of our prosperity. But, at last, discord arising among ourselves, one of our 
chiefs called to his assistance an Indian king, who came upon us with a great army, de- 
sti'oyed our houses, palaces and strongholds, dispossessed us of Cranganor, killed part of 
us, and carried part into captivity. By these massacres we were reduced to a small number. 
Some of the exiles came and dwelt at Cochin, where we have remained ever since, sufi^ering 
great changes, from time to time. There are amongst us some of the children of Israel 
(Beni-Israel), who came from the country of Ashkenaz, from Egypt, from Tsoha, and other 
places, besides those who formerly inhabited this country.' 

"The native annals of Malabar confirm the foregoing account, in the principal circum- 
stances, as do the Mahommedan histories of the later ages ; for the Mahommedans have 
been settled here, in great numbers, since the eighth century. 

" The desolation of Cranganor the Jews desci-ibe as being like the desolation of Jeru- 
lem in miniature. They were first received into the country with some favor and confidence, 
agreeably to the tenor of the general prophecy concerning the Jews — for no country was 
to reject them ; and, after they had obtained some wealth, and attracted the notice of men, 
they are precipitated to the lowest abyss of human suffering and reproach. The recital of 
the sufi'erings of the Jews at Cranganor resembles much that of the Jews at Jerusalem, as 
given by Josephus. [Exactly ! Notice also the " 72" governors, and the " 7" kings. — G. R. G.] 

" I now requested they would show me their brass plate. Having been given by a native 
king, it is written, of course, in the Malabaric language and character, and is now so old 
that it cannot well be understood. The Jews preserve a Hebrew transl.ation of it, which 
they presented to me ; 'but the Hebrew itself is very difficult, and they do not agree among 
themselves as to the meaning of some words. I have employed, by their permission, an 
engraver, at Cochin, to execute a fac-simile of the original plate on copper. This ancient 
document begins in the following manner, according to the Hebrew translation : — 

" ' In the peace of God, the King, which hath made the earth according to his pleasure — 
To this God, I, AIRVI BRAHMIN, have lifted up my hand and have granted, by this deed, 
which many hundred thousand years shall run — I, dwelling in Cranganor, have granted, in 



120 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

the thirty-sixth year of my reign, in the strength of power I have given in inheritance, to 
Joseph Rarban — '" 

(Here follow several privileges, &c.) 

" What proves the importance of the Jews, at the period when this grant was made, is, 
that it is signed by seven kings as witnesses. (The names are here given.) 

" There is no date to the document, further than what may be collected from the reign 
of the prince, and the names of the royal witnesses. Dates are not usual in old Malabaric 
writings. One fact is evident, that the Jews must have existed a considerable time in the .. 
country before they could have obtained such a grant. The tradition, before-mentioned, 
assigns for the date of the transaction the year of the creation 4250, which is, in Jewish 
computation, A. D. 490. It is well known that the famous Malabaric king, Coram Peru- 
MAL, made grants to the Jews, Christians, and Mahommedans, during his reign ; but that 
prince flourished in the eighth or ninth century." 

Archseologieally, the date assigned to this document is a manifest 
imposture, for any epoch anterior to 900 years after Christ. That 
change of religion from Brahminism to Judaism cannot metamor- 
phose Hindoo renegades into Jews, is evident from what follows. 

Speaking of the hlach Jews, Dr. Buchanan thus continues : — 

" Their Hindoo complexion, and their very imperfect resemblance to the European Jews, 
indicate that they have been detached from the parent stock, in Judea, many ages before 
the Jews in the west, and that there have been intermarriages with families not Israelitish. 
I had heard that those tribes, which had passed the Indus, had assimilated so much to the 
customs and habits of the countries in which they live, that they sometimes may be seen 
by a traveller without being recognized as Jews. In the interior towns of Malabar, I was 
not always able to distinguish the Jew from the Hindoo. I hence perceived how easy it 
may be to mistake the tribes of Jewish descent among the Affghans and other nations, in 
the northern parts of Hindostan. The white Jews look upon the black Jews as an inferior 
race, and as not of pure caste, which plainly demonstrates that they do not spring from a 
common stock in India." ™ 

The evidence of Dr. Buchanan can scarcely leave room for a doubt 
that the white Jews had been living at least a thousand years in 
Malabar, and were still white Jews, without even an approximation, 
in type, to the Hindoos ; and that the Hack Jews were an " inferior 
race" — "not of pure caste" — or, in other words, adulterated by 
dark Hindoos — Jews in doctrine, but not in stock. 

But we have another eye-witness, of no less note, to the same effect, 
namely, Joseph Wolff, a Christianized Jew, whose authority is quoted 
in places where modern Jews are spoken of He assures us,^" that 
the black Malabar Jews are converted Hindoos, and at most a mix- 
ture only of the two races. Similar opinions have been expressed 
by every competent authority we have seen or can find quoted ; and 
even Prichard, in his laborious work, while he slurs over all these 
facts with the simple remark that there is "no evidence" in favor of 
Buchanan's opinion, ventures to give not a single authority to rebut 
him, and offers not a sohtary reason for doubting his testimony. And, 
we say it with regret, that this is but one of Dr. Prichard's many 
unfair modes of sustaining the doctrine of the unity of mankind. "We 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 121 

may add, also, that the opinions of Buchanan and Wolff are those of 
all Judfeans of our day, as far as we have been able to ascertain 
them. Mr. Isaac Leeser, the learned and estimable editor of the 
^^ Occident," at Philadelphia, in answer to our inquiries, thus writes : — 

"You may freely assert that, in all essentials, the Jews are the same they are repre- 
sented on the Egyptian monuments ; and a comparison of 3500 years ought to be sufficient 
to prove that the intermediate links have not degenerated. . . . The black Jews of Malabar 
are not a Jewish race, according to the accounts which have appeared from time to time in 
the papers. They are most likely converts to Judaism, who, never having intermarried with 
the white Jews, have retained their original Hindoo complexion, and, I believe, language." 

Although this letter of Mr. Leeser was written in haste, and not 
for publication, his well-known respectability and talent lend so much 
weight to any thing he would utter about his co-religionists, that we 
cannot forego the pleasure of giving another and longer extract 
from it. He says : — 

"In respect, however, to the true Jewish complexion, it is fair ; which is proved by the 
variety of the people I have seen, from Persia, Russia, Palestine, and Africa, not to men- 
tion those of Europe and America, the latter of whom are identical with the Europeans, 
like all other white inhabitants of this continent. All Jews that ever I have beheld are 
identical in features ; though the color of their skin and eyes differs materially, inasmuch as 
the Southern are nearly all black-eyed, and somewhat sallow, while the Northern are blue- 
eyed, in a great measure, and of a fair and clear complexion. In this they assimilate to 
all Caucasians, when transported for a number of generations into various climates. [?] 
Though I am free to admit that the dark and hazel eye and tawny skin are oftener met 
with among the Germanic Jews than among the German natives proper. There are also 
red-haired and white-haired Jews, as well as other people, and perhaps of as great a pro- 
portion. I speak now of the Jews north — I am myself a native of Germany, and among 
my own family I know of none without blue eyes, brown hair (though mine is black), and 
very fair skin — still I recollect, when a boy, seeing many who had not these characteristics, 
and had, on the contrary, eyes, hair, and skin of a more southern complexion. In America, 
you will see all varieties of complexion, from the very fair Canadian down to the almost 
yellow of the West Indian — the latter, however, is solely the effect of exposure to a delete- 
rious climate for several generations, which changes, I should judge, the texture of the hair 
and skin, and thus leaves its mark on the constitution — otherwise the Caucasian type is 
strongly developed; but this is the case more emphatically among those sprung from a 
German than a Portuguese stock. The latter was an original inhabitant of the Iberian 
Peninsula, and whether it was preserved pure, or became mixed with Moorish blood in the 
process of centuries, or whether the Germans contracted an intimacy with Teutonic nations, 
and thus acquired a part of their national characteristics, it is impossible to be told now. 
But one thing is certain, that, both in Spain and Germany, conversions to Judaism during 
the early ages, say from the eighth to the thirteenth century, were by no means rare, or 
else the governments would not have so energetically prohibited Jews from making prose- 
lytes of their servants and others. I know not, indeed, whether there is any greater phy- 
sical discrepancy between northern and southern Jews than between English families who 
continue in England or emigrate to Alabama — I rather judge there is not." 

Mr. Leeser professes not to have paid any special attention to the 
physical history of the Jews ; but, nevertheless, his remarks corro- 
borate very strongly two important points : 1st, That the Jews merely 
undergo those temporary changes from climate which are admitted by 
16 



^ 



122 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF THE JEWS. 

all ethnographers ; and 2d, that they have occasionally mingled in 
blood with Gentile races ; amalgamations that account for any 
visible diversity of type amongst them. 

And that we have sought for information among the best informed 
of the Hebrew community in the United States, may be inferred from 
the subjoined letter of an authority universally known, and by all 
respected. His testimony confirms Mr. Leeser's, no less than that of 
every Hebrew we have been able to consult. 

" The black Jews of Malabar are not descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but are 
of Hindoo origin. At Cochin, there are two distinct communities of Jews : one, white, was 
originally settled at Cranganor, but when the Portuguese became too powerful on that coast 
(a. d. 1500 to 1590) removed to Cochin. These Jews have been residents in India consider- 
ably above 1000 years, but still retain their Jewish cast of features, and, though of dark 
complexion, are not black. They never intermarry with the second community, also Jews, 
but black, of Hindoo origin, and, according to tradition, originally bondmen, but converted 
and manumitted some 300 years ago. Though of the same religion, the two races are, and 
keep distinct. In the interior of Africa, many Negroes are found who profess to be Jews, 
practise circumcision, and keep the Sabbath. These are held to be the descendants of 
slaves who were converted by their Jewish masters, and then manumitted. All the Jews 
in the interior of Africa who are of really Jewish descent, as, for instance, in Timbuctoo, 
the Desert of Sahara, &c., though of dark complexion, are not black, and retain the charac- 
teristic cast of features of their race — so they do likewise in China. 

<« J. C. NOTT, M. D., Mobile." " Y°^''^' ^^^ ^- ^- R^^-h^i-^- 

"We think it is now shown satisfactorily that the "Black Jews" of 
India are not Jews by race, any more than the iTegro converts to Ju- 
daism known to exist at Timbuctoo, or the many Moorish adherents 
to the Hebrew faith scattered throughout the States of Barbary. 
There are authors li^snng who insist that the aborigines of our Ameri- 
can continent are lineal descendants of the lost ten tribes, which have 
run so wild in our woods as to be no longer recognizable ! Other 
examples of Jewish physical transformation have been alleged, but 
they are even less worthy of credit than the preceding. The Jews 
of Abyssinia, or Falashas, as they are called, may be noticed. They 
do not present the Jewish physiognomy, but are, doubtless, composed 
of mixed bloods, Arabian with African, and converts. Before us 
lies a pamphlet by Dr. Charles Bbke, the very erudite Abyssinian 
traveller.^^ This essay was read on the 8th of February, 1848, before 
the Syro-Egyptian Society of London, and Dr. Beke's standing as an 
orientalist requires no comment. His information was obtained 
from the Falashas themselves; his opinion formed in presence of 
the speakers. 

" There is, however, no reason for imagining that these Israelites of Abyssinia, who are 
known in that country by the name of Falashas, are, as a people, the lineal descendants of 
any of the tribes of Israel. Their peculiar language, which they still retain, differs entirely 
from the Syro- Arabian class to which the Ethiopic and Amharic, as well as the Hebrew and 
Arabic, belong, and is cognate with, and closely allied to, the existing dialects spoken by the 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 123 

A'gaus of Lasta and the A'gaumider: a circumstance affording a strong argument in sup- 
port of the opinion that all these people are descended from an aboriginal race, which has 
been forced to give way before the advances of a younger people from the opposite shores 
of the Red Sea — first in Tigrfe, and subsequently in the countries adjacent to Bab-el 
Mandeb. 

"It is not till about the tenth century of the Christian era that we possess any his- 
tory of the Israelites of Abyssinia, as a separate people ; and even then the particulars 
respecting them, which are to be gathered from the annals of the country as given by 
Bruce, must, in the earlier portions at least, be received with great caution." 

Bruce, in the second volume of his Travels, gives an interesting 
account of this people. He regards them really as Jews, but expresses 
sundry doubts, and thinks the question must be determined by future 
pJdlological researches. Such researches have been made since his 
day, and the decision of Beke is recorded above. Even Prichard did 
not credit Bruce's narrative. 

The history of the ten tribes affords also conclusive evidence of the 
influence of Jewish intermixtures with alien races. In the eighth cen- 
tury B. c, they were conquered, and carried captive, by Tiglathpilesar 
and Shalmanasar, into the north-western parts of the Assyrian empire ; 
their places being supplied by foreign colonists from that country. 
These, with a few remaining Israelites, formed the Samaritans of after 
times ; but the ten tribes have been scattered, and most of them lost 
by Assyrian amalgamations, or absorption into cognate Chaldsean 
tribes. 

" The AflFghans, as before remarked, bear strong marks of the Jewish type, and are 
doubtless descended from the ten tribes. . . . The Affghans have no resemblance to the 
Tartars who surround them, in person, habits, or language. Sir William Jones (and this 
opinion is now prevalent) is inclined to believe that their descent may be traced to the 
Israelites, and adds, that the best-informed Persian historians have adopted the same 
opinion. The AfiFghans have traditions among themselves which render it very probable 
that this is the just account of their origin. Many of their families are distinguished by 
names of Jewish tribes, though, since their conversion to Islam, they conceal their descent 
with the most scrupulous care ; and the whole is confirmed by the circumstance that the 
Pushto has so near an affinity with the Chaldaic that it may justly be regarded as a dialect 
of that tongue. They are now confounded with the Arabs. "82 

This quotation is a fair specimen of the fabulous ethnography cur- 
rent among orthodox litterateurs of our day. There is no Biblical 
or historical basis for the first assumption : the second is a misappre- 
hension, attributing to Judaism that which is due to Islamism in the 
last 1000 years ; and the third is explained by linguistic importations, 
Persic and Arabian ; because the Pushto is a Medo-Persian branch of 
Indo-European languages. Prichard himself treats Affghan derivation 
from the Israelites with a sneer ^ — but the reader is refeiTcd to our 
Supplement for further citations on the subject, from the works of 
thorough orientalists, who unite in testifying that the Semitic element 
in Afighanistan, out of the synagogues, is exclusively Arabian. 



124 



PHYSICAL HISTOET OF THE JEWS. 




Fi«- 13. The portrait of Dost-Mohammed^ 

blends Semitic features with those 
of the true AffgJian ; and suffices to 
illustrate the similitudes perceived 
hy tourists who, partial to a theory 
of the "ten tribes'" journey into 
Tartary, have been blinded to the 
palpable diversities of osteological 
structure, which even Arab blood 
has not obliterated. 

We have thus gone over the phy- 
sical history of the Jewish race ; and, 
although the argument is very far 
from being exhausted, we think 
enough has been said to satisfy any 
unprejudiced mind that this species 
has preserved its peculiar type from 
the time of Abraham to the present day, or through more than one 
hundred generations ; and has therefore transmitted directly to us 
the features of B'oah's family, which preceded that of Abraham, ac- 
cording to the so-termed Mosaic account, by only ten generations. 

If, then, the Jewish race has preserved the type of its forefathers for 
3500 years, in all climates of the earth, and under all forms of govern- 
ment — through extremes of prosperity and adversity — if, too, we add to 
all this the recently developed facts (which cannot be negatived), that 
the Tartars, the ISTegroes, the Assyrians, the Hindoos, the Eg3'ptian8, 
and others, existed, 2000 years before the Christian era, as distinct as 
now ; where, we may ask, is to be found the semblance of a scientific 
argument to sustain the assumption of a common Jewish origin 
for every species of mankind ? 

Accounts of the Gipsies offer such curious analogies with those 
of the Israelites, that it may not be out of place to add a word respect- 
ing them. 

" Both have had an Exodus ; both are exiles, and dispersed among the gentiles, by ■whom 
they are hated and despised, and whom they hate and despise, under the names of Busnees 
and Goyim ; both, though speaking the language of the gentiles, possess a peculiar tongue, 
■which the latter do not understand ; and both possess a peculiar cast of countenance, by which 
they may be without difficulty distinguished from all other nations ; but with these points the 
similarity terminates. The Israelites have a peculiar religion, to which they are fanati- 
cally attached ; the Romas (Gipsies) have none. The Israelites have an authentic history ; 
the Gipsies have no history — they do not even know the name of their original country." 

This isolated race is involved in mystery, owing to absence of tradi- 
tions ; though, from their physical type, language, &c., it is conjectured 
that the Gipsies came from some part of India, but at what time, and 



-^'' ...Aik.. 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 125 

why, cannot now be determined. It has been said that they fled 
from the exterminating sword of the great Tartar conqueror, Timiir 
Leng (Tamerlane), who ravaged India in 1408-9 a. d. ; but there will 
be found, in Borrow's work, very good reason for believing that they 
might have migrated, at a much earlier period, north, amongst the 
Sclavonians, before they entered Germany and other countries where 
we first trace them. However, we know with certainty that, in the 
beginning of the fifteenth century (about the time of Timur's con- 
quest), they appeared in Germany, and were soon scattered over 
Europe, as far as Spain. They arrived in France on the 17th of 
Auffust, 1427 A. D. Their number now, in all, has been estimated at 
about 700,000, and they are scattered over most countries of the 
habitable globe — Europe, Asia, Africa, South America, and some 
few in ITorth America. " Their tents ai^e pitched on the heaths of 
Brazil and the ridges of the Himalaya hills ; and their language is 
heard in Moscow and Madrid, in London and Stamboul." "Their 
power of resisting cold is truly Avonderful, as it is not uncommon to 
find them encamped in the midst of the snow, in slight canvass tents, 
where the temperature is 25° to 30° below the freezing point accord- 
ing to Reaumur; " while, on the other hand, they withstand the sultry 
climes of Aftica and India.^^ 

The Gipsies are the most prominent of numerous and diverse tribes 
difi"used in little groups over the four continents, to whom Prichard's 
term "Allophylian races" would properly apply. A list might 
be made of them ; their occurrence in islands, remote valleys and 
mountain-fastnesses, or even amid dense populations, being far more 
frequent than is generally supposed. In the absence of all record beyond 
that of modern days, (their existence known only by their discovery,) 
we refrain from the labor of enumeration, with the sole remark, that 
to us they all are mementos of the permanence of type, athwart vicis- 
situdes certainly endured, but unrecorded by themselves : each being 
a relic of some primitive type of man, generally displaced from its 
geographical centre of creation, that, having served in days of yore 
the purposes of the Creator, is now abandoned (with so many others, 
now lost like the Guanches) to its fate, scarcely affording history suffi- 
cient for an epitaph.^'' 

But it is time to illustrate the subject monumentally ; and the words 
of an illustrious countryman will usher in the facts with which none 
are better conversant than himself. After alluding to changes 
wrought by climate on domestic animals and plants. Dr. Pickering 
maintains : — 

" Not 80 however with the human family. Notwithstanding the mixtures of race during 
two centuries, no one has remarked a tendency to a development of a new race in the 



'¥ 



i^ 



126 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



United States. In Arabia, where the mixtures are more complicated, and have been going 
on from time immemorial, the result does not appear to have been different. On the Egyp- 
tian monuments, I was unable to detect any change in the races of the human family. 
Neither does written history afford evidence of the extinction of one physical race of men, 
or of the development of another previously unknown." 87 

Proceeding retrogressively, and closely as the theme can be eluci- 
dated, we present the only bas-relief which, throughout the entire 
range of hieroglyphical or cuneiform discovery hitherto published, in 
all probability represents Jews. 

Fio. 14. 




(2 Kings xviii. 14 ; Isaiah xxxvi. 2. About 700 b. c.) 

'■'^ Jewish Captives from LacMsh" (Fig. 14), disinterred jfrom Senna- 
cherib's palace at Kouyunjik, is the title given to the original by 
its disco verer,^^ who says — 

"Here, therefore, was the actual picture of the taking of Lachish, the city, as we know 
from the Bible, besieged by Sennacherib, when he sent his generals to demand tribute of 
Hezekiah, and which he had captured before their return. . . . The captives were undoubt- 
edly Jews — their physiognomy was strikingly indicated in the sculptures ; but they had 
been stripped of their ornaments and their fine raiment, and were left barefooted and half- 
clothed." 

Allowance made for reduction to so small a scale, the ethnological 

character of this bas-relief is not so 
strikingly effective in respect to true 
Hebrew physiognomy, as it is (when 
compared with other Chaldsean effi- 
gies) to show the pervading cha- 
racter of many Syrian and Meso- 
potamian races 2500 years ago. 

These Mamites (Fig. 15) pro- 
bably, if not Arabs, '■'■loading a 
camel," ^^ helong to the same age, 
and supply one variety ; while here 



Fig. 15. 




4 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



127 



"Captives employed by Assyrians''^ 
(Fig. 16), furnish another. 

Divested of beard, other " cap- 
tives in a cart"^^ (Fig. 17) portray 
characteristics verging toward an 
upland, or Armenian, expression ; 
at the same time that these upon 



Fio. 16. 




Fig. 17. 





Fig. 19. 



an undated " Babylonian cy- ^'°- '^^' 

Under" ^ (Fig. 18), too minute 
in size for ethnographical pre- 
cision, indicate more of wild 
Arab lineaments : an infer- 
ence which the low-land site 
of Babylon, where Mr. Layard 
found it, may justify. If we 
contrast these last with (Fig. 
19), an Egyptian artistic idea of a " Canaanite" 
(Kanana — barbarian),^ the prevalence of this so- 
called Semitic type from the Euphrates, through 
Palestine, to the eastern confines of the J^ile, be- 
comes exemplified, back to the twelfth and fif- 
teenth centui'ies b. c, as thoroughly as ocular ob- 
servation can realize similar features in the same 
regions at the present day. 

Each " canon of art," ^* in Eg^-pt and in Assyria, 
was dogmatically enforced (let it be remembered) 
upon principles entirely difierent : the former, or 
anterior, being primitive, and dependent rather 
upon its relations to graphical expression, more 
rigidly approximates to the ante-monumental age of "picture-writing." 
In the latter, we behold a developed, and consequently more florid, 
style of art ; which, if nothing else existed to demonstrate the truth 




128 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



of this inherent law of artistic progression, would of itself classify 
monumental Assyria as, chronologically, a succedaneum of Egypt ; 
and vindicate De Longperier's conclusions of Assyrian modernness, 
no less than Rawlinson's acknowledgments of Egyptian antiquity.^^ 

The combined action of art and of the prevalence, in and around 
Mesopotamia, of a preponderating type which approaches the beau- 
ideal of Semitic humanity, may be seen by comparing the captives of 
Assyrian triumphs with the common soldiery of Mnevite armies. 
Thus, this Syrian (Fig. 20), with his leathern scull-cap, whom a pass- 

FiG. 21. 



Fig. 20. 




Syrian Captive. 96 



AssTRiA^i Soldiers. 97 



age in Herodotus identifies with the people "Milj^te,"^^ or else of ad- 
jacent Cilicia, could not otherwise be distinguished from common 
Assyrian spearmen (Eig. 21) attacking a stronghold which, if not in 
Samaria, belongs to the same mountainous region. Both drawings 
are from Eliorsabad, and the expeditions of Sargan, late in the eighth 
centuiy b. c. 

But it is in the likenesses of the patricians and of royalty wherein, 
partly owing to more pains-taking treatment by artists, and partly to a 
higher caste of race, that the pure Assyrian type becomes vigorously 
^'' seolpito." 

Sargan's minister, (Eig. 22) probably his Viseer, displays the same 
noble blood as the King (Eig. 23) himself.^" 

Above all the portraits of l!Tinevite sovereigns discovered, that of 
Sargan is the most interesting ; 1st, because it was the first royal 
likeness unearthed from Khorsabad by Botta ; ™ 2ndly, because it 
was the first whose cuneatic legends were ascribed to the besieger of 
Ashdod by a most felicitous guess of Lowenstern ; '"^ and 3dly, be- 
cause it was the first identified of those sublime sculptures that, 
rescued from perdition by French munificence, arrived in Europe, 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

Fig. 23. 



129 



Pig. 22. 




The Vizeee. 



The King. 



Fig. 24. 



and once again tower majestically in the Louvre Museum/"^ after 
some 2515 years of oblivion. 

TVe present a rough tracing (Fig. 24) of Botta's earliest lithographs, 
wherein the head-dress is tinted red, like 
the original bas-relief. 

It was established, twenty years ago, 
by RosELLiNi, that, in Egyptian art, the 
andro-sphinxes (human head on lion's 
body, symbolical of royalty,) always bear 
the likenesses of the kings or queens in 
whose reign they were chiselled. Thus, 
were the features of the Great Sphinx at 
the pyramids of Memphis adequately 
preserved, we should probably behold 
the lost portrait of AAHIIES, founder 
of the XVTIth dynasty, in the seven- 
teenth century b. c. ; to whom, under 
the Greek form of Amasis, a tradition in 
Plixy's time still attributed this colossus."" 
The symbol "sphinx," by the Greeks 
17 




4 



Saroan, (Isaiah, xx. 1). 
B. C. 710 to 668. 



130 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



Pig. 25. 



reputed to be female, and by "Wilkinson to be always male in Egypt, 
bas tbe body of a lion wben (e. g. in tbe splendid granite Sphinx of 
Ramses at the Louvre,) it typifies the king ; or of a lioness, (as in 
Maut-hem-wa's at Turin,) when the queen. Another rule of Egyp- 
tian art is, that the human faces of Divinities wear the portrait of the 
reigning raonarch. Novs^, in Assyrian sculpture — an offshoot of 
Miotic art — the same rules hold good. Those gigantic human-headed 
bulls, and those superb winged-gods, of scenes in which human-faced 
deities are introduced, assume, the portraits of 
the sovereigns in whose age they were carved : 
truths easily verified by comparison of the 
folio plates of Flandin or of Layard. In 
consequence, regretting the necessity for reduc- 
tion of size, we submit, from one of the winged- 
bulls at Paris'"* the likeness (Fig. 25) of him 
whose cuneatic legend reads : — " SARGOIInT, 
great king, puissant king, king of the kings of 
the land of Assour'' — Ashur, or Assyria — of 
whom Isaiah relates — " In the year that 
Tartan came unto Ashdod (when Sargon, the 
king of Assyria, sent him,) and fought against 




Sargon. 



Fig. 26.105 



Fig. 27, 





Sennacherib — b. c. 700. 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



131 



Fia. 28. 



Ashdod, and took it;" events of the seventh century before 
Christ. 

To complete the series, we add a royal head, (Fig. 26) of the same 
times, but name unknown to us, surmounting a winged-lion ; its only 
peculiarity being the ponderous nose. 

]S"ot less curiously valuable, whether in its historical, biblical, or 
ethnographic associations, is the porti-ait (Fig. 27,) of Sargan's son — 
" Sennacherib, on his throne before Xachish."'*^ 

"We have already beheld (Fig. 14) his Jewish captives. Mr. La- 
yard unfolds, through translation of this king's cuneiform inscrip- 
tions, points of the grandest scriptural interest ^^ — " Hezekiah, king 
of Judah," says the Assyrian king, " who 
had not submitted to my authority, forty- 
six of his principal cities, and fortresses 
and villages depending upon them, of which 
I took no account, I captured, and carried 
away their spoil. I shut up (?) himself 
within Jerusalem, his capital city." 

We commenced at the seventh, and now 
advance into the eighth century, b. c. 

A " Bas-relief, (Fig. 28) representing 
PuL, or TiGLATH-Pileser," from Mmroud,™ 
places us about the year b. c. 750. 

Here the same high type is preserved in 
the features of the king, his bearded 
chariot-driver, and his depilated eunuch: 
while inscriptions that contain the name 
of "Menahem, king of Israel," tributary 
to Assyria, ^"^ evince the intimate relations 
already existing between that emigrant 
branch of the Abrahamidse domiciliated in 
Judaea, and the indigenous stem still flou- 
rishing in Chaldaea, whence they had issued 
about 1000 years before. The same type 
is carried back to the tenth century b. c, 
by this copy (Fig. 29) of the statue of 
Sardanapalus I.""; whose era falls about 
930 years before 'Ours. 

" On the breast is an inscription nearly 
in these words : — after the names and titles 
of the king, 'The conqueror from the 
upper passage of the Tigris to Lebanon 
and the Great Sea, who all countries, from 




Fig. 29. 




132 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

the rising of the sun to the going down thereof, has reduced under 
his autliority.' The statue was, therefore, probably raised after his 
return from the campaign in Syria" — where, the Tyrians, Sidonians, 
Arvadites, and others, acknowledged his suzerainty. 

An epoch has now been reached that is more ancient than the 
registry of Hebrew annals,"^ by a centuiy, perhaps ; and hence they 
cease to throw light, for times anterior to Solomon, upon nationalities 
outside the topographical boundaries of Palestine. But, where Ju- 
dsean chronicles are silent, when cuneiform records falter, the hiero- 
glyphics of Egypt supply abundance of ethnological information, and 
enable us to demonstrate the perpetual indelibility of this (let us call 
it, for mere convenience sake,) Chaldaic type. Already, "half-breeds," 
between Miotic and Euphratic populations, must have been numerous. 
Palestine was the neutral-ground of contact ; and Solomon's wedding 
with the " daughter of Pharaoh" shows that Abrahamic royalty only 
followed a matrimonial practice familiar to the Israelites since that 
patriarch's first visit to Egypt ; which duly received Mosaic sanction 
in the law — "Abhor not the MiTsRI {Egyptian) : " ^^^ benignantly pro- 
viding for its prolific consequences by adding the clause — "The 
children that are born of them, at the third generation, shall enter into 
the assembly of leHOuaH." 

Mr. Birch was the first to establish, five years ago,"^ the intimate 
connexions between Egypt and Assyria, in the tenth century b. c. ; 
the very age of Solomon's marriage with an Egj-ptian princess, and 
of the punishment inflicted, about 971-'3, by Sheshonk upon Jeru- 
salem, " in the fifth year of Eehoboam." The kings of Egypt during 
the XXIId or Bubastite dynasty, were proved, by this erudite palaeo- 
grapher, to bear not Egyptian, but Assyrian names: thus, Sheshonk, 
Shishak, was assimilated to the " Sesacea" of Babylon ; Osokkon to ^e- 
rah, Saracus ; the son of Osorkon II. was shown to be a MM-ROT, 
Nimrod ; and the appellative Takelloth, TEXT, of the hieroglyphics, 
to contain DiGLaTA, which is the same river Tigris that is embodied 
in the royal Assyrian name of TiGLATH-PzYeser. 

Here is a mute witness of those events and those times — GOT- 
THOTHI-^Mwyb (Fig. 30), " Chief of the Artificers," at Thebes,"* who 
died, according to inscriptions on his cerements, in the "Year X" of 
the reign of King Osorkon HI. ; that is, he was alive in the year 900 
B. c. ! His complete mummy lies in the Anatomical Museum of the 
University of Louisiana, New Orleans ; and we shall describe it in 
the proper place : our object at present being merely to indicate 
an atom of the ethnological abundance that Egypt and Assyria 
supply. And the reader will realize the harmony of these arehseolo- 
gical researches, when he beholds the portrait of the king (Fig. 31) in 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 133 

Fig. 30. Fio. 31. 




OSORKON III. 115 

whose reign this mummy was made. Leemans published a date of 
the IXth, and Bunsen one of this Pharaoh's Xlth regnal year. The 
legend on the mummy has added another of his Xth. 

Several coincidences have been ingeniously put together by Mr. 
Sharpe ; "^ but, while we refer to Layard's Second Expedition,^^'' for 
realizations of the almost-prophetic science of Birch, the latter' s 
opportune discovery of the relationship of Ramses XIV., by marriage, 
to the daughter of the Semitic "King of Bashan,"™ is merely noted 
here, because it will be elucidated under the chapter on Egj^Dt. In 
the following Asiatic prisoners, recorded among the foreign conquests 
of Amunoph HE., at Soleb,"^ there is no difficulty of recognizing — 

Fig. 32. 




1. Pa-ta-na, Padan-Aram ; 2. A-su-ru, Ashur, Assyria ; 3. Ka-ru- 
ka-mishi, Carchemish. The names of Saenhar, Shinar, and NaJia- 
raina, in Hebrew I^aharaim, the "two rivers," or Mesopotamia, 



134 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

hieroglyphed in the same Pharaoh's reign, have long heen familial 
to Egj'ptologists ; and thus Assyrian data and connexions with the 
Nile are positively carried back to the XVIIth dynasty, and the six- 
teenth century b. c. 

But although, amid the ruins of Babylon itself, nothing has been 
yet disclosed of an earlier date than ITebuchadnezzak, b. c. 604 ; and 
no genealogical list, not to say contemporaneous monument, older 
than b. c. 1250,'^ at Nineveh; hieroglyphics of an ancestor of Amu- 
NOPH in., viz., Thotmes m., prove the existence of both Babylon and 
Nineveh, as tributaries to the Pharaohs, at least one generation earlier, 
or about 1600 years b. c.'^' This king, in an inscription more recently 
translated by Birch, is said to have " erected his tablet in Naharaina 
(Mesopotamia), for the extension of the frontiers oi Kami (Egjrpt)."^^ 
The sixteenth century b. c, according to Lepsius's system of chro- 
nology, touches the advent of Abraham and later sojourn of his grand- 
son Jacob's children in the land of Goshen. Relations of vrar, com- 
merce, and intermarriage, between the people of the Mle and those 
from the Tigris and Euphrates, in these times, were incessant. Semitic 
elements (as we shall see in the gallery of royal Egyptian portraits 
further on) flowed from Asia into Africa in unceasing streams. The 

Queens of Egypt, especially, betray 
the commingling of the Ohaldaic 
type with that indigenous to the 
lower valley of the Mle; and, al- 
though we shall resume these evi- 
dences, the reader will recognize the 
blending of both types in the linea- 
ments of Queen Aahmes-Nefekaki 
(Fig. 33), wife of Amunoph I., son 
of the founder of the XVIIth dynasty, 

/ ^,-r-rr— 1 I \ about 1671 b. c. Hers is the most 

^"^"^XK \ \ I [_y //7~T^ ancient of regal feminine likenesses 

identified ; '^ and of it Morton wrote, 
"Perhaps the most Hebrew portrait on the monuments is that of 
Aahmes-Nofi"e-Ari."i2* 

Having thus traced back the Ohaldaic ty^Q into Egypt before the 
arrival of Abraham, first historical ancestor of the Jews, we have 
proved the perpetuity of its existence, through Egyptian and Assyrian 
records, during 3500 years of time, down to our day. But the 
Jewish type of man must have existed in Chaldsea for an indefinite 
time before Abraham. After all, he was merely one emigrant ; and 
his ancestral stock, at 1500 b. c, must have amounted to an immense 
population. We hold, without hesitation, that 2000 years before 




PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



135 



Abraham, there had ah'cady been intermarriages between the Chaldaic 
and the Egyptian species. N'o ethnographer but will perceive, with 
us, the Jewish cross upon Egyptians of the IVth Memphite dynasty, 
3500 years b. c, say about 5400 years ago: and such amalgamations 
must then have been far more ancient 
(Figs. 34, 35) : we shall revert to them by-and-by, 



Examine the following — 



Fig. 34.125 



Fig. 35. 




"We shall yet be able to sketch out the durability of the cognate 
Arabian race 2000 years earlier than Ishmael, son of Abraham, when 
we deal with Egyptian primitive relations with Asia; and as, for 
thirtj'-five centuries (not to say fifty-five, when the Chaldaic blood first 
appears), Jews and Arabs have been monumentally coexistent and 
distinct in type, therefore the demonstration of the existence of the 
latter people 5500 years ago will naturally imply the simultaneous 
presence of the former in their Mesopotamian birth-place ; although 
neither from Assyrian nor Hebrew records can we produce annals to 
that effect — simply because such chronicles, if any were kept, have 
not reached our modern day. 

Before quitting, for the present, Semitish immigrations into Africa, 
we may allude to early Phoenician colonization of Barbary, as another 
prolific source of comminglings between Chaldaic and Berber, or Ata- 
lantic, types. These must have preceded, by centuries, the foundation 
of Carthage, estimated at b. c. 878 ; and, in those days (the camel not 
having been introduced into Africa before the first or second century 
B. c), the Sahara desert being absolutely impassable, the Atalan- 
tidse of the Barbary coast held no communication with jN^egro races 
of inland Africa. The subject is discussed in Part 11. of this volume. 

The illiterate advocates of a pseudo-negrophilism, more ruinous to 
the Africans of the United States than the condition of servitude in 



136 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



Fig. 36. 



wliicli they thrive, multiply, and are happy, have actually claimed 
St. Augustine, Eratosthenes, Juba, Hannibal, and other great men, 
as historical vouchers for the perfectibility of the Negro race, because 
born in Africa ! It might hence be argued that " birth in a stable 
makes a man a horse." We submit the following portraits. 

Eratosthenes '2^ (Fig. 36), born at the Greek 
colony of Cyrene, on the coast of Barbary, about 
276 B. c. What more perfect sample of the 
Greek historical type could be desired ? 
Hannibal ^^^ (Fig. 37), son oi Hamilear Barcas, 
t^ born at Carthage, about b. c. 247. The highest 
"Caucasian " type is so strongly marked in his 
face, that, if his father was a Phoenico-Carthagi- 
nian, one would suspect that his mother, as 
among the Ottomans and Persians of the present 
day, was an imported white slave, or other fe- 
male of the purest Japhetic race. 

Fig. 38. 




Fig. 87. 





Fig. 39. 




JuBA^^ (Fig. 38), son of ITiempsal, 
king of Numidia, ascended the 
throne about b. c. 50. If not Berber 
(and we have no means of compa- 
rison), the Arab type predominates 
in his countenance ; and that this 
closely approximated to the true 
Tyrian, or Phoenician, is evident 
by comparing it with the features 
of an ancient citizen of Tyre (Fig. 
39), figured at Thebes, in the reign 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



137 



of Ramses HI., of the XXth dynasty, during the thirteenth century 



B. c. 



Abundant illustrations of the permanence of tyT^e, in other varieties 
of Semitish races, will be given in due course; but, on our road to 
Persia, let us indicate a Syrian form, in this mountaineer of Lebanon™ 
(Fig. 40), from the conquests of the same Ramses ; and contrast it 
with a genuine Cushite Arab, or Himyarite^^^ (Fig. 41), who appears 
in the tomb of Seti-Meneptha I., about 1400 years b. c. 



Fig. 40. 



Fig. 41. 




Fig. 42. 



As we cross through Chald?ea, we again encounter (Fig. 42) the 
true Jewish tj^e in the land of its origin. A full-length figure of 
this individual will be given in a 
succeeding Chapter; and it is the 
more curious, inasmuch as we be- 
hold in its design an Egyptian art- 
ist's conception of a Chaldee during 
the fifteenth century b. c. ; that is, 
about 500 years before any cunei- 
form monuments yet found, and 600 
years before any Jewish records, now 
known, were inscribed or written. 

Persian monumental ethnogra- 
phy, (like the native, the Hebrew, 

and the Greek chronicles of that Iranian land,) can but commence 
with Cyrus ; — that mighty name, which, until recent hieroglyphical 
and cuneatic discoveries threw open the portals of ages anterior, 
m.arked the grand terminus of historical knowledge concerning 
Oriental events and nations. We accompany the following series 
with Rawlinsox's translation of the Persepolitan arrow-headed 




legends. 



18 



138 



PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



Fig. 43. "I am Cyrus, the King; the 

Achsemenian." 132 

Such, is the simple epitaph 
of sterhng greatness, on 
the ruined pilasters of Mur- 
ghab, or Parsagadse, adja- 
cent to the tomb of Cyrus : 
built about B. c. 528. 

The abraded condition 
of the face (Fig. 43) en- 
ables us merely to distin- 
guish that high-class type, 
which the grandson of a 
Mede (Astyages) and a Ly- 
dian (Mandane, sister of 
Cr(ESUs), and the son of a 
Persian, would naturally 
present. 

Singularly enough, the 
effigy wears an Egyptian 
(Kneph-Osiris) head-dress ; 
which confirms Letronnb' s 
argument of the very inti- 
mate relations between Per- 
sia and Egypt, before the 
conquest by Cambyses.^^ 

" I am Darius, (Fig. 44) the great 
King, the King of Kings, the King 
of Persia, the King of (the depen- 
dent) provinces, the son of Hys- 
taspes, the grandson of Arsames, 
the Achsemenian." 135 

"We see Darius in the 
attitude of uttering that 
noble address, which stands 
inscribed on the vast cu- 
neiform Tablet of BehistUn, 
cut about 482 b, c. 

Bas-Eelief of Bas-Reiief of "Xerxes, the great King, the 

Dabius.136 Xebxes. 138 King of Kings, the son of King 

Darius, the Achsemenian." 13' 

We are uncertain whether the effigy (Fig. 45) be not that of his 
son, Artaxbrxes: but, ethnologically, the point is immaterial; for 
the Persic type of the line of Achsemenes is rigorously preserved in 
these sculptures of Persepolis. 




Bas-Relief of Cyrus. 133 



Fig. 44. 



Fig. 45. 




PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



139 



"This is the face (Fig. 46) of the (Mazdaean) servant of Ormuzd, of the god Sapor, 
king of the kings of the Iranians and of the non-Iranians, of the race of the gods ; son 
of the (Mazdsean) servant of Ormuzd Ardeshir, king of the kings of Iran, of the race of 
the gods ; grandson of the god Babek, king." '39 

Fig. 46. 




Roman. 



Sapor. i« 



This G-reeh version of the trilinguar inscription carved upon Sha- 
poor's horse at ISTakshi-Redjeb, near Persepolis, is the more precious, 
because it served to Grotefend, 1802, the same purpose that the tri- 
glyphic Eosetta Stone answered to Young, in 1816. The latter 
became the finger-post to Champollion le Jeune's deciphering of 
all Egyptian hieroglyphics ; just as the former to Eawlinson's of all 
cuneiform writings. 

Our heads, however, are taken from the bas-relief of the same 
king Shapoor, Sapor, at IN'akshi-Roustam : where a Roman suppliant, 
no less a personage than the captive emperor Valerian, kneels in vain 
hope of exciting Persian humanity. The scene refers to events of 
about A. D. 260 ; when, under the Sassanian dynasty, art had wofully 
declined. The contrast, notwithstanding, between the Persian and 
the Roman, is here preserved ; and still more effectively in another 
tableau"' at Chapour. 

Among the prisoners of Darius at Behistun, the nations carved on 
his rock-hewn sepulchre at Persepolis, and the troops supporting the 
throne of Xerxes, may be seen many varieties of the Median, Per- 
sian, and Chaldfean races ; although, in the latter instances, the ab- 
sence of names pt-events identification : but this son of the desert, 
(Fig. 47) of the age of Sapor,"^ affords a variant, with some Arabian 
lineaments, that we are inclined to refer to Beloochistjin, or the 
Indian side of the Persian Gulf. 

Still nearer to the Indus do we assign the first of two efiigies (Figs. 
48, 49) painted in Eg}'pt about 1800 years previously. The second 



140 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF THE JEWS. 

Fig. 47. Fig. 48. 





Fig. 49. 




may even, perhaps, approacli the Himalayan range. They are from 
the "Grand Procession" of Thotmes HI., in the sixteenth century 
B, c, to be elucidated hereinafter. 

He (Fig. 48) leads an elephant, which, like that on the OhelisTc of 
Nimroud,^^"^ points towards Hindostanic intercourse ; and his features, 
surmounted by the straw hat, are peculiarly Hindoo. 

The other (Fig. 49) carries an elephant's tooth, at the same time 
that he leads a bear — by MoRTOisr denominated an Ursus Laliatus — 
and a certain Avian cast of countenance favors the vague geogra- 
phical attribution we adopt for him. 

Finally, to establish the diversity of 
Asiatic types, in every age parallel with 
the Jewish, here is a Tartar (Fig. 50) from 
the conquests of Ramses H.,^** painted at 
Aboosimbel in the fourteenth century B. c. 
His face is unmistakeable ; as are those of 
his associates, some of whom wear their 
hair long, in the same tableau. 

The question of the "Chinese" (un- 
known to any nation west of the Euphrates 
prior to the Christian era,) has been set- 
tled in our Supplement ; and it suffices here to note that, the custom 



Fig. 50. 




THE CAUCASIAN TYPES, ETC. 141 

of shaven heads, with scalp-lock, is essentially Tartar. The Chinese 
always wore their hair long until compelled to shave their heads hy 
the present dynasty of Mantchou-Tartars ; "* and the Turkish branch 
of those hordes introduced this usage in the modern Levant. 

Reader ! we have followed the Chaldaio type from Mesopotamia to 
Memphis ; and thence, via Carthage, through Palestine, Syria, Arabia, 
Assyria, and Persia, until it disappeared ; when, looking towards the 
Caspian and the Indus, we descried the cradle-lands of Arian, Tartar, 
and Hindoo races. May we not now consider permanence of type 
among JEWS, for more than 3000 years, to be a matter proved ? and 
with it, the simultaneous existence in the same countries of every 
variety of type and race visible there now, ever distinct during the 
same period ? 

The monuments of Egj^t and Assyria, history and the Bible, have 
enabled us to ascend to the age of Abraham, first historical progenitor 
of the Israelitish line, and demonstrate the indelibility of the Jewish 
tj-pe from his era downwards. The sculptures of the IVth dynasty 
have also exhibited the admixture, or engraftment of the same 
Chaldaic type upon native families of Egypt at a date which is some 
2000 years beyond Abraham's era upwards. 

Other analogical proofs wilKappear in the sequel; but, in the in- 
terim, the Jews themselves are living testimonies that their type has 
survived eveiy vicissitude ; and that it has come down, centmy by 
century, from Mesopotamia to Mobile, for at least 5500 years, unaltered 
and, save through blood-alliance with Gentiles, unalterable. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE CAUCASIAN TYPES CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 

In a preceding chapter, portions of the European group, generi- 
cally styled the " Caucasian," were traced backwards through historical 
times. This sketch was followed by a resume of the Physical History 
of the Jews, whose annals constitute the boundary of written history, 
by supplying the most ancient literary link that connects us with 
remoter monumental periods. We now propose to track this Cau- 
casian type onwards, through the stone records of Egypt, up to the 
earliest of such documents extant. 

The incipient history of the Israelites is indissolubly woven with 
that of Egypt; nor could Ave separate the two if we would. Although 
the earliest positive synchronism, or ascertained era of contact, be- 
tween these people, is the year 971 b. c; viz. : the conquest of Judsea 



142 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

under Rehoboam by SMshak or SheshonJc — nevertheless, there are 
other periods of intercourse much earher in date, which may be 
reached approximately : and while, on the one hand, Egyptian monu- 
ments, so far as known synchronisms extend, bear testimony to the 
historical truth of Jewish records posterior to Solomon, these, on the 
other, furnish evidence in favor lof the reliability of the hieroglyphics. 
The histories of Abraham, of Joseph, of Jacob and his descendants, 
and of Moses, all bear witness to the antiquity, grandeur, and high 
civilization attained by Egypt's Old Empire before the birth of the first 
Hebrew patriarch : but when we compare the genealogical and chro- 
nological systems of the two people, as well as their respective phy- 
sical types, there is really nothing in common between them. Abra- 
ham, according to the Rabbinical account, is but the tenth in descent 
from Il^Toah; his birth occurring 292 years after the Deluge: but, 
substituting the more critical computation of Lepsius, Abraham must 
have lived in the time of Amunoph m., Memnon, of the XVIIIth 
dynasty, about 1500 years b. c. 'Now, the epoch of Menes, the first 
Pharaoh of Egypt, is placed by the same savant at 3893 b. c, or some 
2400 years before Abraham. 

The epoch of Abraham has ordinarily, indeed, been computed by 
Biblical commentators, a few centuries farther back than the date 
assigned to him by Lepsius ; but we are inclined to adopt the esti- 
mate of this superior authority, for the following simple reasons : — 
There are but five generations — viz. : Isaac, Jacob, Levi, Kohath, 
Amram — between Abraham and Moses; and the era of the latter 
is now approximately fixed in the fourteenth centuiy b. c. By adding 
to the latter age — assuming the Exodus, when Moses was 80 years 
old, at b. c. 1322 ^*^ — the average duration of life for five generations, 
the time of Abraham falls about 1500 b. c. It may be objected that 
people in olden times were gifted with a longevity immeasurably 
greater than our modern generations ; but this presumption is contra- 
dicted by a thoroughly-established fact, that the Egyptians, whose 
ages are recorded on the hieroglyphical tombstones for twenty centu- 
ries before Abraham's nativity, and whose mummied crania, of gene- 
rations long anterior to this patriarch, abound, lived no longer than 
people do now. Another proof, likewise, that numerical errors have 
always existed in the Book of Genesis, is the fact, that the manuscript 
Texts differ irreconcilably in respect to the ages of the Patriarchs ; 
while these extraordinary ages are rendered nugatory by the physio- 
logical laws governing human life. If farther proof be wanted, it 
may be gathered from the story of Abraham and Sarah. Though 
contemporary with every one of her ancestors hack to Noah himself, (all 
of whom, according to Genesis,"^ lived from 205 to 600 years), j-et 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 143 

Sarah, when told, in her ninetieth year, that she should bear a child, 
laughed twice, having never heard of such an occurrence ! But, even 
admitting such superhiiman longevities for the Patriarchs, that does 
not mend the difficulty ; for, after all, there are but ten generations 
between Abraham and IS'oah, to set off against no less than seventeen 
dynasties of Egypt, each of which included many kings, whose united 
ages exceed 2000 years. 

The following is the popular view of the genealogy of Abraham : 
the scientific results of Hebraical inquiry into which are discussed in 
Part III. of our work. 



1. Shem. 


2. Arphaxad. 


3. Salah. 


4. Eber. 


6. Pehff. 


6. Reu. 


7. Serug. 


8. Nahor. 




9. Terah. 


10. Abraham. 





Ifow, as we have stated, Abraham was not only contemporary with 
this ancestry, but, according to the Jewish system, 58 years old when 
Noah himself died ; and yet, when he visits Egypt, he meets with no 
acquaintances nor kindred there ; but, on the contrary, he finds a 
great empire, composed of millions of strange people; and beholds 
standing around him pyramids and temples, erected by this more an- 
cient and distinct race — with records, hieroglyphical and hieratic, 
vnitten in a language to him foreign, stretching back more than 2000 
years before his birth. The reasons, then, are obvious, for passing 
over that part of Egyptian history subsequent to B. c. 1500, and for 
commencing our analysis of the monuments with those of the XVIIth 
dynasty, (of Lepsius — XVLLLth, of Rosellini,) which was contempo- 
raiy with Abraham. Although Jewish chronicles, as they have 
reached us, beyond this Abrahamic point are all confusion, it will be 
seen that Egjqjtian monuments afford vast materials, bearing upon 
some T}-pes of Mankind, in Asia and Africa, whose epoch antedates, 
by twenty centuries, that of the Father of the Abrahamidse. 

It is now known to every educated reader that the Egyptians from 
the very earliest times of which vestiges remain, viz., the Illd and 
rVth dynasties, were in the habit of decorating their temples, royal 
and private tombs, &c., with paintings and sculptures of an historical 
character; and that a voluminous, though interrupted, series of such 
hieroglyphed monuments and papyri is preserved to the present day. 
These sculptures and paintings not only yield us innumerable por- 
traits of the Egj-ptians themselves, but also of an infinitude of foreign 
people, with whom they held intercourse through wars or commerce. 
They have portrayed their allies, their enemies, their captives, servants, 
and slaves ; and we possess, therefore, thus faithfully delineated, most 
if not all the Asiatic and African races known to the Egyptians 3500 
years ago — races which are recognized as identical with those that 
occupy the same countries at the present day. 



144 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

"We shall commence our ilhistrations by a series of royal portraits 
of tlie XVlLth and succeeding dynasties. They are faithfully copied, 
on a reduced scale, from the magnificent Monumenti of Eosellini. 
Although reasons will be produced hereinafter for regarding this line 
of Pharaohs as of mixed Asiatic origin {i. e. not of the pure Egj-ptian 
type proper), yet they will serve admirably as a basis whence to con- 
tinue tracing, upwards, our Caucasian types. IS'ot only are all these 
heads of high Asiatic or Caucasian outline, but several of their 
features strongly betray the Abrahamic cross. 

"When the celebrated Yisoonti printed, in Italy, his " Grreeh and 
Roman Iconography," containing the portraits of the most famous 
personages of classical antiquity, he lamented the absence oi Egyptian 
portraits ; little expecting that, a few years later, Eosellini "^ should 
publish a complete gallery of likenesses of Pharaohs and Ptolemies 
from the monuments of the I^ile ; still less could either of those great 
scholars foresee that, ere one generation elapsed, we should possess 
the portraits of Sennacherib and other Assyrian monarchs from the 
palaces of Mneveh ! 

Mankind have always, and in every country (China, from most 
ancient times, particularly), taken extreme interest in knowing the 
features of those who have been renowned in stoiy. Pliny praises 
the 700 portraits collected by Varro. Solomon, or the writer of 
T^^■sc?om,"^ says, " Whom men could not honor in presence, because 
they dwelled afar off, they took the counterfeit of his visage, and made 
an express image of a king whom they honored ; " and while to Gre- 
cian art we owe the perpetuation of the sublime busts of their worthies 
back to the fourth century b. c, we can no longer tolerate the illusion, 
now that we possess the likeness of Prince Merhet (to be exhibited 
in due course) who lived about 5300 years ago, that Lysistratus, who 
flourished in the 114th Olympiad, was either the first portrait-sculptor 
or moulder. Such sparse remains of Hellenic art as appertain to the 
sixth century b. c. differ altogether from the perfection of later ages, 
and betray the stiffness of antiquity. They correspond in style to the 
old Lycian sculptures, which are known derivatives of Assyrian art ; 
and it is sufficient to glance at the effigies of Mnevite kings and 
nobles, so splendidly illustrated in the folio plates of Botta and of 
Layard, to be convinced that the art oi portrait-taking ascends, in As- 
syria at least, to the tenth century b. c. ; while, in Egypt, its origin 
precedes the oldest pyramids — because, at the IVth dynasty, the 
likenesses of individuals are repeated times out of number in their 
tombs, as any one can verify by opening Lepsius's Denkmdler. 

The general exactitude of Egyptian iconography being now a matter 
beyond dispute, we have only to remind the reader, while submitting 



CAREIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



145 



tte following selections, that, if he makes allowance for want of per- 
spective in antique Egyptian art, wherein the eye is always presented 
in fall, he will find the profiles admirably truthful. Moreover, he 
wall be struck with the likenesses from father to son in each family 
group — which is another guarantee of artistic fidelity; at the same 
time that the infusion of new blood in each dynasty, and the conse- 
quent alteration of lineaments, are apparent to eveiy eye. 

PHARAONIC PORTRAITS.150 

Amunophites and Thotmesites. — New Empire — XViith Theban 
dynasty — commencing at B. c. 1671 (Lepsius), with Aahmes, Amasis; 
whose portrait being unknown, we begin with his son's. Our ethno- 
logical conceptions are very briefly given under each head, leaving the 
reader to emend where we may not have seized the exact definitions. 



Fig. 44. 



Fia. 45. 




His wife 



^m 




'^-^COD 



Amunoph I. 
(A Grecian countenance.) 



Aahmes-Nofee-Aei. 
(Strong Semitic features.) 



Fig. 46. 



Fig. 47. 




Thotmes I. 
(Strikingly Htllenic.) 

19 



Aahmes. 

(Absolutely Jewish.) 



146 



THE CAUCASIA2Sr TYPES 



Fig. 48. 



Fig. 49. 




Thotmes II. 
(Blends his father's with his mother's face.) 

Fig. 50. 



Thotmes III. 
(Preserves the same character.) 

Fig. 51. 




Amunoph II. 
(Unites Egyptian Tvith Hellenic.) 

Fig. 52. 



Thotmes IV. 
(Returns to the old Egyptian form.) 

Fig. 53. 




Thotmes 
IV. mar- 
ries a 
foreigner. 



Their son 
has 

foreign 
features. 




Maut-Hemwa. 
{Nubian ? Cushiie-Ara.'b ?) 



Amunoph III. Memnon. 
(A hybrid, hut not of Negro intermixture.) 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 147 

Fio. 55. 



Fig. 54, 




Wife of Am- 
unoph III. 



(Further 
commin- 
glings with 
foreigners 
occur, and 
the Disk- 
heresy be- 
gins.) 

Son of Amu- 
noph III. 




Taia. 

{Egyptian.) 



Amunoph IV. Bexen-Aten.^^^ 
(Anomalous features.) 



At the close of tlie XVilLth dynasty, and just before the inangnra- 
tion of the XlXth, intervenes a period of anarchy, technically known 
to Egyptologists as the "Disk Heresy;" wherein the above extraor- 
dinary personage (Fig. 55) plays a not less extraordinary part. He 
turned the orthodox priests out of the sanctuaries — abolished the 
polytheistic orisons to Egypt's ancient gods — and introduced duiing 
his reign (followed for a short time by successors), the worship of the 
iun's disk. These events took place in Upper Egypt, during the 
fifteenth century b. c. ; or some time before the birth of Moses, ac- 
cording to the emended BibUcal chronology of Lepsius. 

Fig. 56. 
After anarchical times. 




HORUS. 

(A lineal descendant from Thotmes III., whose Semitic ancestors he reproduces.) 



And the XViiith Dynasty ends in usurpations. 



148 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 



XlXtli Dynasty — New Family — Ramesides — about b. c. 1525. 

Fig. 57. Fio. 58. 




Ramesu. Ramses I. 
(Grs&co-Egyptian ?) 

Jio. 59. 




Seti-Meneptha I. 
(Not a good likeness ?) 

Fig. 61. 



TSIKA. 

(Entirely Jewish.) 



Seti-Me- 
neptha as 
kiag, but 
juvenile. 



Seti-Meneptha.162 
(Mother unknown; but the Semitic caste 
reappears.) 

Fig. 60. 



Another 
portrait 
of the 
same at a 
mature 
age. 




Seti-Meneptha I. 
(More like his youthful style.) 

Fig. 62. 




The wife 
of Seti- 
Meneptha ^ 
I. 



The son 
of Seti- ;3, 
Meneptha hh 
I. and 
Tsira. 




Rathses IL, the Greai.^'i 

(His features are as superbly European 

as Napoleon's, whom he resembles.) 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 149 



FiQ. 63. 



Fig. 64. 




^-^^J^ 



NOFEE-AB.1. 

(Very high-caste lineaments.) 



Wife of 
Ramses 
II. 



A daugh- 
ter of 
Ramses 
II. by an- 
other wife. 




BOTIANTE. 

(Chiefly Semitic.) 



Fig. 65. 



Fig. 66. 




13th son 
of Ram- 
ses II. 



Meneptha II. Menephthes. 

(Lepsius's Pharaoh of the ExodutA^ ) 

[£j7jfp<o-Semitic.j 



After se- 
veral Ra- 
meses, 
Uerri as- 
cends the 
throne. 




Uerri. Ramerri. 
(^effjiiJco-Egyptian.) 



And the -X I X.th dynasty ends about 1300 b. c. 



We pass over the various portraits of the XXth and XXIst dy- 
nasties ; because, where identified, the type is the same, except that 
it is in the females that we perceive the Asiatic caste of race most 
prominently ; a fact of singular ethnographical import. We renew 
the illustrations at about 971-3 b. c, with the portrait of Shishak, 
conqueror of "Jerusalem," as recorded at Karnac; and "in the fifth 
year of Rehoboam," as chronicled by the Hebrew writers. 



150 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 



XXnd Dynasty — Manetho's " Bubastites ;" 

Proved by Mr. Birch, to bave Assyrian names ; but the Pbaraonic 
stock bas now become so mixed, that it is difficult to determine 
whether the Hellenic, the Semitic, or the Egyptian preponderates. 



Fig. 67. 



Fig. 68. 





Sheshonk I. 



OSOEKON III. 



There are little or no remains of the XXIlLd or XXTYth dynasties ; 
but, in order to show that the so-called "Ethiopian" dynasty had no 
Negro blood in their veins, we subjoin their three portraits. Dr. 
Morton calls them "Austro-Egyptians ; " and we opine that they may 
be derived from an Egyptian colony, crossed with Old Beja (Begawee), 
or perhaps with CwsA^^e- Arabian blood. 

XXVth Dynasty— B. c. 719 to 695. 

Fig. 69. Fig. 70. 





SHABAK-^aJaCO. 

(Meroite?) 



SHABATOK-SwecAa*. 
(Pharaoh Sua. 2 Kings, xyii. 4.) 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 151 
Fig. 71. 




' ("Melek-KuSA." 2 Kings, issx. ^.) 

It is unnecessary, for ethnological purposes, to continue the series 
of Egyptian portraits down to the Ptolemies, and ending with Cleo- 
patra (already given, Fig. 8, page 104,) and her son by Julius CiESAR, 
C^SARiON. The reader can behold the whole of them in Rosellini's 
magnificent folios. Having presented the royal likenesses, to serve 
as evidence of Egyptian artistic accuracy, we shall now investigate 
the foreign nations with whom the men, whose portraits we have just 
seen, were acquainted ; together with such others as their ancestors 
had known during twenty centuries previously. 

It will become apparent, in a succeeding chapter, that even as far 
back as the IVth dynasty, b. c. 3500, the population of Egypt already 
exhibited abundant instances of mixed tj'pes of African and Asiatic 
origins ; at the same time that the language then spoken on the Lower 
Nile, and recorded in the earliest hieroglyphics, also presents evi- 
dence of these amalgamations. The series of Royal portraits just 
submitted not only demonstrates this commingling of races, but 
shows that Asiatic intruders had, at the foundation of the Kew Empire, 
to a great extent, supplanted, in the royal family at least, the indige- 
nous Egyptians. Their foreign type is vividly impressed upon the 
iconographic monuments. So much do the Pharaonic portraits of 
the XVIIth, XVIIIth, and XlXth dynasties resemble those of the 
later Greek and Roman sovereigns, that the eye passes through the 
long series given by Rosellini without being arrested by any striking 
contrast between the former and the latter. Although the common 
people were also greatly mixed, the Egyptian type proper, neverthe- 
less, among them, predominated over the Asiatic. Even admitting 
that the autocthonous Egyptian race was always, down to the Persian 
conquest, b. c. 525, the ruling one, yet the royal families of the Mle, 
as in other countries, become modified by marriages with alien races. 



152 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

We know, through, classical history, of numerous alliances between 
the Ethiopians and Egyptians. Solomon too, an Asiatic, married an 
Egyptian princess ; and we have mentioned other instances of Jewish 
predilection for the women, no less than for the "flesh-pots, of Egypt." 
Mr. Birch^^^ has recently furnished some quite novel particulars 
concerning the matrimonial alliance of a Pharaoh of the XXth 
dynasty (probably Ramses XIV.) with an Asiatic princess of Buh- 
Mtana; to whom was given the title of '■'■ lia-neferu, the king's chief 
wife." "With regard to the exact locality in Asia of this country, 
although it might be Echatana in Media, Birch takes it to be the 
celebrated Bashan mentioned in Deuteronomy (iii. 1, &c.) This tablet, 
brought from the temple of Chons at Karnac, in 1844, by M. Prisse, 
is so intensely curious that we extract two of Birch's translations, 
adding interlineary explanations : — 

" Line 5. ' Then the chief of Bukhitana \_Bashan ?] caused his tribute to be brought ; 
he gave his eldest daughter [to the King of Egypt] .... in adoring his majesty, and in 
promising her to him : she being a very beautiful person, his majesty prized her above all 
things.' 

''■Line 6. 'Then Tvas given her the title [ ? ] of Ra-neferu, the king's chief •wife, find 
■when his majesty arrived in Egypt, she Was made king's wife in all respects.' " 

Here, then, is a positive example of the marriage of an Egyptian 
king with an Asiatic female, that entirely corroborates the intermix- 
ture of races we derived from the physical aspects of the royal portraits. 
"Whether the hieroglyphic Bashten, or BaJchtan, be the Bashan of 
Palestine or Median Ecbatana, to ethnolo^ +he fact is the same ; and 
probabilities favor, in either case, the lady' 6 Semitish extraction. It 
is with regret that we cannot digress about the cure wrought upon 
this lady's sister, "Benteresh" [Hebraice, Daughter of the^esA, chief, 
or king], who was " possessed by devils ; " but her name, being Ara- 
bic no less than Hebrew, settles, philologically, her Semitic lineage. 

It may be worthy of passing notice to the reader, that the conven- 
tional color by which the Egyptians always represented their own 
males was red, and their own females, yellow ; and that, with few 
exceptions, other races were painted in such different colors as the 
artist deemed most conformable to their cuticular hues. Why were 
exceptions made ? Was it because the Egyptians, in such instances, 
had formed marriage connections with some of these races, and 
ennobled them, therefore, with the red color ? Our Eigs. 41, 82, and 
88, belonging to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries b. c, are, in 
EosELLiNi, thus represented in re(^ ; showing, perhaps, that they 
were esteemed as equals,^^ or that they belonged to cognate Hamitic 
affiliations. 

Let us now select for examination a few monumental heads of the 
various foreign races so faithfully portrayed. It will then be apparent 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



153 



that the same diversity has evei* existed among the so-called Caucasian 

species, up to the very earliest monuments of above fifty centuries ago. 

By way of general introduction to this vast subject, we present one 

group wherein three distinct types of mankind are grasped by o. fourth. 



Fig. 71. bis, iw 




Ramses IT., in the fourteenth century B. c. (or during the early part 
of the lifetime of Moses), at the temple of Aboosimbel in l!Tubia, sym- 
bolizes his Asiatic and African conquests in a gorgeously-colored 
tableau. He, an Egyptian, brandishes a pole-axe over the the heads 
oi Negroes, Nubians (Bar^ibera), and Asiatics, each painted in their 
true colors : viz., black, brick-dust, and yellow flesh-color ; while, 
above his head, runs the hieroglyphic scroll, " The beneficent living 
god, guardian of glory, smites the South ; puts to flight the Uast ; 
rules by victory; and drags to his country all the earth, and all 
foreign lands." Ramses inclusive, here, to begin vsdth, are /our types 
of men — one mixed, two purely African, and one true Asiatic, co- 
existent at 1400 years b. c, or some 3350 years ago. Their geography 
extends from the confluence of the Blue and White Mies, beyond 
the northern limit of the tropical rains, in Kegro-land ; down the 
river to Eg}-pt, and thence to the banks of the Euphrates. Precisely 
the same four tj-pes occupy the same countries at the present day. 
20 



154 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

We next proceed to examine the Asiatic class ; but it should be 
remembered that we are about to trace retrogressively, into the very- 
night of antiquity, various races — say, an indefinite point of time, 
more than 5000 years anterior to our age ; and that languages, toge- 
ther with the names of people and of places, have so changed, that it 
is in these days impossible to identify, in several instances, either the 
nations or their habitats, except en masse. Often, the ti/pe alone, 
which has never altered, remains to guide us. It were irrational to 
be surprised at these difficulties. "We must ever bear in mind the 
confusion of races and countries seen among the Hebrew, Greek, and 
Roman historians, and even in our geographies of much later ages. 
If classical topography be so often vague, that of the primeval hiero- 
glyphics may well be still more so. 

Most of our illustrations are taken from the great works of Eosel- 
lini and Lepsius ; but we subjoin references to other hierological 
commentators. 

This head (Fig. 72), one of several similar, 

is taken from the IS'ubian temple of Ahoosim- 

^,-^--r-|--. /(I lei, by Lepsius placed in the fourteenth cen- 

Z5\\\ I / /\\ ^^^ ^' ^' '^^^J appear on a tableau wherein 

i^^^:i(g//;>/ \\\ Ramses 11., during the fifth year of his reign, 

4i|J\\| ~'~ .W/^::~~.-^pti attacks a fortress in Asia, which, it is be- 

^^M^Fl \>^ lieved, belonged to a tribe of people called 

i^^^Mf vY "^^ Bomenen, ReMelSTelST, near the " land of 

^ — Omar;"^^ probably mountaineers of the 

-^ Tauric range, and, in any case, not remote 

from Mesopotamia. 

The Bomenen are a branch of the Lodan-nou, or "Ludim," Lydians ; 
by which general designation are known, on the monuments, divers 
Asiatics inhabiting Asia-Minor, Syria, Assyria, and adjacent countries; 
probably, Rosellini thinks, this side of the Euphrates : but we incline, 
with Morton, to consider that Eig. 72 "represents ancient Scythians,' 
the easternmost Caucasian races; who, as history informs us, pos- 
sessed fair complexions, blue eyes, and reddish hair." Contrasted 
with the other Asiatics, grouped in Fig. 71, it afibrds a very distinct 
type. The lower and most salient of the latter profiles presents, as 
Morton has duly noted, " a finely-marked Semitic head, in which the 
forehead, though receding, is remarkably voluminous and expres-' 
g^yg"i69 j^^ additional reason for supposing that Fig. 72 does not' 
belong to Semitic races on the Euphrates, is the fact that it ofiers no ' 
resemblance to the true Chaldaean, or indigenous type, beheld on the 
royal monuments of Nineveh or Babylon ; but may possibly be 
recognized among their prisoners of war or foreign nations. 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



155 




Fig. 73. Allowance made for difference be- 

tween Egyptian and Assyrian art, cou- 
pled with the proviso that the Mnevite 
sculptors were by no means so precise 
in ethnic iconography as those of Egypt, 
we reproduce here a head (Fig. 73), 
from the sculptures of Eiorsabad, by 
way of comparison : noting the iden- 
tity of the head-dress, which is a leathern 
cap. {Vide infra, page 128). 

West of the Euphrates, more or less 
of the Jewish type prevailed. The 
heads, of which Fig. 72 is a specimen, 
represent a race which, some 1400 years b. c, was distinct from con- 
temporaneous Mesopotamian families. People with yellowish skins, 
blue eyes, and reddish hair, are certainly not of Semitic extraction ; 
and, judging from the physiognomy of this man and his associates, 
these were probably cognate Scythian tribes, inasmuch as they do not 
differ among themselves more than individuals of any Caucasian 
nation of our day. It is known that Scythic tribes settled in Syria, , 
and even at Set/thopolis, in Judsea; nor do we employ the term 
"Scj'thiau" here in a sense more specific than as distinct from 
"Semitic" and from "Hamitic" populations. 

OsBURN figures this head, classing it as one of the Canaanitish 
"Zuzim;" but we certainly should not regard blue eyes, red hair, 
eye-brows, and beard, as characteristic of Canaanites, nor of any 
other Hamitic families situate in this region of country, west of the 
Euphrates. The same author calls our Asiatic, Fig. 71 bis, a " Moabite 
of Eabbah," and describes him among the Hittites ; but he likewise 
has classed our Fig. 93 as a Hittite ; and we cannot imagine how ' 
heads so entirely different could be deemed identical by an ethnologist. 

Fig. 74.160 




This head (Fig. 74) is taken from the celebrated tomb of Seti-Me- 



156 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 




Fia. 75. NEPTHA I., of XTXth dynasty, about the fifteenth 

century B. c. "We have already alkided, when 
speaking of classifications of races, to this 
scene, and illustrated it in Fig. 1. The god 
Horus is represented, conducting sixteen per- 
sonages, in groups of four ; each of which 
groups represents a distinct division of the 
human family; and these divisions include all 
the races known to the Egyptians. Our full 
length (Fig. 75) is a reduced copy of the same 
personage ; but taken from the Prussian,^®^ where- 
as the head (Fig. 74) is from the Tuscan work. 

A similar scene occurs in the tomb of Ramses 

m. of the XXth dynasty, in which the same 

divisions are kept up ; but the individuals selected 

differ in race from the preceding, though bearing 

a certain generic resemblance. As before stated, each Egyptian 

division, like our generic designations — Caucasian, Mongol, l^Tegro, 

&c., contained many proximate types. 

Although previously published in his colored folio plates by the 
indefatigable Belzoni, the ethnological importance of this tableau, in 
the sepulchre of Sbti I., was not perceived until Champollion-le- 
Jeune visited Thebes in 1829 ; nor, indeed, to this day, has its quad- 
ripartite classification of mankind been adequately appreciated. 
Some writers have mistaken its import altogether ; while none, that 
we know of, have deduced from it the natural consequence, that 
Egyptian ethnographers already knew of four types of mankind — 
red, black, white, and yellow — several centuries before the writer of 
Xth G-enesis ; who, omitting the Hack or I^egro races altogether, was 
acquainted with no more than three — " Shem, Ham, and Japheth." 
Champollion, with his consummate acuteness, at once pronounced 
this scene to represent 

" The inhabitants of the four quarters of the world, according to the ancient Egyptian 
system: viz., 1st, the inhabitants of Egypt; 2d, the Asiatics; 3d, the inhabitants of 
Africa, or the blacks ; and 4th, the Europeans." 

"We merely object to the term "Europeans," instead of ^^ white 
races ;" because, in the fifteenth century B. c. there was no necessity 
for travelling out of Asia Minor in quest of white men ; nor could the 
Egyptians, at that time, have possessed much knowledge of Europe. 

To our eye. Fig. 74 marks a type of the white races in the fifteenth 
century B. c. The particular nation to which he belongs is the Rebo 
of hierogl3^hics ; probably the Rhilii of the classics. 

Figure 76 ^^ is from another part of the tomb of Seti I., also dating 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



157 



Fig. 76. 




about 1500 years b. c. This head, in Rosellini's colored plates, pre- 
sents all the lineaments of a Himyarite Arab, except the blue eye ; 
which, possibly, may be a mistake of the artist. " Himytlr" means 
red, and the Pisan copy is colored red. Upon reference, notwith- 
standing, to the great Prussian work,^^ wherein, it is to be assumed, 
the colors of the original paintings are 
reproduced with greater accuracy, this 
face is of a hght brown complexion, 
with black eyes and beard. While, 
perhaps, it is not possible (considering 
the numerous transfers of copies be- 
tween ancient originals in Egypt and 
their multiplied reproductions in mo- 
dern plates,) always to avoid discrepan- 
cies, it will be remembered that the 
crimson or scarlet tints, adopted by the 
Egyptians for their own males, is purely conventional — that is, being 
impossible in real nature — so that, whether the skin be colored red 
or browm, the osteological structure of the features remains the same ; 
and these are genuine Arab. 
Morton remarks, in his MS. letter : — 

" This is the very image of a Southern Arab, with his sTiarp features, daxk skin, and 
certain national expression, admirably given in the draTving." 

As such, his effigy furnishes another antique type of man. 

This head (Fig. 77) [vide supra page 108, 
fig. 9,) has been already compared with 
the Tochari of Strabo and of the !N"inevite 
sculptures. There is nothing to favor Os- 
burn's theory, that this man and his ma- 
ritime associates were Philistines; nor to 
oppose Morton's, that they exhibit Celtic 
features. "We present it, without comment, 
as another evidence of the ancient diversity 
of " Caucasian types :" and with an indica- 
tion of the incompatibility of this man's 
features with any tongue not a congener of 
that class bearing the name of "Indo-European." He cannot, 
therefore, be a Philistine. 

From the prisoners of Ramses m., of the XXth dynasty, thirteenth 
century B. c, we take Fig. 78: sculptured on the base of his pavilion 
at Medeenet-Haboo.'" A fracture in the wall has obliterated the 
hieroglyphics, so that there is no name for him ; but adjacent to him 
are prisoners of the Tokkari or Tochari. He may be a mountaineer 



Fio. 77. 




158 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

Fig. 78. Fig. 79. 





Anciekt Asiatic. 



MoDEEN Kurd. 



of the Taurus chain; because he bears a strong resemblance to 
modern Kurdish families ; seen by comparing this profile with the 
head of a Kurd (Fig. 79), from the work of Hamilton Smith. To 
our minds, here is a strong example of permanence of type through 
3000 years; whilst the name "Kurdah," Kurds, is read in ancient 
cuneiform, by De Saulcy, upon Assyrian inscriptions. 

Asiatic conquests of Ramses II. yield us Fig. 80 ; within the four- 
teenth century b. c, preserved at Beyt-el-Walee.^^ Mr. Birch's detailed 
account of this important historical document is accompanied by 
colored drawings, in which the victories of that monarch over various 
Asiatic and African races are represented with amazing truthfulness 
and spirit. The head itself possesses a Semitic caste, blended, 
perhaps, with Arian elements. 



Fig. 80. 



Fig. 81. 




Another captive (Fig. 81) from the Asiatic conquests of Eamses HE. 




CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 159 

at Medeenet-Haboo. ^"^ Wilkinson reads the name "Lemanon," 
identical with Lebanon ; which is probable, inasmuch as Birch agrees ; 
whilst Osburn, by reading Hermo- 
nites, fixes their locality at Mount Fig- 82. 

Hermon, anti-Libanus, in the north- 
east of Palestine. This character- 
istic specimen is essentially Semitic, 
of the Syrian foiTQ. 

Fig. 82 belongs to the "Grand 
Procession" of the age of Thotmes 
m., of the XVnth dynasty, 1600 
B. c.'" No head in our whole cata- 
logue has, perhaps, caused as much 
archaeological debate ; nor is onr 
knowledge of his race and country as yet satisfactory. 

Rosellini figures this head without comment. Champollion Pigeac 
copies it, but his explanations lead to no tangible result. Plosldns 
has beautifully colored the whole file (sixteen persons in number) of 
these tributary people, regarding them as natives of Meroe, in Ethi- 
opia ; but subsequent researches, by Lepsius and others, render such 
estimate of Meroite antiquity radically wrong. "We now know that, 
in the time of Thotmes m., the only civilized points in Nubia were 
those occupied by Egyptian garrisons. The Meroe of Greek annalists 
did not then exist. 

"Wilkinson accurately designs the whole scene, but without colors ; 
thereby rendering it less clear, in an anthropological point of view ; 
but his hieroglyphics are more exact, and he obsei'ves : — "The people, 
Kufa (which is their name), appear to have inhabited a part of Asia, 
lying considerably to the north of the latitude of Palestine ; and their 
long hair, rich dresses, and sandals of the most varied form and color, 
render them remarkable among the nations represented in Egyptian 
sculpture." Birch calls them " the people of Kaf or Kfou, an Asiatic 
race ;" placing them near Mesopotamia. Prisse denominates them, 
"le peuple de Koufa (race Asiatique, peinte en rouge)." 

From the foregoing we may conclude — 1st, that these Koufa were 
Asiatics ; 2d, that they resided near Mesopotamia ; 3d, that, as they 
are painted red on the monuments, they presented certain affinities 
with the Egyptians, confirmed by the physiological characteristics of 
the latter race ot)served by Morton — "shortness of the lower jaw and 
chin ;" and 4th, that, if they be Cushites, they are of the Ilamitic stem. 
They are probably of the EUSA-ite families of Arabia, cognate to the 
Egyptians (perhaps allied by royal marriages), who in consequence 
honored them with the red color. Inasmuch aa they bring a tribute 



160 



THE CATTCASIAN TYPES 



Fig. 83. 



oi golden vessels, they may have had access to the Arabian Ophir; and 
as they carry elephants' teeth, they had communication with the Indies, 
or with Africa. Judging from their portraits, they certainly belonged 
not to any of the Abrahamic or Chaldgean tribes. They bear, further- 
more, considerable resemblance to those primeval heads we shall 
exhibit in a succeeding chapter as illustrative of the type of the 
founders of the Egyptian empire ; and slightly also to the later Egyp- 
tian type {Rot), as represented by Theban artists in their quadruple 
classification of races. These Koufa may possibly have been the 
descendants of an Egyptian colony, near the Persian Gulf: like that 
of Colchis, if we can trust Herodotus, in Asia Minor. 

This figure is from the conquests of 
Seti-Meneptha I., fifteenth century b. c, 
at the temple of Karnac.^^ The people 
come under the generic class of White 
races ; and their tribe is called Tohen, by 
Rosellini. The same head, in one of 
the tombs, appears as the type of White 
races in the quadrupartite division of 
which we have already spoken. Birch 
calls them Tohen, Tahno, or Ten-hno — 
"evidently belonging to the white blood, 
or Japhetic family of mankind." Mor- 
ton, in his MS. letter, writes, *'tbey 
present Pelasgic features ; but the blue eye, reddish hair, and harsh 
expression, are not unlike the Scythian race." The Egyptians seem 
to have entertained towards them an excess of hatred, and to have 
slaughtered them with more fury than any other people. But we 
leave their exact race and country an open question, although their 
Caucasian features cannot be mistaken. 

We have compared this (Eig. 84) 
and the next (Eig. 85) with the 
Jewish type (vide supra, p. 140). 
Rosellini gives no explanations. 
Supposed, by Champollion, to be 
Lydians — their name reading i>M- 
dannu, or Rot-n-no. This head be- 
longs to the same Grand Proces- 
sion of Thotmes III., so effectively 
colored in Hoskins ; but we have 
copied Rosellini's outline, as more 
correct.^^^ Hosldns again perceives "white slaves" of the king of his 
Ethiopia ! Osbui'n terms them Arvadites ; but Birch, refuting both 




Fig. 84. 




CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS, 



161 



Fig. 85. 




opinions, puts these people down as Cappadocians, or Leuco-Syrians ; 
which seems more rational, did not an elephant's tooth suggest some 
geographical ohstacle. The man leads an animal — disputed, whether 
it is a hear or lion, the drawing being so very defective. He also 
carries an elephant's tusk. Morton figures this head as Indo-Semitic, 
or Indo-Persian ; and all attending circumstances assign him a habi- 
tation between Persia and the Upper Indus. 

Another from the same scene as the pre- 
ceding figure.^™ He Avears a light dress and 
straw hat, and leads an elephant: conditions 
indicative of a southern climate. Morton 
observes — " This is a yet more striking 
Hindoo, in whom the dark skin, black eye, 
delicate features, and fine facial angle, are 
all admirably marked. The presence of 
the elephant assists us in designating the 
national stock, while the straw hat sends 
us to the Granges" — or, much nearer, to the 
Indus ? 

Peculiar interest attaches to both of the above efilgies ; the latter 
of which enables us to carry the existence of a Hindoo national type 
back to the sixteenth century B. c. Although no written Hindostanic 
monuments are extant of an age coetaneous with even the sixth cen- 
tury prior to our era, native traditions, zoological analogies, and 
admissions of the more sceptical Indologists, justify our considering 
the Hindoos to have inhabited their vast peninsula as early as the 
Eg}-ptians did the shores of their Mle, or any other type of men its 
original centre of creation, whether in Asia, Africa, Europe, America, 
or Oceanica. 

"We now come to that Egyptian tableau the most frequently alluded 
to. and which has prompted much nonsensical, if pious, discussion. 
The head (Fig. 86) is one of the '^ BrickmaJcers," 
from the tomb of an architect — " Prefect of the 
country, Intendant of the great habitations, 
EoKSHERB " — of the time of Thotmes HI., 
XVHth dynasty, sixteenth century b. c.^''^ We 
copy from Rosellini, who thought them Israelites ; 
but, according to the chronology of Lepsius, 
they antedate Jacob; though they may be a 
cognate race — perhaps some of his ancestry. 
Wilkinson honestly observes : — 

" To meet with Jlebrews in the sculptures cannot reasonably be expected, since the 
remains in that part of Egypt where they lived have not been preserved ; but it is curious 

21 



Fig. 86. 







»■' 



■>. 



162 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

to discover other foreign captives occupied in the same manner, overlooked by similar ' task- 
masters,' and performing the very same labors as the Israelites described in the Bible." 

The same author again insists — 

" Tfcey are not, however, Jews, as some have erroneously supposed, and as I have else» 
where shown." 

Notwithstanding the palpable anachronism and contradicting figura- 
tive circumstances, certain evangelical theologers have wasted much 
crocodilean grief over these unfortunate and oppressed, however apo- 
chryphal, Israelites ; forgetting, in their exceeding-great-thankfulness 
over a wondrous " confirmation," to weep for the Egyptian brick- 
makers, who toil in the same scene. 

The following items may assist the reader in forming an indepen- 
dent opinion : — 

1st. The hieroglyphics do not mention the name or country of 
these brickmakers. 

2d. The scene is not an historical record; but a pictorial illustration 
of brick-making, among other constructive arts that embellished the 
tomb of an architect, at Thebes — that is, 500 miles from "Goshen." 

3d. The people wear no beards — their little chin-sprouts are but 
the usual unshaven state of Egyptian laborers, no less than of pea- 
santry everywhere. 

4th. They are a Semitic people — possibly, with their beards cut 
off in Egj-ptian slavery ; but whether Canaanites, Hebrews, Arabs, 
Chaldasans, or others, cannot be determined. 

5th. There is not the slightest monumental evidence that the Jews 
(in the manner described by the writers of Genesis and Exodus) were 
ever in Egypt at all ! Their type, however, had existed there, 2000 
years before Abraham's birth. 

6th. These brickmakers are not more Jewish, in their lineaments, 
than Egyptian Eell^hs of Lower Egypt at the present day, where 
the Arab cross is strong. Indeed, they greatly resemble the living 
mixed race, who now make Nilotic bricks, every day, at Cairo, exactly 
as these brickmakers did 3500 years ago, and think nothing of it. 

Finally — if these brickmakers are claimed to be Israelites, we can 
have no objection, because their efiigies will corroborate the perma- 
nence of the Jewish type for 3500 years : if they be not, to us they 
answer just as well — being tacit witnesses of the durability of Semitic 
features in particular, no less than proofs of one more form of ancient 
Caiicasian tjrpes in general. 

The next head (Fig. 87), w^e noAV submit, is really out of place among 
our Caucasian group ; but, from the man's associations, he may have 
a position here. We are induced to portray his singular type for 
another reason : viz., that, being represented in the same picture with 
foreign allies, as well as with native Egyptian soldiers, it serves to 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



163 




illustrate tlie correctness of Egyptian out- Pi«- 87. 

line drawing, and also the minute knowledge 
their artists had of various t^-pes of man- 
kind at that early day. The people of 
whom this is a sample have been reputed 
by many to be ancient Chinese. There are 
much better reasons for believing them to 
be Tartar tribes; which form the geogra- 
phical link between Mongols and Cauca- 
sians — aboriginal consanguinity with either 
excluded. 

Morton took this head for Mongolian ; and too hastily adopted 
ancient Egypto-Chinese connexions, on the faith of certain pseudo- 
antique Chinese "vases;" which, not manufactured prior to a. d. 
1100, could not have been found in Theban tombs shut up 2000 
years before. 

Under the heading of "Alphabetical Origins," our Supplement 
establishes that the Chinese, before the Christian era, possessed no 
knowledge whatever of nations whose habitats lay north and west of 
Persia. The splendid tableau from which the above ethnographic re- 
cord is taken, contains many heads of the same type — some of which 
are shaven, except the scalp-lock on the crown ; while others, though 
adorned with the thin moustache, wear the hair long and untouched 
by scissors. N'ow, it can be seen, by reference to Pauthier, that the 
Ma ntcTiou- Tartars, in A. D. 1621-'27, forced the Chinese to shave their 
heads, and wear the pig-tail. Previously, the Chinamen had worn 
their hair long. This scalp-lock (called SJioosheh, by the Arabs), 
therefore, is a Tartar custom ; and inasmuch as in the reign of 
Ramses II., fourteenth century b. c, China and Chinese were equally 
unknown to the Egyptians, Jews, or Assyrians, we must suppose 
that these fail', oblique-eyed, and scalp-locked enemies of Ramses, were 
Tartars, or a branch of the great easterly Scythian hordes.^'^ 

Osburn repeats this scene, calling the people Sheti, whilst striving 
to restrict their habitat to Canaan, in which he signally fails. Birch's 
more consistent geography carries them to the Caspian, where Tartars 
would naturally be found ;• to which critical induction we may add 
the recent opinions of Rawlinson, De Saulcy, Hincks, and Lowen- 
stern, that the Tartar, or " Scythic," element in cuneatic inscriptions, 
especially of the Achfemeno-il/ec?4a?i style, establishes the proximity 
of Turkish (call them Tartar or Scythic, for the terms are still vague) 
tribes to Persia at a much earlier period than ethnologists had here- 
tofore suspected. 

As such, this effigy (Fig. 87) exemplifies the remotest Asiatic people 



164 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 



depicted on Pharaonic monuments, in days parallel with Moses, 

during the fourteenth century b. c. 
Eamses IT., at Beyt-el-Walee — fourteenth century B. c. — grasps the 

subjoined foreigner (Fig. 88) by the hair of his head. Considered, by 

Eosellini, to be typical of the "Tohen," a people of Syria: whereas 

Morton deemed him a " Himyar- 
^ ^i°-88. ite-Arab."i^ We have naught 

to oppose ; and may add, that 
his red {Himyhr) color affiliates 
him with the Arabian EXTS A-ites. 



Fig. 89. 





Fig. 90. 



As the type of Yellow races, (Fig. 89) stands in the tomb of Eamses 
m., XXth dynasty, about thirteen centuries b. c."* N"othing is certain 
respecting the history of the people he represents; but Osburn perhaps 
is right in calling him an ancient Tyrian: everything — features, 
purple dress, &c. — harmonizes with this view, adopted by us in a pre- 
ceding chapter. {Infra, p. 136.) 

An identical type, possibly from 
another Phoenician colony, is met 
with about 150 years earlier. From 
the Theban tomb at Qoornet Murra'i, 
of the time of Amuntuonch [Amen- 
anchut of Birch), we select (Fig. 90) 
one instance of the many, to illus- 
trate physiological similitudes, ^'^ 
that time has not extinguished, 
along the present coasts of Pales- 
tine, in the fishermen of Sour and 
Seyda (Tyre and Sidon), even to 
this day. 




CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



165 



This great Asiatic chief (Fig. 91) is killed, in single combat, by 
Ramses 11.; the colored original being drawn on a magnificent tableau, 
at Aboosimbel.™ Rosellini makes him one of the Scythian " Tohen," 
beyond the Euphrates; and Morton deems him "Pelasgic." His 
features depart essentially from the Semitic cast ; and the face offers 
the earliest instance wherein Egyptian art has figured the eye closed. 

In this instance, as in many others, 
our copy is reversed; but such inad- 
vertencies do not affect ethnogra- 
phic precision. 

Fig. 92. 



Fio. 91. 





We detach Eig. 92 from the bas-reliefs of Ramses HI., XXth dynastj', 
at Medeenet Haboo ; where he is called " Captive prince of the per- 
verse race of the inimical country of Sheto, living in captivity."^" 
Morton, veiy naturally, holds him to be a "variety of the Semitic 
stock;" and Sheto, if read Kheto, signifies a Hittite; using the Biblical 
term K^eT^ in its widest acceptation. 

As the type of White races, Eig. 
93 appears in one of the Theban 
tombs ; and, name unknown, is con- 
jectured, by Rosellini, to be " an an- 
cient example of the Greeks of Asia 
Minor, and especially of lonians. To 
strengthen this conjecture, I recall 
how among the monuments of Thot- 
mes V. prV".], and of Meneptha L, 
mention is made of this people."^™ 
The lonians, Javan, &c., are sufficiently discussed in our Part II., 
where the HTN' of Xth Genesis is analyzed; but " Yavan," and the 
"people of Yavan," as Grecian tribes of the seventh century B.C., 
occur repeatedly upon the monuments of ITineveh. Morton takes 




him to be " Pelasgic." 



In his MS. letter, he adds : — 



166 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 





Fig. 95. 




Fig. 96. 



" This head presents us with the true Hellenic line of nose and forehead ; for, althougti 
the latter is more receding than we continually see in the Greek heads, it forms an unin- 
terrupted line with the nose. The black hair is in unison with the other traits ; but the 
red tint of the eye [perhaps an error of artist ?] is not so readily accounted for. The facial 
angle, moreover, in this head, is little short of a right-angle." 

^^°- ^*- For the sake of comparison, we first give 

Lepsius's copy of the enlarged head (Fig. 94) 
of the standard type of Yellow races, from 
the quadripartite division in Seti's tomb, de- 
scribed in a former place. Beneath it, (Fig. 
95) is a reduction of one of the same four 
persons at full length. Opposite, we put 
Eosellini's copy (Fig. 96), 
for the express puipose of 
indicating an error in the 
Tuscan work which the 
Prussian has removed : re- 
ferring to our note^''' for 
explanations. 

Numerous are the com- 
rades of Fig. 97 in the 
conquests of Ramses II., 
at Beyt-el-Walee, XlXth 
dynasty, foui'teenth cen- 
tury B. G. Birch considers 
them tribes of Canaan; 
because, at Karnac, the 
same people are called, in 
the text, " The fallen of the Shos-sou, in their elevation on the fortress 
of Pelou, which is in the land of Kanana."^^ And the next (Fig. 98) is 
an individual appertaining to another set of prisoners, from some 
adjacent district. Osburn iigm-es them as Jebusites; to which we 




Fig. 98. 



Fig. 97. 





CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 167 



offer no objection ; and thus we should behold one of the inhabitants 
of ante-Judaic Jerusalem, leBUS or Jehus: before its capture by 
Joshua, and long prior to the expulsion of the Jebusian from Mount 
Zion by the prowess of David. 



Fig. 99. 



Fig. 100. 





Both the head and the full-length figure, 

here presented, illustrate four personages 

identical in all respects.^^' 

The}' are the type of the Yellow races, in 

one of the tombs coeval with Mosaic times. 

Rosellini, who wrote before the Persian and 
the N'inevite arrow-heads were^ deciphered, suggested their resem- 
blance to the sculptures of Assyria and Persepolis. They portray, 
certainly, strong Chaldfean affinities, cognate with the Hebrew race ; 
and their elegant green dresses, embroidered with skilful taste, show 
a very polished people. Osburn figures them as Hamathites — citizens 
of Hamah, between Damascus and Aleppo, ever renowned for their 
beautiful manufactures, brocades, shawls ; together with those richly- 
colored silk-and-cotton goods, now dear to Levantine merchants as 
"AMgias;" nor does his view militate against ours. Champollion- 
Figeac gives this effigy, with the conjecture of his brother that they 
are Medes, corresponding to Persepolitan relievos. Chaldsea seems 
to be the centre-point of all these authorities ; and we have classified, 
elsewhere, this head among Jewish tribes. 

Belonging to the same sculptures of the thirteenth to fifteenth 
centuries B. c, and located geographically in the same Syrian pro- 
vinces, we group together six more specimens of varieties of this 
all-pervading Seipitic tj-pe. Representatives of ancient Sidonians, 
Aradians, and so forth, along the coast of Syria, and on the spurs of 
Lebanon, each one still lives in thousands of descendants, who now 
throng the Bazaars of Seyda, Beyroot, Tripoli, Latachia, Antioch 
and Aleppo. Substitute the turban for the military casque and civic 
cap ; and, in the same localities, still speaking dialects of the same 



168 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 



Semitisla tongues, you will recognize in the '•'■ Shawdm^' people of 
Shhm, or Syria (SAeMites), — as the Arabs still designate the Damas- 
cenes technically, and the Syrians generally — the very men whose 
ancestral images were chiselled by Diospolitan artists not less than 
3200 years agone. 



Fig. 101.182 



Fig. 102.183 




FlO. 103,184 



Fig. 104.185 




Fig. 105.185 



Fig. 106.187 





mr- 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 169 

Here let us pause. Thirty varieties, more or less, of the Caucasiantype, 
solely among ancieut foreigners to Egypt, have now been submitted 
to the reader. They have been taken, almost at random, from the 
Monumenti of Rosellini, with occasional reference to the Denkmdler 
of Lepsius : and their epochas range between the thirteenth and the 
seventeenth centuries b. c. ; a period of about 400 years, including, 
moreover, whatever era is assignable to Moses. There is diversity 
enough among them to satisfy the most exacting, that men, in the 
same times and countries, were just as distinctly marked as they are 
now in the Levant, after some 3300 years ; and hence, again, it follows 
that, in the same lands, time has produced no change, save through 
amalgamation ; because, in the streets of Cairo, Jerusalem, Damascus, 
Bep'oot, Aleppo, Antioch, Mosul, and Bagdad, every one of these 
varieties stiikes your vision daily. 

Mark, too, that the whole of these diversified Oriental families occu- 
pied a very limited geographical are^ ; viz. : from the river Nile east- 
ward to the Tauric range of mountains; at most, to the western 
borders of the Euxine and Caspian Seas, and across from the Medi- 
terranean to the Persian Gulf — the Indus, perhaps, inclusive. This 
superficies constitutes but a petty segment of the earth. ITeither have 
we yet looked beyond such narrow horizon, whether for Mongols, Ma- 
lays, Polynesians, Australians, Americans, Esquimaux ; nor for Finnish, 
Scandinavian, endless European, TJralian, and other races, with the 
above types necessarily coexistent, although to old Pharaonic ethno- 
graphy utterly unknown ! Observe likewise, that, Egypt deducted, 
Afi'ica and her multifarious types are yet untouched. 

How, we feel now emboldened to ask, have the defenders of the 
Z7n%-doctrine met the above facts ? The answer is simple. By sup- 
pressing every one of them. 

Dr. Prichard published the third edition of the Hd volume of his 
Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, in 1837, at the vast me- 
tropolis of London, surrounded with facilities unparalleled. He de- 
votes fifty-nine pages to the " Egyptians ;" ^^ yet, beyond a passing 
sneer at Champollion-le-Jeune,'^^ whose stupendous labors were then 
endorsed by the highest continental scholars — De Sacy, Humboldt, 
Arago, Bun sen, &c. — he never quotes a single hierologist! N'ow-a- 
days, every archaeologist knows that three-fourths of those very writers 
whom Prichard does cite on Egypt have been consigned to the " tomb 
of the Capulets." Kow, in 1837, Eosellini's Plates and Text, compre- 
hending almost every pictorial fact by us brought forward, had been 
published — in great part, for above four years, commencing in 1832-3. 
Common enough was the Tuscan work in London, to say naught of 
Paris, close at hand. How could Prichard ignore the existence also 
22 



170 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

of tHese identical subjects in Champollion's folio Monuments d'Egypte ? 
But, worse than that, viewing the question merely as one of scientific 
knowledge and good faith, Prichard continued to publish, volume III. 
in 1841 ; volume IV. in 1844 ; and volume Y. in 1847. The world 
seems exhausted to prove his unitary-hypothesis. He never reverts 
to Egyptian archaeology, nor reveals one iota of all these splendid 
discoveries. Why ? Because they flatly contradict him, and the 
antiquated school of which he was the steel-clad war-horse. 

Who forced Prichard, at last, either to accept hieroglyphical disco- 
veries in some of their bearings upon the ITatural History of Man, or to 
become placed, so to say, without the pale of scientific anthropology ? 

Our countryman, Morton, — a student who, deprived of every facility 
in Egyptian matters until 1842, printed, in 1844, his '■'■Crania jEgypt- 
iaca, or Observations on Egyptian Ethnography, derived from Ana- 
tomy, History, and the Monuments ;" and thereby founded the true 
principle of philosophical inquiry into human origins. 

Prichard (in justice to his memory let us speak,) acknowledged 
Morton's work in the handsomest manner, ^^" although not in the 
" Researches." But, how came it that Prichard should have allowed 
an American savan (cut ofi" by the Atlantic from all his own un- 
bounded facilities,) to anticipate him ? In truth, only because Egyp- 
tian archseology had shattered Prichard's unity -doctrine from the 
weather-vane to its foundations. 

Having disposed thus of their champion, weaker sustainers of 
"unity" who have pinned their creed on his obstinacy, adding their 
own blindness to his cecity, may be passed over, without distressing 
the reader by recapitulation of shallow arguments and unphiloso- 
phical crudities, ^Numbers of their books lie on our shelves undusted, 
because there is not a monumental fact to be culled from the whole 
of them. Kor shall we do more than allude to the opinions of the 
leai-ned Mure,^^' or of the erudite, though mystical, Henet,^^^ who 
endeavored to confine all these Asiatic wars of the Pharaohs to the 
valley of the Nile ; because, as neither scholar could read a hierogly- 
phic, they debated upon that which they did not understand ; and, in 
consequence, uttered views that are now entirely superseded by later 
Egyptologists, to whose pages we make a point of referring those who 
may choose to criticise the bibliographical ground- work of " Types 
of Mankind." 

But we have not finished with the monuments. 

M. Prisse's copy of the heterodox king, Atenra-Bahhan {Bex-en- 
Aten), now proved to be Amunoph IV., need not here be repeated. 
Its reduced fac-simile maybe consulted (sttpra, page 147); while every 
reference required is thrown into a note : '^^ and, inasmuch as one of 



CARKIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



171 



the writers (G. E. G.) was present at the temple of Karnac, 1839-40, 
when the original stone Avas found, and the design made, we can 
vouch for the accuracy of Prisse's cojij of this unique bas-relief. 
We mention this, because it differs, though not materially, from the 
later reproductions of the same portrait in Lepsius's Denkmdler :^^^ a 
divergence accounted for by the fact that the French original lay at 
Thebes, whereas the Prussians copied others at Tel-el-Amarna, 200 
miles off: nor is it to be expected that ancient Egyptian portrait- 
sculptors could multiply likenesses of a man more uniformly similar 
among themselves, than can our own artists, or even daguerreo- 
typists, at the present day. In proof of how artists differ, we here 



Fig. 107. 




Skai, or AI. 



Bekhen-aten. 



present other less faithful copies, followed by Morton. ^^° The cut 
contains, moreover, an attempted portrait of another king, formerly 
termed SKAI, whose place, though proved to be nearly coeval with 
that of Bakhan, was enigmatical until Lepsius discovered that he 
was an immediate successor of the arch-heretic, and, like him, became 
effaced from the monuments when Amun's priests regained the upper 
hand.'«« 

"This king, AI, was formerly a private individual, and took his sacerdotal title into his 
cartouche at a later period. He appears with his wife in the tombs of Amarna, not unfre- 
quently as a noble and' peculiarly-honored officer of king Amunoph IV. ; that puritanical 
sun-worshipper, who changed his name into that of ' Bech-en-Aten'" — i.e. Adorer of the 
sun's dink. 

In Eosellini's copy,^^' the features of this king AI are atrocious. 
Lepsius has since pronounced Beyj-en-aten to be Amunoph IV., son 



172 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

of AmuBOpli-illfeTOWon. Ethnologically, his strange countenance 
attests very mixed blood ; but nothing of the Kegro in either parent. 
His face is Asiatic, typifying no especial race ; but it is one of those 
accidental deviations from regularity that anatomists are familiar with, 
especially among mongrel breeds. "We have seen in our Pharaonic 
gallery that Amunoph III. (Fig. 53) himself was not of pure Egyp- 
tian stock. 

"We now take a long and portentous stride in Egyptian history ; 
viz. : from the XVHth back to the Xllth dynasty, a period obscure 
for about four centuries. The country during this hiatus seems to 
have been greatly disturbed by wars, conquests, by Syksos-rmgrar 
tions of population, and other agitating causes ; and hence arises the 
lack of monuments to guide our investigations. In ethnographical 
materials, especially, there is almost an entire blank. But with the 
Xnth dynasty, one of the most effulgent periods of Egyptian history 
bursts upon us ; and we can again, with ample documents, take up 
our Caucasian type, and pursue it upwards along the stream of time. 

According to Lepsius, the Xllth dynasty closed about the year 
2124 B. c. If we add to this the summation for the eight kings, given 
in the Turin Papyrus, of "213 years, 1 month, and 15 days,"^^^ this 
dynasty commenced about the year 2337 B. c, ; which is only some 
eleven years after Usher's date for the Deluge, when most good Chris- 
tians imagine that but eight adults, four men and four women (with a 
few children), were in existence ! The monuments of this dynasty 
afford abundant evidence not only of the existence of Egypto-Cauca- 
sian races, but of Asiatic nations, as well as of Negroes and other 
African groups, at the said diluvian era. 

Fig. 108. 



Fio. 109. 





" Thirty-seven Prisoners'^ oi'SBm.-'SLass&n. General Nevotph : now, Num-hotep. 

Let us dispose first of Pig. 110. It is one of three recently pub- 
lished by Lepsius ; characterized by red hair, and distinct from ^o. 




CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 173 

108, whose hair is black. We refer to ^Q-i^Q- 

tlie DenJcmdler^^^ for tlieir colored por- 
traits, adding Lepsius's comments 
below. 

The head (Fig. 108)^ on the preced- 
ing page, from the celebrated tombs of 
Beni-Hassan, so often alluded to by 
EgJl^tologists, represents one of a group 
of personages, generally known as the 
^' thirty-seven prisoners of Beni-Hassan.'' 
The scene has been repeatedly and va- 

1 T • J 1. /-^i, IT -r> Asiatic, from Beni-Hassan. 

nously explained, by Champolhon, Ko- 

sellini, Wilkinson, Champollion-Figeac, Birch, and Osburn — leaving 
aside the trashy speculations of mere tourists ; for, as usual, there 
have been printed many extravagant theories as to the country and 
condition of these "thirty-seven prisoners." They were, indeed, sup- 
posed, by orthodox credulity, to represent the visit of Abraham to 
Egypt, or else the arrival of Jacob and his family. More critical authori- 
ties have beheld in them Israelitish wanderers, Ionian Greeks, Hyksos, 
and what not. But, alas ! all Jewish partialities received a death- 
blow when it was proved, through the discovery of the Xllth dynasty, 
that this tableau had been painted at Beni-Hassan several generations 
before Abraham's birth ! The first rational account, in English, of 
this scene was put forth by Mr. Birch, in 1847. He says : — 

" An officer of Dsr-t-sen I., as recorded in his tomb at Benihassan, received in the sixth 
regnal year of that monarch, by royal command, a convoy of thirty-nine (37) Mes-segem, 
foreigners, headed by their hyk, or leader, Ab-sha. These were of the great Semitic 
family, called, by the Egyptians, "^aniM."2oi 

This lection he confirms in 1852 — 

" The Mes-stem foreigners, who approach the uomarch Neferhetp, come through the Ara- 
bian Desert on asses." 202 

Lepsius had described the impressions made upon him, at first 
sight of this unique series : — 

" In these remarks, I am thinking especially of that very remarkable scene, on the 
grave of i\'eAera-s«-NuMHETEP, which brings before our eyes, in such lively colors, the 
entrance of Jacob with his family, and would tempt us to identify it with that event, if 
chronology would allow us, (for Jacob came under the Hyksos [«'. e., centuries later]), and 
if we were not compelled to believe that such family immigrations were by no means of rare occur- 
rence. These were, however, the forerunners of the Hyksos [and of the Israelites], and 
doubtless, in many ways, paved the way for them." 203 

From the excellent translation of Lepsius's Brief e by Mr. Kenneth 
B. H. Mackensie,^ Ave extract the following particulars, referring at 
the same time to the Prussian Denkmaler'^^ for exquisite plates of 
these splendid sepulchres : — 



174 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 

"It must then have been a proud period for Egypt — that is proved by these mighty 
tombs alone. It is interesting, likewise, to trace in the rich representations on the walls, 
which put before our eyes the high advance of the peaceful arts, as well as the refined 
luxury of the great of that period ; also the foreboding of that great misfortune which 
brought Egypt, for several centuries, under the rule of its northern enemies. In the repre- 
sentations of the warlike games, which form a characteristically recurring feature, and take 
up whole sides in some tombs, which leads to a conclusion of their general use at that 
period afterwards disappearing, we often find among the red or dark-brown men, of the 
Egyptian and southern races, very light-colored people, who have, for the most part, a 
totally different costume, and generally red-colored hair on the head and beard, and blue 
eyes, sometimes appearing alone, sometimes in small divisions. They also appear in the 
trains of the nobles, and are evidently of northern, probably of Semitic, origin. We find 
victories over the Ethiopians and Negroes on the monuments of those times, and therefore 
need not be surprised at the recurrence of black slaves and servants. Of wars against the 
northern neighbors we learn nothing; but it seems that the immigration from the north- 
east was already beginning, and tliat many foreigners sought an asylum in fertile Egypt in 
return for service and other useful employments. ... I have traced the whole representa- 
tion, which is about eight feet long, and one-and-a-half high, and is very well preserved 
through, as it is only painted. The Royal Scribe, Nefruhotep, who conducts the company 
into the presence of the high officer to whom the grave belongs, is presenting him a leaf of 
papyrus. Upon this the sixth year of King Sesurtesen II. is mentioned, in which that 
family of thirty-seven persons came to Egypt. Their chief and lord was named Absha, 
they themselves Aama, a national designation, recurring with the light-complexioned race, 
often represented in the royal tombs of the XlXth dynasty, together with three other races, 
and forming the four principal divisions of mankind, with which the Egyptians were 
acquainted. Champollion took them for Greeks when he was in Benihassan, but he was 
not then aware of the extreme antiquity of the monuments before him. Wilkinson con- 
siders them prisoners, but this is confuted by their appearance with arms and lyres, with 
wives, children, donkeys, and luggage ; I hold them to be an immigrating Hyksos-family, 
which begs for a reception into the favored land, and whose posterity perhaps opened the 
gates of Egypt to the conquering tribes of their Semitic relations." 

The writer (G. R. G.), who had explored all these localities in 
1839, with Mr. A. C. Harris, would mention, that immediately ahove 
Beni-Hassan (at the Speos-Artemidos, overlooked hy Wilkinson from 
1823 to '34), a defile through the precipitous hills leads from the Nile 
into the Eastern Desert, and thence trends through the "WAdee-el- 
Arahah to the Isthmus of Suez : as, indeed, may be perceived in 
Russegger's map,^*^ before us. At the Egj'ptian mouth of this ravine 
are remains of walls, &c., that once blocked the passage ; and, in 
ancient times, here doubtless was a military post, to prevent nomadic 
ingress into the cultivated lands without the surveillance of the police. 
Owing to the intricacies of the limestone ravines in this part of the 
Eastern Desert, any strangers, becoming entangled in these intersec- 
tions, would, in the end, deboueJie at this pass, and be at once arrested 
by the guard. It is thus that, without speculative notions, we arrive 
at the conclusion that these "thirty-seven foreigners" (although the 
artist has drawn but fifteen — men, women, and children) were merely 
Arabian wanderers ; who, motives unknown, entered Egypt during 
the twenty- third century b. c. Natural history, heretofore too fre- 



CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



175 



quently left aside by archfeologists, not only confirms our view, but 
indicates the Peninsula of Mount Sinai, if not as their homestead, at 
least as the road by which they came. The reason we are about to 
give establishes two things: 1st, the minute accuracy of Egyptian 
draughtsmen in the Xllth dynasty, 4200 years ago ; 2dly, the prompt 
acuity of Prof. Agassiz, in April, 1853, 

At the house of their friend, Mr. A. Stein, of Mobile, the authors 
were looking over his copy of the noble Prussian Benkmiiler, when 
Prof Agassiz, the moment we reached this plate (ubi supra), pointed 
out the '■'■Capra Siniaca — the goat with semicircular horns, laterally 
compressed," as the first animal ; and the '■'■Antilope Saiga, or gazelle 
of temperate "Western Asia," as the second : animals ofiered in pro- 
pitiatory tribute to General ISTum-hotep, by Absha, the Hyh, chief, of 
these Mes-segem, foreigners. 

Our Fig. 109 presents the likeness of the excellent governor of the 
province ; and the contrast, between their yellow Semitic counte- 
nances and his rubeseent Eg^'ptian face, spares us from fears that 
consanguinity will be claimed for them. 

At least two types, then, of Caucasian families — the one Semitish, 
and the other Egyptian — were distinct from each other, and co- 
existent, 4200 years ago. If two, why not more ? Why not each 
one of all the primitive types of humanity now distinguishable in 
Asia, Africa, Europe, America, or Oceanica ? Science and logic can 
assign no negative reason : dogmatism, which excludes both, will 
doubtless continue to worry the hapless "general reader" with many. 

We must span, for want of intervening ethnographic monuments, 
the gulf that separates the Xllth from the Vlth dynasty, assuming 
the latter at about 2800 years b. c. Here again, however, our Cau- 
casian type reappears not only perfectly marked, but identical with 
many of the heads we have already beheld among the royal portraits 
of the XVIIth and succeeding dynaties. Lepsius's precious Benk- 
miiler yields us the following : — 



Fig. 111.20' 



Fig. 112.208 




'^V .•f V . 



176 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 



The above heads are from patrician tombs of the Vlth dynasty, 
which, according to Lepsius, commenced about the year 2900 b. c. 
Concerning the type of these, and numerous other effigies of this 
epoch, admirably figured by the same author, there can be no dispute ; 
but, the plates being unaccompanied by text, we are unable to supply 
historical details of the personages represented in these early dynas- 
ties. Lepsius himself will ere long elucidate them. 

The following two (Figs. 113 and 114) are selected as examples of 
the same type, in the anterior Vth dynasty, and are Egypto-Cauca- 
sians, no less clearly defined. In Fig. 113, the facial angle is actually 
Hellenic. 



Fig. 113.209 



Fig. 114.210 




Lastly, here are some of the earliest portraits of the human species 
now extant — effigies 6300 years old. 




CAERIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 



177 




Fig. 118.2U 
4 




The preceding four heads are all from painted sculptures in tombs of 
the r\^th dynasty ; which commenced at Memphis, according to Lep- 
sius, about 3400 years b. c. The second and third of these heads 
assimilate closely to many of those already given of XVIIth and 
XTS iiith dynasties; demonstrating that mixed Caucasian t^'pes in- 
habited Egypt from the first to the last of her surviving monuments. 
We have stated our reasons, in another place, for regarding this spe- 
cial physiognomy to be commingled with foreign and Asiatic elements ; 
and not representative, consequently, of the aboriginal Egyptian stem. 
The third of these heads is strongly Chaldaic in its outlines ; and we 
think there is little reason to doubt that the ancestral Mesopotamian 
stock of Abraham had long been mingling its blood with the royal 
and aristocratic families of Egypt; because, in the IVth, Yth, and 
YIth dynasties, we find two distinct types sculptured on the monu- 
ments — the one African or Negroid, and the other Asiatic or Semitic. 
Of course, when speaking of Abraham's ancestral stock, the reader 
vdW understand that we make no reference to this patriarch's indivi- 
duality. To us, his name serves merely to classify some proximate 
or identical Chaldaic family of man, originally connected ■\^^th a com- 
mon Euphratic centre of creation, of which the existence very likely 
preceded Abraham's birth by myriads of ages. 

Our fourth portrait (Fig. 118) is the only one we can identify, and 
its associations are most interestins:. Prince and Priest Merhet — 
probably a relative, if not son, of King Shoopho, Cheops, builder of 
the Great Pyramid^ — is the man whose tomb, transferred from Mem- 
phis to Berlin, and now built into the Eoyal Museum, has escaped 
the vicissitudes of time for above fifty-two centuries. His bas-reliefed 
visage has endured almost intact; whilst, of the "chosen people," 
every Hebrew jyortraif, from Abraham to Paul, has been expunged 
j&'om human iconography. In his lineaments, we behold the pure 
23 



178 



THE CAUCASIAN TYPES 



Egyptian type, wliich we shall endeavor to render more obvious 
tlirough lithographs that are genuine fac-similes of stamps made, on 
the monuments themselves, by the hand of Lepsius, at Berlin. 

Meanwhile, it is worthy of notice, that, in the ratio of our descent 
from the sculptures of the IVth dynasty, through the Old Empire, 
our conventionally-termed " Chaldaic " type supplants the Nilotic to 
such an extent, that, under the Netv Empire, and among the aristocracy 
of the land, it almost entirely supersedes the African type of incipient 
times. The admixture, in these later ages, of such Asiatic blood, 
may be due to the so-called Hyhsos ; who commenced, even before 
the time of Menes, intruding upon, and settling in Egypt. Alliances 
and intermixtures of races, similar to those seen at the present da}', 
have operated among nations in all ages, and everywhere that men 
and women have encountered each other on our planet. 

Four instances may be consulted in Lepsius's Denhm'dler, of Egyp- 
tian monarchs who have left at the copper-mines of Mt. Sinai, on Stelse, 
inscribed with hieroglyphical legends, their bas-relief effigies ; repre- 
senting each king in the act of braining certain foreigners : whose 
pointed beards, aquiline noses, and other Semitish characteristics, com- 
bine with the Arabian locality to identify them as Arabs. "We give 
entire (Fig. 119, A) a specimen of the earliest Tablets — "N"um-Shufu 



Fig. 119.215 




CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 179 

stunning an Arab-5ar5anan ; " and the head of another smitten by 
" Senufku;" both kings of the IVth dynasty, during the thirty-fourth 
century b. c. 

The other two examples (by us not copied) are identical in style, 
but a little posterior in age ; one being of the reign of king Shore, 
(or Reslio) in the Yth, and the other of Merira-Pepi, in the Vlth 
dynasty. A fifth example might be cited of the IVth, but it is of the 
same Senufru mentioned above. ^'® 

Here then are represented Egji^tian Pharaohs striking Asiatics ; 
and here, we are informed epistolarily by Chev. Lepsius, is the re- 
motest monumental evidence of two distinct types of man ; although, 
an analytical comparison of such antipodean languages as the ancient 
Chinese with the old Egyptian, of the Atlantic Berler with the Medic 
of Darius's inscriptions, of the Hindoo Pali with the Hebrew of 
Habbakuk, and a dozen others we might name, would result in estab- 
lishiuff for each of these distinct tongues such an enormous and inde- 
pendent antiquity, as to leave not a shadow of doubt that all primitive 
African and Asiatic races existed, from the Cape of Good Hope to 
China, as far back as the foundation of the Eg}-ptian Empire, and 
long before. It is in the IVth Memphite dynasty, however, that we 
finc\ the oldest sculptural representations of man now extant in the 
world. 

In the above figures tivo primordial types, one Asiatic and the 
other Egyptian, stand conspicuous. If then, as before asserted, iico 
races of man existed simultaneously during the IVth dynasty, in 
sufficient numbers to be at war with each other, their prototj'pes 
must have lived before the foundation of the Empire, or far earlier 
than 4000 years B. c. If two types of mankind were coetaneous, it 
follows that all other Asiatic and African races found in the subse- 
quent XTIth dynasty must have been also in existence contempora- 
neously with those of the IVth, as well as with all the aboriginal 
races of America, Europe, Oceanica, Mongolia — in short, with every 
species of mankind throughout the entire globe. 



180 AFRICAN TYPES. 



CHAPTER VI. 

AFRICAN TYPES. 

Our preceding chapters have established that the so-called Cauca- 
sian types may be traced upwards from the present day, in an infinite 
variety of primitive forms, through eveiy historical record, and yet 
farther back through the petroglyphs of Egypt (where we lose them, 
in the medieeval darkness of the earliest recorded people, some 3500 
years before Christ), not as a few stray individuals, but as populous 
nations, possessing distinct physical features and separate national 
characteristics. We now turn to the African types, not simply be- 
cause they present an opposite extreme from the Caucasian, but 
mainly because, from their early communication with Eg}^t, much 
detail, in respect to their physical characters, has been preserved in 
the catacombs and on the monuments. 

In our general remarks on species, we have shown that no classifica- 
tion of races yet put forth has any foundation whatever in nature ; 
and that, after several thousands of years of migrations of races and 
comminglings of types, all attempts at following them up to their 
original birth-places must, from the absence of historic annals of 
those primordial times, and in the present state of knowledge, be 
utterly hopeless. This remark applies with quite as much force to 
Is^egroes as to Caucasians : for Africa first exhibits herself, from one 
extreme to the other, covered with dark-skinned races of various 
shades, and possessing endless physical characters, which, being dis- 
tinct, we must regard as primitive, until it can be shown that causes 
exist capable of transforming one type into another. The ITegroes 
maybe traced on the monuments of Egypt, with certainty, as nations, 
back to the Xllth dynasty, about 2300 years b. c. : and it cannot be 
assumed that thev were not then as old as any other race of our geo- 
logical epoch. / 

In order to develop our ideas more clearly, we propose to take a rapid 
glance at the population of Africa. "VVe shall show, that not only is 
that vast continent inhabited by types quite as varied as those of Europe 
or Asia, but that there exists a vQgx\\2>.r gradation, from the Cape of Good 
Hope to the Isthmus of Suez, of which the Hottentot and Bushman 
form the lowest, and the Egyptian and Berber types the highest links ; 



AFRICAN TYPES. 181 

that all these gradations of African man are indigenous to the soil ; 
and that no historical times have existed when the same gradations 
were not. 

/ When we compare the continent of Afi-ica with the other great 
divisions of the world, it is apparent that it forms a striking contrast 
in eveiy particular. Its whole physical geography, its climates, its 
populations, its faunse, its florae, &c., are all peculiar. Upon exami- 
nation of maps of Europe, Asia, and America, we see indeed, in each 
continent, great diversities of climate, soil, elevations of surface, and 
other phenomena; still no natural barriers exist so insurmountable 
as to prevent the migrations and comminglings of races, and con- 
sequent confusion of tongues and tj^es : but in Africa the case is 
quite diflerent. Here stand obstructions, fixed by nature, which man 
in early times had no means of overcoming. Not only from the time 
of Menes, the first of the Pharaohs, to that of Moses, but from the 
latter epoch to that of Christ, Africa, south of the Equator, was as 
much a terra incognita to the inhabitants of Europe, Asia, Eg}-pt, and 
the Barbary States, as certain interior parts of that continent are to 
us at the present day. We know that, long after the Christian era, 
the nautical skill necessary for exploring expeditions, no less than for 
the transportation of emigrants to those distant latitudes, was want- 
ing ; and we have only to turn to any standard work (Hitter's, for 
instance) on Ancient Geography, to be satisfied of these facts. It is 
equally certain that what is now termed " Central Africa" could not 
have been reached by caravan from the Mediterranean coast, before 
the introduction of camels from Asia, through Egypt, into Barbary. 
The epoch of this animal's introduction is now known to antedate 
the Christian era but a century or two. It is contended, by the advo- 
cates of a common origin for mankind, that this African continent 
was first populated by Asiatic emigrants into Egypt ; that these im- 
migrants passed on, step by step, gradually changing their physical 
organizations, under climatic influences, until the whole continent, 
from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope, was peopled by 
the various tribes we now behold scattered over that enormous space. 
But such an hypothesis can hardly be maintained, in the face of the 
fact asserted by Lepsius, and familiar to all Egyptologists, that Negro 
and other races already existed in IlTorthern Afi-ica, on the Upper ISTile, 
2300 years B. c. —y existed, we repeat, in despite of natural barriers 
which could not have been passed by any means previousl}^ known ; 
and, moreover, that all truly African races have, from the earliest 
epochas, spoken languages radically distinct from every Asiatic tongue. 
Linguistic researches have established that, prior to the introduction 
of Asiatic elements into the Lower Valley of the Nile, the speech of 



182 AFRICAN TYPES. 

the ante-monumental Egyptians could have borne no affinity towards 
the latter. Lepsius, Birch, and De Eouge — our highest philological 
authorities in this question — coincide in the main principle, that the 
lexicology deduced from the earliest hieroglyphics exhibits two ele- 
ments : viz., a primary, or African ; and a secondary, or Asiatic, 
superimposed upon the former. It is also certain that, Syro-Arabian 
engraftments being deducted from the present AwSzaw and the Berber 
vernaculars spoken above and westward of Egypt, these languages 
are as purely African now as must have been the idiom uttered by 
the Egyptian ancestry of those who raised the pyramids of the IVth 
dynasty, 5300 years ago. 

Such are the results of archseology, applied by that school of Egyp- 
tian philologists which alone is comj)etent to decide upon the language 
of the hieroglyphics. They harmonize with the physiological con- 
clusions we have reached through monumental iconography. But, 
requesting the critical reader to accompany us upon a map of the 
African continent, such as those contained in the Physical Atlases of 
Berghaus, or Johnston, we propose commencing at the Cape of Good 
Hope, and following the African races from Table Rock to the Medi- 
terranean. Our limits do not permit a detailed analysis, nor is such 
necessary, as the few prominent facts we shall present are quite suffi- 
cient for the purpose in hand, and will at once be admitted by every 
reader who is at all competent to pursue this discussion. 

What is now called Cape Colony lies between 30° and 35° of south 
latitude. It rises, as you recede from the coast, into high table- 
lands and mountains, and possesses a comparatively temperate and 
agreeable climate ; nevertheless, it is here that we find the lowest and 
most beastly specimens of mankind : viz., the Hottentot and the Bush- 
man. The latter, in particular, are but little removed, both in moral 
and physical characters, from the orang-outan. They are not black, 
but of a yellowish-brown {tallow-colored, as the Erench term them), 
with woolly heads, diminutive statures, small ill-shapen crania, very 
projecting mouths, prognathous faces, and badly formed bodies ; in 
short, they are described by travellers as bearing a strong resemblance 
to the monkey tribe. They possess many anatomical peculiarities, 
known to physiologists if not recapitulated here. Lichtenstein, one 
of our best authorities, in describing this race, says : — 

" Their common objects of pursuit are serpents, lizards, ants, and grasshoppers. They 
Trill remain whole days without drinking ; as a substitute, they chew succulent plants : 
they do not eat salt. They have no fixed habitation, but sleep in holes in the ground or 
under the branches of trees. They are short, lean, and, in appearance, weak in their 
limbs ; yet are capable of bearing much fatigue. Their sight is acute, but their taste, 
smell, and feeling, are feeble. They do not form large societies, but wander about in 
families." 



AFRICAN TYPES. 183 

The Hottentots have been supposed by many to belong to the same 
race as the Bosjesman or Bushmen ; and although we do not partake 
of this opinion, the point is too unimportant to our purpose to justify 
critical discussion here. In most particulars, the physical characters of 
Bushmen and Hottentots do not differ greatly — the Hottentots ex- 
hibit much of the orang character of the Bushmen, and their females 
often present two very remarkable peculiarities or deformities : viz., 
humps behind their buttocks, Hke those on the backs of dromedaries, 
and a disgusting development of the labia pudendi. (See an example 
in the Hottentot Venus, figured in our Chapter XIH.) 

The complexion of the Hottentots is compared by travellers to that 
of a person " affected with jaundice" — "a yellowish-brown, or the 
hue of a faded leaf" — "a tawny buff, or fawn-color." Barrow 
relates that — 

"The hair is of a very singular nature — it does not cover the whole surface of the 
scalp, but [grows in small tufts, at certain distances from each other, and ivhen cliiaped 
short has the appearance and feel of a hard shoe-brush, except that it is curled and 
twisted into small round lumps, about the size of a marrowfat pea. When suffered to 
grow, it hangs on the neck in hard-twisted tassels, like fringe." 

The Hottentots are also very strongly distinguished from all other 
races by their singular language. Their utterance, according to 
Lichtenstein, is remarkable for numerous rapid, harsh, shrill sounds, 
emitted from the bottom of the chest, with strong aspirations, and 
modified iii the mouth by a singular motion of the tongue. The 
name for it is commonly " gluckings." The peculiar construction of 
the vocal organs of this race greatly facilitates the formation and 
emission of these sounds, which to other species of men would be 
veiy difiicult. [We had the pleasure, two years ago, at a meeting of the 
Ethnological Society in 'New York, to hear some specimens of this 
language from Prof. Haldemann, of Pennsylvania, who possesses an 
extraordinary talent for imitating soimds, and we can readily believe 
that the Hottentot vocalization has no afiinity with any other in 
existence. — J. C. IST.] 

The next race we encounter, after leaving the Cape, is the Kafirs, 
or Caffres. They are not only found along the coast to the north- 
east in Cafiraria, but extend far beyond, into the interior of Africa. 
They display certain affinities with the Fulahs, Foolahs, or Fellatahs, 
who are prolonged even into ITorthern Africa — whence an opinion 
that the two races are identical ; but the fact, to say the least, is a 
matter of great doubt. The Caffres are traced northward, under 
various names ; and their language and customs are very widely 
spread. Though they are now encountered in considerable numbers 
near the Cape, their original seat is doubtful. In geography, Central 



184 AFRICAN TYPES. 

Africa is yet a terra incognita, and we cannot, therefore, fix their 
birth-place with precision, however manifest may he the Caffi^arian 
link in the chain of gradation we have assumed. Albeit, they resem- 
ble the true I^egro much more than the Hottentot ; whilst, both intel- 
lectually and physically, they are greatly superior not only to Hot- 
tentots, but to many ISTegro tribes on the Slave-Coast, They possess 
some knowledge of agriculture and the use of metals ; they dress in 
skins, and live in towns. Descriptions of the Catfres, by different 
writers, vary considerably; and it is probable that several closely 
allied though diverse types have been included under this general 
appellation. No one has had better opportunities for studying this 
race, or can be more competent, than Lichtenstein, and we shall 
therefore adopt his description. 

" The universal characteristics of all the tribes of this great nation consist in an external 
form and figure, varying exceedingly from the other nations of Africa : they are much 
taller, stronger, and their limbs better proportioned. Their color is brown ; their hair 
black and -woolly. Their countenances have a character peculiar to themselves, and ■which 
does not permit their being included in any of the races of mankind above enumerated. 
They have the high forehead and prominent nose of the Europeans, the thick lips of the 
Negroes, and the high cheek-bones of the Hottentots. Their beards are black, and much 
fuller than those of the Hottentots." 

This race, it will thus be seen, is a very peculiar one, combining 
both moral and physical traits of the higher and the lower African 
races. Widely disseminated, they exhibit such singular affinities 
with opposing, such strange difierences from proximate, Africans, 
that it is impossible to fix them to one locality : at the same time, 
being, like all savage races, without a history, we are unable to say, 
with any probability, to what latitude or to which coast they belong. 

When, however, taldng our departure from the Cape (the central 
regions of the continent being unknown), we continue our examina- 
tion [along the eastern and western coasts, as far as the transverse 
belt, just beyond the Equator, which separates the two great deserts, 
IsTorthern and Southern, we find a succession of well-marked types, 
seemingly indigenous to their respective localities. Along the East- 
tern coast we encounter the various tribes inhabiting Inhambane, 
Sabia, Sofala, Botonga, Mozambique, Zanguebar, &c., each present- 
ing physical characters more or less hideous ; and, almost without 
exception, not merely in a barbarous, but superlatively savage state. 
All attempts towards humanizing them have failed. Hopes of even- 
tual improvement in the condition of these brutish families are enter- 
tained by none but missionaries of sanguine temperament and little 
instruction. Even the Slaver rejects them. 

K we now go back to Cape Colony, and thence pass upwards along 
the Western coast, we meet mth another, equally diversified, series 



AFEICAN TYPES. 185 

of ISTegi'O races, totally distinct from tliose of tlie eastern side, inha- 
biting Cimbebas, Benguela, Angola, Congo, Loango, Matembas, and 
Guinea ; where we again reach the Equator. These are all savage 
tribes, but little removed, in physical nature and moral propensities, 
from the Hottentots. Anything like a detailed analysis of them would 
be but an unprofitable repetition of descriptions, to be found in all 
travellers' accounts, exhibiting pictures of the most degraded races 
of mankind. In a word, the whole of Africa, south of 10° ]^. lat., 
shows a succession of human beings with intellects as dark as their 
skins, and with a cephalic conformation that renders all expectance 
of their future melioration an Utopian dream, philanthropical, but 
somewhat senile. 

North of the Equator, and dividing the two great Northern and 
Southern deserts, we fall in with a belt of country traversing the 
whole continent of Africa, terminating on the east with the highlands 
of Abyssinia — on the west with the uplands of Senegambia; and, 
between these two points, including part of the Soodan, Negro-land 
proper, or Nigritia. About 10° N. lat. stretches an immense range 
of mountains, which are supposed to run entirely across the conti- 
nent, and to form an insurmountable barrier between the Southern 
Deserts and the Northern Sahara. Throughout this region, we behold 
an infinitude of Negro races, differing considerably in their external 
characters. The annexed extracts from Prichard, bearing upon this 
subject, contain some important facts requiring comment. 

" The whole of the countries now described are sometimes called Nigritia, or the Land 
of Negroes — they have likewise been termed Ethiopia. The former of these names is more 
frequently given to the Western, and the latter to the Eastern parts ; but there is no exact 
limitation between the countries so termed. The names are taken from the races of men 
inhabiting different countries, and these are interspersed, and not separated by a particular 
line. Black and woolly-haired races, to which the term Negro is applied, are more predo- 
minant in Western Africa ; but there are also woolly-haired tribes in the East : and races 
who resemble the Ethiopians, in their physical characters, are found likewise in the West. 
We cannot mark out geographical limits to these different classes of nations ; but it will 
be useful to remember the difference in physical characters which separates them. The 
Negroes are distinguished by their well-known traits, of which the most strongly marked 
is their woolly hair ; but it is difficult to point out any common property characteristic of 
the races termed Ethiopians, unless it is the negative one of wanting the above-mentioned 
peculiarity of the Negro : any other definition will apply only in general, and will be liable 
to exceptions. The Ethiopian races have generally something in their physical character 
which is peculiarly African, though not reaching the degree in which it is displayed by the 
black people of Soudan. Their hair, though not woolly, is commonly frizzled, or strongly 
curled or crisp. Their complexion is sometimes black, at others, of the color of bronze, or 
olive, or more frequently of a dark-copper or red-brown ; such as the Egyptian paintings 
display in human figures, though generally of a deeper shade. In some instances, their 
hair, as well as their complexion, is somewhat brown or red. Their features are often full 
and rounded — not so acute and salient as those of the Arabs ; their noses are not flattened 
or depressed, but scarcely so prominent as those of Europeans ; their lips are generally 

24 



186 AFEICAN TYPES. 

tliick or full, but seldom turned out like the thick lips of Negroes ; their figure is slender 
and -well shaped, and often resembling that form of -which the Egyptian paintings and 
statues afford the most generally known exemplifications. These characters, though in 
some respects approaching towards those of the Negro, are perfectly distinct from the 
peculiarities of the mulatto or mixed breed. Most of these nations, both classes being 
equally included, are originally African. By this I do not mean to imply that their first 
parents were created on the soil of Africa, but merely that they cannot be traced, by his- 
torical proofs, from any other part of the world, and that they appear to have grown into 
clans or tribes of peculiar physical and social character, or that their national existence 
had its commencement in that continent." ^n 

The above paragraph establishes that Prichard, in accordance here 
with our own views, cuts loose the population of the basin of the I^ile 
from all the Kegro races scattered between Mount Atlas and the Cape 
of Good Hope. In fact, one of Pri chard's great objects, throughout 
his "Researches," is to show that there exists a VQgxAdiv gradation of 
races, from the highest to the lowest types, not only in Africa, but 
throughout the world. The learned Doctor spared no labor, for forty 
years, to prove that this gradation is the result of physical causes, act- 
ing, as he saj^s, " during chiliads of years," upon one primitive 
Adamic stock. "VVe, on the contrary, contend, that many primitive 
types of mankind were created in distant zoological provinces ; and, 
that the numerous facts, ignored by Dr. Prichard, which have lately 
come to light from Egyptian monuments and other new sources, 
confirm this view. In fact, Prichard himself, in the fifth or final 
volume of his last edition, virtually abandons the position he had so 
long and so ably maintained. 

The range of mountains which bounds Guinea on the north is sup- 
posed, by Hitter and other distinguished geographers, to be the 
commencement of a huge chain which trends across the continent 
about the tenth degree, connecting itself with the so-called "Moun- 
tains of the Moon," on the East;^^® and thus constituting an impass- 
able wall, athwart the continent, between the J^orth and the South. 
Certain it is that the Avhole of Africa south of this parallel was utterly 
unknown 600 years ago to any writers, sacred or profane — the coast, 
on either side, until reached by navigators, in quite modern times — 
the interior, or central portion of this mountain-land, continues to be 
less known than even the moon's. 

One interesting fact, however, is clear: viz., that when, passing 
onwards from the South, we overleap this stupendous natural wall,^^^ 
we are at once thrown among tribes of higher grade ; although con- 
tinuing still within the region of jet-black skins and woolly heads. 
The excessively prognathous type of the Hottentots, Congos, Guinea- 
IS'egroes, and so forth, is no longer, we noAvperceive, the prevailing type 
north of this mountain-range. "We here meet with features approach- 
ing the Caucasian coupled with well-formed bodies and neatly-turned 



AFRICAN TYPES. 187 

limbs ; improved cranial developments, and altogether a mncli higher 
intellectual character. Here, likewise, the rudiments of civilization are 
met with for the first time in our progress from the South. Here 
and there, though surrounded hy pastoral nomadism, many of the 
tribes are rude agriculturists ; manufacturing coarse cloth, leather, 
&c. ; knowing somewhat of the use of metals, and living in towns of 
from ten to thirty thousand inhabitants. It must be conceded, how- 
ever, that most of this progress is attributable to foreign immigration 
and exotic influences. In the fertile loAv-countries, beyond the Sahara 
deserts, watered by rivers which descend northwards from water- 
sheds upon the central highlands, Africa has contained, for centuries, 
several Xigritian kingdoms, founded by Mohammedans ; while many 
Arabs, and many more Atlantic Berbers, have settled among the 
native tribes. To these influences we should doubtless ascribe tho 
maintenance of their Muslim religion and infant civilization : for it 
is indisputable that the rulers (petty kings and aristocracy) are not of 
pure ISTegro lineage.^ 

This superiority of races north of the mountain-range does not 
extend to all indigenous tribes ; for Denham and Clapperton describe 
some of the tribes around Bornou and Lake Tchad as extremely 
ugly, savage, and brutal. It would seem that nature preserves such 
aboriginal specimens in every region of the globe : as if to demonstrate 
that types are independent of physical causes, and that species of men, 
like those of animals, are primitive. 

We have also numerous accounts, from Bruce, Elippel, Cailliaud, 
Linant, Beke, Werne, Combes et Tamisier, Eochet d'Hericourt, Rus- 
scgger, Mohammed-el-Tounsy, Lepsius, and other explorers, of Sen- 
naar, Dar-Four, Kordofiln, Fazoql, of the wild Shillooks, &c., bordering 
on the "White N"ile and its tributaries, and of the western slopes of 
Abyssinia ; and they concur in representing most of these superla- 
tively barbarous tribes as characterized by Negro lineaments, more 
or less well marked. Of such unaltered tj^^es we see many authentic 
samples depicted on the Eg}^Dtian monuments of the XVIIth dynasty ; 
and we find that some are referred to in the hieroglyphical inscrip- 
tions as early as the XTTth. Indeed, the first authentic evidences 
extant of Expeditions, made to penetrate towards the Mle's unknown 
sources, date with the XTTth dynasty, about 2300 b. c. ; when Sesour- 
tesen HI. had extended his conquests up the river at least as high as 
Samneh, in Upper Xubia, where a hai'bor, or areeual, and a temple 
(tlie former repaired by the Amenomhas, and the latter rebuilt by 
Thotmes IH.), with other remains, prove that the Pharaohs of the 
Xllth dynasty had established frontier garrisons. But, as the Tablet 
of Wtldce Haifa contains the names of nations undoubtedly Xigritian, 



188 AFRICAN TYPES. 

and inasmucli as there are abundant arguments to prove that the 
habitat of Negro races anciently, as at this day, never approximated 
to Egypt closer than, if as near as, the northern limit of the Tropical 
Rains, we can ascend without hesitation to the age of Sesourtesen I.; 
and confidently assert that, in the twenty-third centuiy b. c, the know- 
ledge possessed by the Pharaonic Egytians concerning the upper 
regions of the Mle extended to points as austral as that derived be- 
tween A. D. 1820 and 1835, by civilized Europe, from the GMztvas, or 
slave-hunts, of Mohammed- Ali.^^^ Time has transplanted some of these 
upper Miotic families, over a few miles, from one district to another ; 
but that such movements have entailed no physical mutations of 
race, we shall perceive hereinafter. 

We have already stated, that Senegambia, on the west of Central 
Africa, like the eastern extremity at Abyssinia,^^ rises into mountains 
and elevated table-lands — physical characters which usually accom- 
pany higher grades of humanity than those of the burning plains 
below. It is here that we find sundry of the superior (so-called) JSTegro 
races of Africa : viz., the Mandingos, the Fulahs, and the lolofs. 
The Mandingos, a very numerous and powerful nation, are remarkable 
among the African races for their industiy and energy ; and, of the 
genuine IsTegro tribes, have perhaps manifested the greatest aptitude 
for mental improvement. They are the most zealous and rigid Mo- 
hammedans on the continent. Agriculturists, cattle-breeders, cloth- 
manufacturers, living in towns, they possess schools, engage in exten- 
sive commerce, and use Arabic writing. Goldberry, Park, Laing, 
Durand, and other travellers, coincide in the statement that these 
Mandingos are less black, "and have better features, than Negroes ; 
indeed, Goldberry, who is good authority, says they resemble dark 
Hindoos more than Negroes. 

The Fulalis^"^ are a still more peculiar people, whose history is 
involved in much obscurity. They are supposed, by many authorities, 
to be a mixed race. Their type and language are totally distinct 
from all surrounding Africans. According to Park and others, they 
rank themselves among white people, and look down upon their 
neighbors as inferiors ; at the same time, they are always the domi- 
nating families, wherever found. The contradictory descriptions of 
travellers lead us to suspect some diversity of physical characters 
among these Fulahs, or Eellatahs. They are not black, but of a 
mahogany color, with good features, and hair more or less straight, 
and often very fine. They are commercial, intelligent, and, for Afri- 
cans, considerably advanced in the civilization they owe to Islamism 
and the Arabs. 

The lolofs, between the Senegal and Gambia, the most northerly 



AFRICAN TYPES. 189 

Negro nations on tile "West coast, are represented to be tlie comeliest 
of all l^egro tribes. 

" They are always well made [says Goldberry] ; their features are regular, and like 
those of Europeans, except that their nose is rather round, and their lips thick. They are 
said to be remarkably handsome — their women beautiful. The complexion of the race is 
a fine transparent deep black; their hair crisp and woolly." 

Here, again, is a combination of physical characters which contra- 
dicts the alleged influence of climate ; because the lolofs, and some 
other races north, are jet-black, while the Fulahs, and others, under 
and south of the Equator, are comparatively fair. 
rWe shall show, in another place, that history affords no evidence \ 
that education, or any influence of civilization that may be brought / 
to bear on races of inferior organization, can radically change their 
physical, nor, consequently, their moral, characters. That the brain, 
for example, which is the organ of intellect, cannot be expanded or 
altered in form, is now admitted by eveiy anatomist ; and Prichard, 
in recapitulating his results as to the races of Central Africa, makes 
the following important admission : — 

kiOn reviewing the descriptions of all the races enumerated, we may observe a relation 
between their physical character and moral condition. Tribes having what is called (he Negro 
character in the most striking degree are the least civilized. The Papels, Bisagos, Ibos, who are 
in the greatest degree remarkable for deformed countenances, projecting jaws, flat fore- 
heads, and for other Negro peculiarities, are the most savage and morally degraded of the 
nations hitherto described. The converse of this remark is applicable to all the most civilized 
races. JThe F61ahs, Mandingos, and some of the Dahomeh and Inta nations have, as far as 
form is concerned, nearly European countenances, and a corresponding configuration of the 
head. ... In general, the tribes inhabiting elevated countries, in the interior, are very 
superior to those who dwell on low tracts on the the seacoast, and this superiority is mani- 
fest both in mental and bodily qualities." 224 

The truth of these observations is sustained by all past histoiy, 
backed by every monument. Much as the success of the infant 
colony at Liberia is to be desired by every true philanthropist, it 
is Avith regret that, whilst wishing well to the 'Negroes, we cannot 
divest our minds of melancholy forebodings. ; Dr. Morton, quoted in 
another chapter, has proven, that the ISTegro races possess about nine 
cubic inches less of brain than the Teuton ; and, unless there were 
really some facts in history, something beyond bare hypotheses, to 
teach us how these deficient inchiss could be artificially added, it 
would seem that the Negroes in Africa must remain substantially in 
that same benighted state wherein Nature has placed them, and in 
which they have stood, according to Egyptian monuments, for at 
least 5000 years. 

Prichard's herculean work is so replete with interesting facts and 
valuable deductions, that we are tempted, almost at every page, to 



190 AFRICAN TYPES. 

make extracts. The following resume is certainly decisive in estab- 
lishing the entire want of connexion between Types and Climate. 

" The distinguishing peculiarities of the African races may be summed up into four 
heads ; viz. : the characters of complexion, hair, features and figure. We have to remark — 

" 1. That some races, with -woolly hair and complexions of a deep black color, have fine 
forms, regular and beautiful features, and are, in their figure and countenances, scarcely 
different from Europeans. Such are the lolofs, near the Senegal, and the race of Guber, 
or of Hausa, in the interior of Sudan. Some tribes of the South African race, as the 
darkest of the Kafirs, are nearly of this description, as well as some families or tribes in 
the empire of Kongo, while others have more of the Negro character in their countenances 
and form. 

"2. Other tribes have the form and features similar to those above described: their 
complexion is black or a deep olive, or a copper color approaching to black, while their 
hair, though often crisp and frizzled, is not the least woolly. Such are the Bishari and 
Danakil and Hazorta, and the darkest of the Abyssinians. 

" 3. Other instances have been mentioned in which the complexion is black and the fea- 
tures have the Negro type, while the nature of the hair deviates considerably, and is even 
said to be rather long and in flowing ringlets. Some of the tribes near the Zambezi are 
of this class. 

" 4. Among nations whose color deviates towards a lighter hue, we find some with woolly 
hair, with a figure and features approaching the European. Such are the Bechuana Kafirs, 
of a light brown complexion. The tawny Hottentots, though not approaching the Euro- 
pean, differ from the Negi-o. Again, some of the tribes on the Gold Coast and the Slave 
Coast, and the Ibos, in the Bight of Benin, are of a lighter complexion than many other 
Negroes, while their features are strongly marked with the peculiarities of that race." 

These observations, Prichard thinks, cannot be reconciled with the 
idea that the ]!Tegroes are of one distinct species ; and that the opinion 
sustaining the existence, among them, of a number of separate spe- 
cies, each distinguished by some peculiarity which another wants, 
might be more reasonably maintained. The latter supposition he 
conjectures, however, to be refuted by the fact that species in no case 
pass so insensibly into each other. It will appear, notwithstanding, 
when we come to the questions of hybridity and of specific characters, 
that Prichard's doctrine, besides being in itself a non sequitur, is over- 
thrown by positive facts. 

Prichard himself tells us, "■ there are no authentic instances, either 
in Africa or elsewhere, of the transmutation of other varieties of 
mankind into ISTegroes." ^^^ We have, however, he continues, examples 
of very considerable deviation in the opposite direction. The de- 
scendants of the genuine ISTegroes are no longer such : they have lost 
in several instances many of the peculiarities of the stock from which 
they spring. To which fallacies we reply, that vague reports of mis- 
informed travellers alone support such assertion. Our remarks on 
the Permanence of Types establish, that what physiological changes 
Prichard and his school refer to climatic influences, are indisputably 
to be ascribed to amalgamation of races. 

Let us now travel through K'igritia, and ascend the table-lands of 



AFRICAN TYPES. 191 

Abj-ssinia; Avliere auother climate, another Faima, anotlier Flora, 
and another Type of Man, arise to view. Here, for the first time 
since our departure from the Cape of Good Hope, we stand among 
tribes of men who are actually capacitated to enjoy a higher stage 
of civilization ; and, although we have not yet reached God's 
"noblest work," we have happily wadedx through the "slough of 
despond" in human gradations of Africa. 

f Keader ! let us imagine ourselves standing upon the highest peak in 
Al^j'ssinia ; and that our vision could extend over the whole continent, 
embracing south, east, north and west : what tableaux-vivants would be 
presented to the eye, no less than to the mind ! To the south of the 
Sahara we should descry at least 50,000,000 of Mgritians, steeped in 
iiTedeemable ignorance and savagism ; inhabiting the very countries 
where histoiy first finds them :J- vast territorial expanses, which the 
nations of the north, in ancient times, had no possible means of visit- 
ing or colonizing. Do we not behold, on every side, human character- 
istics so completely segregated from ours, that they can be explained 
in no other way than by supposing a direct act of creation ? 
(JDpon the moral and intellectual traits of such abject tjrpes no impres- 
sion has been made within 5000 years : none can be made,''(so far as 
science knows,) until their organization, becomes changed by — silliest 
of desperate suppositions — a " miracle." Turn we now towards the 
north. There we behold the tombs, the ruined temples, the gigantic 
pyramids of Pharaonic Egypt, which, braving the hand of time for 
5000 years past, seem to defy its action for as many to come. These 
monuments, moreover, were not only built by a people diftering from 
all others of Asia and Europe, in characters, language, civilization, and 
other attributes ; but diverging still more widely from every other human 
tj-pe. Positive evidence, furthermore, exists, that N'egroes, at least as 
far back as the XHth dynasty, in the twenty-fourth century b. c, dwelt 
contemporaneously in Africa : which is parallel mth (b. c. 2348) the 
era ascertained, to a fraction by Eabbinical arithmetic, for ISToAn's 
Elood ; when all creatures outside of the Ark, except some fishes, 
had found a watery grave ! But we pursue our journey. 

Abyssinia, according to Tellez, is called by its inhabitants Albe7-e- 
gran or the "lofty plain ; " by which epithet they contrast it with the 
low countries surrounding it on almost every side. It is compared 
by the Abyssinians to the flower of the Detiguelet, which displays a 
magnificent corolla surrounded by thorns — in allusion to the many 
barbarous tribes who inhabit the numerous circumjacent valleys and 
low lands.^^ 

The highlands of Abyssinia, properly so called, stretch from the 
southern provinces of Shoa and Efat, which are not far distant from 




192 AFEICAN TYPES. 

Enarea under 9°, to Tsclierkiii and "Waldubba under 15° K". lat. ; 
where they make a sudden and often precipitous descent into the 
stunted forests occupied by the Shangalla I:>regroes. From east to 
west they extend over 9° of longitude. Rising at the steep border 
or terrace of Taranta from the depressed tract along the Arabian 
Gulf, they reach the mountains of Fazolco, Dyre and Touggoula ; 
which overhang the flat, sandy districts of Senn^ar and the valleys 
of Kordofan. (Eittbr.) 

The researches of Bru.ce, Salt, Ritter, and Beke, have shown that 
the high country of Plabesh, Abyssinia, consists of three terraces or 
distinct table-lands, rising one above another; and of which the 
several grades or ascents present themselves iii succession, to the tra- 
veller who advances from the shore of the Red Sea.^^'' 

The plain of Baharnegash is first met after traversing the low and 
ai'id steppe of Samhard, inhabited by the black Danhkil and Dumboeta, 
where the traveller ascends the heights of Taranta. 

The next level is the kingdom of Tigre, which formerly contained 
the kingdom of Axum. Within this region lie the plains of Enderta 
and Giralta; containing Chelicut and Antalow, principal cities of 
Abyssinia. The kingdom of Tigre comprehends the provinces of 
Abyssinia w^estward of the Taeazze, of which the larger are Tigre 
and Shire towards the north, Woggerat and Enderta and the moun- 
tainous regions of Lasta and Samen towards the south. 

High Abyssinia — kingdom ofAmhara — is a name now given to the 
realm of which Gondar is the capital, and where the Amharic lan- 
guage is spoken, eastward of the Taeazze. Amhara proper is a 
mountain province of that name to the southeast, in the centre of 
which was Tegulat, the ancient capital of the empire ; and, at one 
period, the centre of civilization of Abyssinia. This province is now 
in the possession of the Galla ; a barbarous people who have overcome 
the southern parts of Habesh. The present kingdom of Amhara is 
the heart of Abyssinia, the abode of the Emperor or ITegush. It con- 
tains the upper course of the Blue Nile. The climate is delightful — 
perpetual spring ; and the mean elevation about 8000 feet. The upland 
region of Amhara, or rather the province of Dembea, breaks off 
towards the northeast, b}^ a mountainous descent into the plains of 
Senn^ar and lower Ethiopia. On the outskirts of the highlands, and 
at their feet, are the vast forests of Waldubba and Walkayat, abound 
ing with troops of monkeys, elephants, buffaloes and wild boars. 
The human inhabitants of these tracts and the adjoining forests, and 
likewise of the valleys of the Taeazze and the Angrab, are Shang- 
alla Negroes, who in several parts environ the hill-country of 
Abyssinia.^^ 



AFRICAN TYPES. 193 

Races inhabiting Abyssinia. — Several different races inhabit the old 
empire of the !N"egush or Abyssinian sovereign, who are comnaouly 
included under the name of Habesh or Abyssinians. They differ in 
language, but possess a general resemblance in their physical charac- 
ters and customs. "WHiether they really are of unique origin is a 
question which science has no data for settling. Those who believe 
that the Hebrew and the Hottentot (as well as camels and cameleo- 
pards) are of one and the same stock, will unhesitatingly answer in 
the affirmative. 

1. The Tigrani, or Abyssins of Tigre. — These are the inhabitants of 
the kingdom of Tigre, on the east of Tacazze — speaking the lingua 
Tigrana. 

2. The Amharas. — They have for ages been the dominant people 
of Abyssinia, and speak the widely-spread Amharic language. 

3. The Agows. — There are two tribes bearing this appellation, who 
speak distinct tongues, and inhabit different parts of the country. 

4. The Falashas. — This race has much puzzled ethnographers, and 
their history is involved in obscurity. They possess strong affinities 
with the Fulahs on the western coast, and have not only been sup- 
posed by many to be of the same stock, but both have been regarded 
as identical with the Kafirs (Caffres) of Southern Africa. The Fala- 
shas are Jews in religion, though their language has no affinity with 
the Hebrew ; and they use the Gheez version of the Old Testament. 

5. The Grafats are another tribe, possessing a language of their 
own. 

6. The Gongas and Enareans have also a language distinct from all 
the above. 

There are other tribes which might be enumerated, speaking lan- 
guages hitherto irreconcilable.^^ "Whether these really present affi- 
nities, or whether some of them be not radically distinct, are questions 
yet undetermined. 

Physical Characters. — Human races of the plateaux of Abyssinia 
are said to resemble each other, although it is admitted on all hands 
that they vary considerably in complexion and features. 

Prichard, who has brought all his immense erudition to bear on 
these families, cuts them loose entirely from B'egro races ; and classes 
them under the head of Ethiopians ; who, we shall see, have been 
very improperly confounded with Negroes. After treating on the 
general resemblance, in physical characters, of these nations, he 
concludes — 

" By this national character of conformation, the Abyssinians are associated with that 
class of African nations which I have proposed to denominate by the term Ethiopian, as 
distinguishing them from Negroes. The distinction has indeed been already established by 

25 



194 AFEICAN TYPES. 

Baron Larrey, Dr. Riippell, M. de Chabrol, and others. Some of these writers include in 
the same department the Abyssins, the native Egyptians and the Barabra, separating them 
by a broad line from the Negroes, and almost as widely from the Arabs and Europeans, 
The Egyptians or Copts, who form one branch of this stock, have, according to Larrey, a 
' yellow, dusky complexion, like that of the Abyssins. Their countenance is full without 
being puffed ; their eyes are beautiful, clear, almond-shaped, and languishing ; their cheek- 
bones are projecting; their noses nearly straight, rounded at the point; their nostrils 
dilated ; mouth of moderate size ; their lips thick ; their teeth white, regular, but a little 
projecting ; their beard and hair black and crisp.' 230 in all these characters, the Egyptians, 
according to Larrey, agree with the Abyssins, and are distinguished from the Negroes." 

The Baron enters into a minute comparison of the Abyssinians, 
Copts, and ISTegroes ; concluding that the two former are of the same 
race ; and supporting this idea with Egyptian sculptures and paint- 
ings, and the crania of mummies. 

M. DE Chabrol, describing the Copts, says that they evince decidedly 
an African character of physiognomy ; which, he thinks, establishes 
that they are indigenous inhabitants of Egypt, identifying them with 
the ancient inhabitants : — 

" On pent admettre que leur race a su se conserver pure de toute mflange avec le Grecs, 
puisqu'ils n'ont entre eux aucun trait de ressbmblance." 231 

[This must be taken with many grains of allowance ; for the present 
Copts are hybrids of every race that has visited Egypt : at the same 
time that his " African physiognomy" evidently means no more than 
that the character of countenance termed Ethiopian is not that of the 
mgro.— G. R. G.] 

Dr. Riippell has also portrayed the Ethiopian style of counte- 
nance and bodily conformation as peculiarly distinct from the type 
both of the Arabian and the IS'egro. He describes its character as 
more especially belonging to the Barabra, or Berberins, among whom 
he long resided ; but he says that it is common to them, together 
with the Ababdeh and the Bishari, and in part -^ith the Abyssinians. 
This type, according to Riippell, bears a striking resemblance to the 
characteristics of the ancient Egyptians and ISTubians, as displayed in 
the statues and sculptures in the temples and sepulchral excavations 
along the course of the Mle. 

The complexion and hair of the Abyssinians vary very much : their 
complexion ranging from almost white to dark brown or black ; and 
their hair, from straight to crisp, frizzled, and almost woolly. Hence 
the deduction, if these are facts, that they must be an exceedingly 
mixed race. Dr. Prichard, in defining the Abyssinians, has taken much 
pains, as we have said, to prove that they, together with families 
generally of the eastern basin of the Nile, down to Egypt inclusive, 
not only are not ISTegro, but were not originally Asiatic races ; display- 
ing somewhat of an intermediate type, which is nevertheless essen- 



AFRICAN TYPES. 195 

tially African in cliavacter. To us, it is veiy gratifying to see this 
view so ably sustained ; because, regarding it as an inconti'overtible 
fact, we have made it the stand-point of our argument respecting the 
origin of the ancient Egyptians, whose effigies present this African 
type on the earhest monuments of the Old Empire more vividly than 
upon those of the Netv. This autochthonous type, as we shall prove, 
ascends so far back in time, is so peculiar, and withal so connected 
with a primordial tongue — presenting but small incipient affinity 
with Asiatic languages about 3500 years b. c. — as to preclude every 
idea of an Asiatic origin for its aboriginally-J^ilotic speakers and 
hieroglyphical scribes. 

Languages of Abyssinia. — In tracing the history of this country, 
we find the Gheez, or Ethiopic, the Amharic, and other Abyssinian 
languages. It is no longer questionable, that the Gheez or Ethiopic 
— idiom of the Ethiopic version of the Scriptures, and other modern 
books which constitute the literature of Abyssinia — is a Semitic dia- 
lect, akin to the Arabic and Hebrew. 

"There is no reason to doubt [says Prichard], that the people for whose use these 
books were written, and whose vernacular tongue was the Gheez, were a Semitic race. 
How, and at what time, the highlands of Abyssinia came to be inhabited by a Semitic 
people, and what relations the modern Abyssinians bear to the family of nations, of which 
that people were a branch, are questions of too much importance, in African ethnography, 
to be passed without examination." 

The Gheez is now extant merely as a dead language. 

The Amharic, or modern Abyssinian, has been the vernacular of 
the country ever since the extinction of the Gheez, and is spoken over 
a great part of Abyssinia. It is not a dialect of the Gheez or Ethiopic, 
as some have supposed, but is now recognized to be, as Prichard 
affirms, " a language fundamentally distinct." It has incorporated 
into itself many words of Semitic origin ; but accidents of recent date 
do not alter the ease, as concerns the former existence of local Abys- 
synian idioms, non- Asiatic in structure. So with the Atlantic Berber 
, language, which has likewise become much adulterated by foreign 
grafts : yet Venture, ITewman, Castiglione, and Graberg de Hemso, 
have fully proved that it is essentially, and in the primary or most 
original parts of its vocabulary, a speech entirely apart, and devoid 
of any relation whether to Semitic or to any other known language. 
The same remark applies Avith equal truth to the Amharic, which was 
probably an ancient African tongue, and one of the aboriginal idioms 
of the inhabitants of the south-eastern provinces of Abyssinia. Prich- 
ard winds up 'his investigation with the following emphatic avowal, 
so that we may consider the question settled : — " The languages of 
all these nations are essentially distinct from the Gheez and every 
other Semitic dialect." Our own general conclusion from the pre- 



196 AFRICAN TYPES. 

raises is, tliat, while tlie Abyssinians are absolutely distinct, on the 
one hand, from every Negro race, they are, on the other, equally dis- 
tinct, in type and languages, from all Asiatic races ; and they must 
therefore he regarded as autocthones of the country where they are 
now found. 

On the south and south-east of Abyssinia there exist other races 
which might be enumerated ; the Gallas, for example, with brown 
complexion, long crisp hair, and features not unlike the Abyssinians. 
Also, the Danakil, the Somauli, &c. — none of whom are ISTegroes : 
their types being intermediate — long hair, skins more or less dark, 
good features, &c. ; all partaking far more of the JSthiopian than of 
the Negro. [JsTo Abyssinian natives having fallen under the writer's 
personal eye, he cannot pronounce upon them with the same con- 
fidence that he speaks of ISTegroes ; but his colleague, Mr. Gliddon, 
whose twenty-odd years' residence in Egypt, individual aptitude of 
observation, and extensive Oriental knowledge, render his opinions 
of some weight in these Nilotic questions, refers to the exquisite plates 
of Prisse d' Avenues ^^ for what may be considered the most perfect 
expression of this Abyssinian type. "We accept M. Prisse's life-like 
sketches the more readily, inasmuch as they harmonize with the best 
accounts we have read, and with our own ethnological deductions, 
through analogy, of the characteristics that Abyssinians must pre- 
sent.— J. C. K] 

On resuming our line of march, then, north towarfls Egypt, we 
turn our backs upon the jSooddn, " black countries," ever the true 
land of ISTegroes ; and descend from the Abyssinian highlands on the 
north-west and north, along the borders of Gondar^and Dembea. 
Here, again, we meet divers scattered tribes, with black skins and 
woolly heads — varieties of the intrusive Shangalla, who now are 
found not only on the west, but on the northern borders of Ilabesh ; 
while on the south-east we descry the Bohos. In Sennaar we again 
encounter Negro tribes — the Shilooks and the Tungi; inhabiting 
the islands of the Bahr-el-Abiad, above Wadee Shallice. Eully de- 
scribed by Seetzen, Linant, Lord Prudhoe, Eussegger, and others ; 
they present ISTegro types more or less marked. This fact might seem 
to contradict our statement with regard to the primitive localities of 
ISTigritian races. We look upon such minutiae, however, as unimport- 
ant ; because, contending simply for a gradation of African races, a 
few hundred miles, within the same upper Nilotic basin, do not affect 
the main principle. Dr. Eiippell, than whom there is certainly no 
better authority on this question, corroborates our assumption, by 
asserting that the present stations of those Negro races are not their 
ancient abodes. He assures us that — 



AFRICAN TYPES. 197 

" The Shilukh Negroes are a numerous and widely spread people, in the country of 
Bertal, bordering on Fertit, and to the southward of Kordofan, beyond the tenth degree of 
latitude, whence thetj have dispersed themselves, towards the East and North, along the course 
of the White Nile." 

Pricliarcl furthermore admits, that " the people of Sennaar are no 
longer Xegroes," quoting M, Cailliaudto sustain himself; and adding 
the latter' s description of the physical character of the races of Sen- 
nkar in general : — 

" Les indigenes du Sennaar ont le teint d'un brun cuivre ; leurs cheveux, quoique cr^pus, 
different de ceux des vrais Nfegres : ils n'ont point, comme ceuxci, le nez, les levres, et les 
joues, saillantes — 1' ensemble de leur physioguomie est agr^able et regulier." 

Cailliaud further remarks, that — 

" Among the inhabitants of the kingdom of Sennaar, and the adjoining countries to 
the south, the results of mixture of race, in the intermarriage of Soudanians, Ethiopians, 
and Arabs, were frequently to be traced." 

He holds, as does also Cheruhini,^^ that six distinct castes are well 
known in that countiy, the names and descriptions of which they 
give.^ 

After a careful review of most leading authorities on the races of 
Africa, we have arrived at the conclusion that, vtpon ascending the 
table-lands of Abyssinia, at the south and west, we bid adieu to the 
true I^egro-land (believing that every dispassionate inquirer must come 
to results identical). Which departure taken, we find, along the 
descending waters of the Nile, only some few scattered Negro types, 
who have wandered from their indigenous and more austral soil. 
Dr. Prichard, we have stated, fully recognizes the gradation of African 
races for which we have been contending, but he attributes it entirely 
to the operation of physical causes — assigning imaginary reasons, 
unsubstantiated by even the slenderest proof, and in negation of which 
we hope to adduce overwhelming testimony. 

Nubians. — IS'ext in order, we must glance at the races inhabiting 
Kubia and other countries between Abyssinia and Egypt, about whom 
much unnecessary confusion has existed, simply because few European 
travellers among them have been competent phj'siologists. One 
people who inhabit the valley of the Kile above Egypt, and from that 
country to Sennaar, give themselves the appellation of Berherri (in the 
singular). By the Arabs, they are termed Nuba and Barabera. The 
same people in Egypt, whither they immigrate in large numbers, are 
by Europeans called Berberins. These races, through similarity of 
name, have been erroneously confounded with the Berbers of the 
Barbary States; but they differ in language, features, and every 
essential particular.^* The IsTubiaus constitute altogether a group of 
peculiar races, ditfering from Ai'abs, ISTegroes, or Egj'ptians — pos- 
sessing a physiognomy and color of their own. They speak languages 



198 AFRICAN TYPES. 

peculiar to themselves ; in wliich, from the time of Moses, they were 
hieroglj'phed as BaRaBeEa, no less than as I^uba. They are in the 
habit of coming down to Egypt, where their offices are wholly menial ; 
and among other articles of traffic, some clans bring Negroes pro- 
cured from the caravans of Sennaar, and are commonly known at 
Cairo under the name of Grellahs, "fetchers," or slave-dealers. 

The discrepancy in the descriptions given of this ISTubian race by 
travellers, demonstrates that there exists among them considerable 
variety of colors ; and hence, at once, we feel persuaded of no little 
mixture of races. Denon describes them as of a "shining jet-black," 
but adds, " they have not the smallest resemblance to the l^egroes of 
Western Africa." Other travellers speak of them as copper-colored, 
or black, with a tinge of red, &c. The fact is, the mothers are often 
pure negresses, and their children mulattoes of all shades. Their 
proper physical character is, we think, well described by M. Costaz : — 

" La couleur des Barabras tient en quelque sorte le milieu entre le noir d'^bfene des habi- 
tans de Sennaar et le teint basan6 des Egyptiens du Sayd. Elle est exaotement semblable 
a celle de I'acajou poll fonc€. Les Barabras se prevalent de cette nuance, pour se ranger 
parmi les blancs. . . Les traits des Barabras se rapprochent effectivement plus de ceux des 
Europ^ens que de ceux des Nfegres : leur peau est d'un tissu extremement fin — sa couleur 
ne produit point un effect desagr^able ; la nuance rouge, qui y est melee, leur donne un 
air de sante et de •vie. lis different des Nfegres par leur cbeveux, qui sont longs et legfere- 
ment cr^pus sans etre laineus. 

Dr. Rlippell's very scientific account of the races inhabiting the 
province of Dongola contains the following : — 

" The inhabitants of Dar Dongola are divided into two principal classes : namely, the 
Barabra, or the descendants of the old Ethiopian natives of the eountry, and the races of 
Arabs who have emigrated from Hedjas. The ancestors of the Barabra, vrho, in the course 
of centuries, have been repeatedly conquered by hostile tribes, must have undergone some 
intermixture with people of foreign blood ; yet an attentive inquiry will still enable us to 
distinguish among them the old national physiognomy, which their forefathers have marked 
upon colossal statues and the bas-reliefs of temples and sepulchres. A long oval counte- 
nance ; a beautifully curved nose, somewhat rounded towards the top ; proportionally thick 
lips, but not protruding excessively ; a remarkably beautiful figure, generally of middle 
size, and a brown color, are the characteristics of the genuine Dongalawi. These same 
traits of physiognomy are generally found among the Ababdi, Bishari, a part of the inha- 
bitants of the province of Schendi, and partly also among the Abyssinians." 

Many of the Barabra speak Arabic, and with an accent ever " sui 
generis;'' but very few free Arabs consider it respectable to learn Ber- 
berree, which they affect to despise as Mutitna, a "jargon." Both races 
keep themselves separate ; and marriage connexions between them, 
entailing disgrace upon the Arab, are, at the present day, of so rare 
occurrence, that Berberri husbands at Cairo are only adopted for one 
day, in cases of "triple divorce."^^^ There are many citations of Arab 
historians to support the conclusion that some septs of these so-termed 



AFRICAN TYPES. 199 

Barabra derived their origin from a countiy westward of tlie Nile, 
and not far from KordofA,n. A doubt thus arises not only, as above 
mentioned, witli regard to JSTegroes, but whether some !N"ubians them- 
selves did not come originally from the west of the White Mle. This 
opinion, confirmed to some extent by aflBuity of language and by 
modern traditions, is contradicted, apparently, by the «nonuments : — 
1st, Egyptian monarchs of the XVIIIth dynasty conquer the Ifouha, 
no less than the Bardbera, in their expeditions of the fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries b. c. 2d, The portraits of these Ancient ISTubiaus 
exhibit precisely the same traits, whilst occupying, 3500 years ago, 
the same topographical habitats, as their descendants at the present 
day; and the nostalgic tendencies of the modern Berberri are so noto- 
rious, that voluntary displacements on his part seem improbable. 

In Part 11. of this volume, under the head of KUS^, the reader Avill 
meet vn\h ample investigations : although, beyond general accuracy, a 
minutely-exact geographical settlement of these l^ubian groups is not 
essential to anthropology ; because, whether in the Lower or Upper 
!N"ubias, or in Kordofan, they lie now, where their progenitors ever 
did, along the Mle ; that is, between the Egyptians at the north and 
the l!fegroes at the south. And, after all, their mightiest dislocations 
are confined within an area of 500 miles, up or down a single river. 
To us they are, consequently, merely Nubian aborigines. 

The population of Kordofan now consists of three races at least, 
who are physically distinct, each speaking different languages : — 
1. Bedouin Arabs from the Hedj^z. 2. Colonists from Dongola. 
3. Original natives of the country, who call themselves Nouba, 
whereas, in race, they are genuine JSTegroes. We dwell not, however, 
on exotic races ; but upon the ISTubians proper : whose type is inde- 
pendent of this chaos of national names, often erroneously given to 
them, as well as misappropriated by them. Dr. Prichard says : — 

" The descent of the modern Nubians or Barabra, from the Nouba of the hill country of 
Kordofan, seems to be as well established as very many facts which are regarded as certain 
by writers on ethnography." 

But the Barbhra are not ISTegroes ; their hair, though slightly friz- 
zled and crisp, is long and not woolly : and Prichard's surmise of any 
great ITubian displacements since Pharaonic times, was doubted by 
Morton,^^ and is overthrown by facts we owe to Birch.^'^ Burekhardt, 
Cailliaud, and other travellers who have visited this part of Africa, 
tell us that the Noubas, who are Negroes, do not here resemble in form, 
features, hair,' complexion, &c., other Negroes of the west coast, but 
approximate more closely to the type of Barabra or true Nubians. 
It is clear that there exists some strongly-marked difference between 



200 AFRICAN TYPES. 

the Nouha of Kordofan and the BarUhra of Nubia; which Dr. 
Prichard is at a loss whether to attribute to climate or to commin- 
glings of races. Of the two opinions the latter is the only reasonable 
one ; because the ISTubians or modern Barabra are the representatives 
of an original indigenous stock; whose normal position stands north- 
ward of pure N^gro races. 

The inhabitants of Dar-Pour and Fezz^n exhibit some striking 
peculiarities, but we shall pass them by, as non-essential to our pre- 
sent objects, with the observation that, while the former approximate 
the ITubian, the latter verge towards the Atlantic Berber type. 

The Eastern Nubians, or Bisharine or Bejaivy Race. — To the east- 
ward of ITubia, throughout the deserts and denuded hill-country east 
of Egypt, we encounter different tribes and nations, all supposed to 
belong to the same race, which is one of the most widely-spread in 
Ethiopia, stretching from the Eastern desert at Thebes, to the So- 
mauli-country below Shoa. The Bisliari are the most powerful of 
these clans. The Hadharehe, to the southward of the Bishari, and 
the Ababdeh, to the northward, belong, it is believed, to the same 
stock. Under the appellation Hadliarehe are included numerous 
tribes, which it would be tedious and useless to enumerate.^ ^ Sudkim, 
or Suakin, is their principal settlement ; and of this place and its 
inhabitants Burckhardt supplies an ample account. 

" The Suakiny have, in general, handsome and expressive features, with thin and very 
short beards ; their color is of the darkest brown, approaching black, but they have nothing 
of the Negro character of countenance." 239 

To the same excellent observer we are indebted for a fact that, 
seized upon to sustain the exploded idea of physical changes through 
climate, in reality affords the happiest illustration of the mode through 
which types of man become naturally effaced; viz. : by foreign amalga- 
mations. The town of Suakim ; in Ptolemaic times Berenice ; and 
containing (970 b. c.) the ancestors of the same Sulckiim^° that now 
reside in its neighborhood ; exhibited in Burckhardt's day a triple 
population, viz. : native Hadharehe, Arabs from the opposite coast, 
and the descendants of some Turkish soldiery left there by Sooltan 
Seleem. "The present race," says Burckhardt, "have the African 
features and manners, and are in no way to be distinguished from the 
Hadherebe."^" 

Turkish soldiery cohabit with the females of every land in which 
tbey are posted; and, while they rarely carry their own women with 
them, of all points of Ottoman conquests, Suhhim, on the African desert- 
coast of the Red Sea, would be the least likely to have been occupied 
by Turkish married couples. In consequence, Seleem's garrison there, 



AFRICAN TYPES. 201 

after tlie subjugation of Egypt in a. d. 1517, adopted as wives and 
concubines the females of the Hadharehe ; and in less than ten gene- 
rations, down to the period of Burckhardt's travels, their descendants 
had been already absorbed into the aboriginal masses whence the 
mothers had been drawn.^*^ Sustainers of "unity," Avho once 
snatched franticly at Turks metamorphosed, by climate, into Afri- 
cans, are welcome henceforward to what capital they can evolve from 
Burckhardt's narrative. 

The countiy of the Bishari reaches from the northern frontier of 
Abyssinia, along the course of the river Mareb, which flows through 
the northern forests of the Shangallah to the Bel4d-el-Taka and At- 
bara, where dwell the Iladendoa and Hammadab, said to be the 
strongest tribe of the Bishari race. Tribes of the Bishari reach north- 
ward as far as Gebel-el-Ottaby in the latitude of Derr, where the [N'ile, 
after its great western bend, turns back towards the Red Sea ; they 
occupy all the hilly country upon the W\\q from Senn^ar to Bar Berber 
and to the Red Sea. (Pkichard.) Travellers do not give a flattering 
account of their social condition. Burckhardt states : " The inhos- 
pitable character of the Bisharein would alone prove them to be a 
true African race, were this not put beyond all doubt by their lan- 
guage." Riippell declares that the ph^'sical character of the Bishari is 
veiy like that of the Barabra. Burckhardt again obser\'-es, " The Bi- 
shari of Atbara, like their brethren, are a handsome and bold race of 
people. I thought the women remarkably handsome ; they were of 
a dark brown complexion, with beautiful eyes and fine teeth ; their 
persons slender and elegant." Hamilton, who saw a few of them 
during his short stay about Assouan and Philee, yields very much the 
same account, with the commentary, that many of them are beheld 
with "a cast of the ISTegro, others with veiy fine profile." Pri chard 
makes the following just and significant remark on this description : 
" This sort of variety in phj'siognomy is observed by almost every 
traveller in the eastern parts of the continent, from Kaffirlaud to 
Nubia and Egypt." iTow, on the west, the population has been cut 
ofi", by deserts and other natural impediments, from all foreign ad- 
mixtures, in consequence of their isolated position ; while, on the 
east, they have been subjected from time immemorial to adulteration 
from Semitic immigrants. Both the Bishari and Ababdeh have been 
somewhat adulterated with Arab blood ; and, doubtless, far more so 
through IN'egresses, their slaves. They may, however, be considered 
a tolerably pure African race, inasmuch as the marks of adulteration 
are not by any means universal ; at the same time they have preserved 
their native tongue, while the Arabic idioms have supplanted other 
languages around them. ^ 

26 



202 AFEICAN TYPES. 

The Ahahdeh occupy the country to the northward of the Bishari ; 
viz. : from the parallel of Derr to the frontiers of Egypt, and in the, 
eastern desert as far northward as Qosseyr : they were scarcely known 
previously to the Trench Expedition to Egypt. M. du Bois Ayme, a 
member of I^apoleon's Egyptian commission, affords the earliest de- 
scription of the Abahdeh : — 

" Les Ababdeli sont un tribu nomade, qui habitent les montagnes situees a I'orient du 
Nil, au sud de la valine de Qojeyr. lis different entierement, par leur moeurs, leur lan- 
guage, leur costume, leur constitution physique, des tribus d'Arabes, qui, comme ceux ci, 
occupent les deserts qui environnent I'Egypte. Les Arabs sont blancs, se rasent la tete, 
sont vetus. Les Ababdeli sont noirs, mais leur traits ont beaucoup de ressemblance avec 
ceux des Europ^ens. lis ont les cheveux naturellement boucUs, mais point laineux." 

Belzoni, who knew them well, says their complexions are naturally 
of a dark chocolate ; their hair quite black ; their teeth fine and white, 
protuberant and very large. 

It will be seen, from what precedes, that considerable is the discre- 
pancy among descriptions by travellers of these Ababdeli and Bisha- 
reen, as well as of other races. This arises, doubtless, from two facts : 
1, That they are a mixed population, descended from several primitive 
races ; 2, That they have been described at diiferent topographical 
points. 

The following observations of M. Prissb — whose residence among 
these tribes in Upper Egypt counts years where others reckon months, 
or, more frequently, weeks, is a guarantee for the accuracy of his 
ethnological drawings — completely demonstrate the truth of our 
deductions : — 

" The manners of the Bedjah described by Arab authors are even yet those of these 
populations, who, under the name of Ababdeh, of Bishari, or Bichareen, and others less 

known, inhabit the same countries at this day In 1836, out of 500 men (Ababdeh) 

of the tribe, assembled at Louqsor for the transportation of wheat to Cossfiir, nearly 100 
Arabs were found, who had married Ababdeh girls to avoid the conscription and the taxes. 

The Ababdeli have a peculiar idiom, which seems to be that of the aborigines, or 

the ancient Ethiopians The Bishari commence at the north, where the Ababdeh 

finish, and extend to the south as far as the vicinity of Souakim. They occupy all that 
chain of mountains which runs along the eastern coast of Africa, and that seems to be the 
cradle of all these wandering septs, living in grottoes, and designated in consequence under 
the name of Troglodytes. They derive their origin from the Blemmyes, a nomad people of 
the environs of Axum, which the love of pillage drew towards Egypt [that is, in Koman 
times; when Coptic annals recount the ravages as low as Esneh of the Bal-n-3Ioui, " Eye- 
of-Lion," or Blemmyes. ^uj The manners of the Bishari differ little from those of the 

Ababdeh, with whom, nevertheless, they are ever at war Their language has drawn 

nothing from the Arabic, and seems to approach the Abyssinian and the Berber [t. e. Ber- 
berree.'] This people, truly indigenous to Africa, is cruel, avaricious, and vindictive; these 
dispositions are restrained by no law, human or divine." 2w 

We copy (Eig. 120) one of Prisse's engravings. It exhibits the 
perfect Bishari, but difiers too slightly from the Ababdeh characteris- 
tics not to exemplify both tribes equally well. 



AFRICAN TYPES. 



203 




Among Dr. Morton's Fig. 120. 

papers we find the copy 
of a letter, addressed from 
■ the Isle of Philve, Sept. 15, 
1844, by Chev. Lepsius, to 
our erudite countryman, 
tlie late John Pickering, 
of Boston. Being inedited, 
and mentioned on\j by one 
writer^ that we know of, 
we translate such passages 
as bear upon l^ubian sub- 
jects, not merely for their 
intrinsic value, but in tri- 
bute to the memory of the 
profoundest native philo- 
logist that our country has 
hitherto produced. 

" I have no need, certainly, to insist, as regards yourself, upon the higli importance 
■which linguistic researches always possess in ethnographical studies. I have not neglected, 
either, to study, to the extent that time permitted, the different tongues of the Soudan, 
•whenever I could find individuals who ■were in a state to communicate anything about their 
own language, through the medium of Arabic. The thi-ee principal tongues -which I have 
studied in this manner, and of which I now possess the grammar and vocabulary, suffi- 
ciently complete to give an idea of their nature, are — the Nobinga, or Nouba, ordinarily 
known under the strange name of Berber, which is spoken in three different dialects in the 
valley of the Nile, from Assouan to the southern frontier of the province of Dongola, as also 
in certain parts of Kordifal (this is the true pronunciation in lieu of KordofUn) : 2d, The 
Kongdra, or language of Dar-Four, a very extended speech of Negroes, of which until now 
even the name was unknown : 3d, The Begawie, or the language of the Bickartba, who oc- 
cupy the country west of the Nile from 23" to 15°, and principally the fertile province of 
Taka. The most interesting among these three tongues is, without doubt, the third. The 
gr.ammar causes it to be recognized without difficulty as appertaining lo the great family of 
Caucasian languages, as I think I was the first to demonstrate of the Egyptian tongue (in 
1835, by comparison of the pronouns; in 1836 by that of the names of number); and as 
known concerning the Abyssinian tongue. This fact alone proves that the primitive origin 
of all these people, of this eastern part of Africa, must have been in Asia. [We do not 
perceive why such deduction necessarily follows. " Caucasian" is a term that physiology 
must abandon, as a misnomer productive of confusion ; but the above was penned in haste, 
nine years ago, and the erudite writer may since have seen occasion, as we have ourselves, 
to modify first impressions]. . . . Finally, this tongue becomes to us of a far higher import- 
ance, through the circumstance that I think I shall be able to prove that the same people, 
who now speak this tongue, formerly inhabited the Isle of Meroe ; built the temples and the 
pyramids, of which we still there find the ruins. . . . The people who ruled then, in this 
great kingdom, called themselves Bega (Bedja) ; a name which is now entirely lost as the 
name of a people, but which originated the name of the tongue Begaioie, of which I have 
spoken above. . . . One facilely perceives at once, by many well-preserved paintings, that the 
people who built the pyramids [of Meroe] were a red people, or, rather, very reddish [bien 
rougealre'], as might have been expected if they spoke veritably a Caucasian language. But 



204 AFRICAN TYPES. 

nothing presents itself to the most scrupulous investigations that could lead us to suspect 
that a single one of the monuments [of Meroe] might ascend higher than the first century 
after j. c. The greater part belong, without doubt, even to much later times ; and we must 
place the most flourishing epoch of MeroS nearly at the second or third of our era. And, 
not only upon the Isle of Meroe, but in all Ethiopia, from one end to the other, there is not 
the slightest trace, I will not say of a primitive civilization anterior to the Egjrptian civili- 
zation, as has been dreamed, but not even whatsoever of an Ethiopian civilization, properly 
so called. "216 

These most scientific views of Cliev. Lepsius were communicated 
to ns long ago ; and they have materially aided our endeavors to dis- 
criminate between the true and the false, the certain and the impro- 
bable, in EtMopic problems ; about which, we grieve to say, consider- 
able mystification is still kept up between the ^Northern and the 
Southern States of our Federal Union, which a little reading might 
remove. 

On the northern coast of Africa, between the Mediterranean and 
the Great Desert, including Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Ben- 
gazi, there is a continuous system of highlands, which have been 
included under the general term Atlas, anciently Atalantis, now the 
Barbary States. This immense tract, in very recent geological times, 
was once an Island, with the ocean flowing over the whole of the 
Sahara ; thus cutting off all land-communication between Barbary, on 
the Mediterranean, and the remote plateaux of l!^igritia. Throughout 
Barbary we encounter another peculiar group of races, subdivided 
into many tribes of various shades, now spread over a vast area, but 
which formerly had its principal, and probably aboriginal, abode, 
along the mountain-slopes of Atlas. The tribes have different appel- 
latives in different districts : e. g., the Shillouhs, now a separate 
people,^'^ have been included under the general name of Berbers or 
Berehhers : but from the primitive Berbers the north of Africa seems 
to have derived the designation oiBarhary ov Berheria, "Land of the 
Berbers." To speak correctly, the real name of the Berbers proper 
is Mazirgh ; with the article prefixed or suffixed, T-amazirgh, or Ama- 
zirgh-T : meaning, free, dominant, or ^^ noble race." Their name, in 
Latin mouths, was softened into Masyes, Masiges, Mazici, &c. ; and in 
Grecian, into Ma^ue?, as far back as Herodotus {lib. iv. 191). These 
people have spoken a language unlike any other from time immemo- 
rial; and, although it has been a fruitful theme of discussion, yet no 
affinity can be established between its ancient words, stripped of 
Phoenician and Arabic, and any Asiatic tongue. "We have every 
reason to feel persuaded that the Berbers existed in the remotest 
times, with all their essential moral and physical peculiarities. In a 
word, the reader of Part H. of this work will see, that there exists 
no ground for regarding them in any other light than as the autoc- 



AFRICAN TYPES. 205 

thones of Mount Atlas and its prolongations. The Berber was, pro- 
babl}' , as Mr. "W. B. Hodgson (of Savannah — one of the highest 
authorities in Berber lore,) remarks, the language which " Tyiia Bi- 
lingua" was obliged to learn in addition to a Carthaginian mother- 
tongue, the Punic or Phoenician speech. "We know that this people, 
with their language stamped upon the native names of rivers, moun- 
tains, and localities, have existed apart for the last 2500 years ; and 
inasmuch as Egypt, back to the time of Menes, barred their inter- 
course by land with races on the eastern side of the Suez isthmus, 
there is every reason to believe that the Berbers existed, at that re- 
mote date, in the same state in which they were discovered by Phoenician 
navigators, previously to the foundation of Carthage. At the time 
of Leo Afiicanus, the Berber was the language of all Atlas. It has 
remained so since, except where crowded out by Arabic. They are 
an indomitable nomadic people, who, since the introduction of camels, 
have penetrated, in considerable numbers, into the Desert, and even 
as far as Nigritia. These Berbers are the N"umidians and Maurita- 
nians of classical writers, by the Romans termed " genus insuperabile 
hello;" and French Algeria can testify to the indelible bellicosities 
of the living race. 

"We gather from Shaw, that — 

" The tribes who speak this language have different names : those of the mountains 
belonging to Morocco are termed ShilLoukhs ; those who inhabit the plains of that empire, 
dwelling under tents, after the manner of Arabs, are named Berber ; and those of the 
mountains belonging to Algiers and Tunis call themselves Cabaylis, or Gebalis" [a designa- 
tion which is merely Qabdil, Arabic for a "tribe," when not Gebciylee, "mountaineer."] 

A fourth and prominent branch must be added to this division : 
viz., the TuaryTc, who are now widely spread over the Sahara and its 
oases, and on both banks of the ISTiger. 

Mr. HoDGSOisr, long resident officially in the Barbary States, who 
has devoted much time, talent, and learning, to this subject, seems 
to have settled the question, that all these Berber i^aces (except such 
few as have adopted the Arabic) speak dialects of the same language. 
In consequence, it has been assumed, by Prichard and others of the 
Unity-school, that they must all be of a common origin. But, while 
of this there is no evidence beyond a community of languages, the 
manifest diversity of physical characters would prove the contrary. 
Some of these clans are white ; others black, with woolly hair ; and 
there is no fact better established in ethnography, than that physical 
characters are far more persistent than unwritten tongues. The great 
mass of the Berber tribes have, in all likelihood, substantially pre- 
served their physical as well as moral characters since their creation ; 
although they have been to some extent subjected to adulterations 



206 AFRICAN TYPES. 

of blood. The Phcenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Vandals, succes- 
sively, founded colonies in tlie Barbary States : but they built and 
inhabited towns for commercial purposes — mixed little socially with 
the people — never resided in the interior, and have disappeared from 
the scene, leaving nearly imperceptible traces behind them. Arabs 
have since overrun the country, but their numbers have been small, 
compared with the natives ; and, except during and since Saracenic 
culture in the towns, they have generally preserved their nomadic 
habits — keeping much aloof from the indigenous Barbaresques ; and 
there is not merely no reason for thinking that Arabia has exercised 
great influence on the Berber type, but circumstances rather indicate 
Barbary's action over the Arab colonists. The ruling tuition of the 
Arabs, the genial vitality of Islhm, and the constant reading of tha 
Koran, have had the effect of spreading the Arabic language much 
faster and farther than Arabian blood. In some of the more civilized 
cities — Morocco, Fez, &e. — Arabic is the only tongue spoken among 
the patrician Berbers ; thus affording another evidence of the utter 
fallacy of arguments in favor of the identity of origin or consanguinity 
of races based solely upon community of language. 

The Mohammedan in Africa, like the Christian religion elsewhere, 
is spreading its own languages over races of all colors : just as did 
Shamanism, Budhism, or Judaism, in many parts of Asia, during ages 
past. Many Jews are scattered throughout Barbary, but especially 
in the empire of Morocco, where their number is estimated at 500,000. 
Some black blood too has infiltrated from the South. 

jSTo little difference exists in descriptions of the physical characters 
of Barbary Moors (corruption of the Latin Mauri), no less than 
concerning the native tribes of Atlas now diffused over the Sahara. 
Prichard says — 

" Their figure and stature are nearly the same as those of the Southern Europeans; and 
their complexion, if darker, is only so in proportion to the higher temperature of the coun- 
tries -which they inhabit. It displays, as we shall see, great varieties." 

The influence of climate is here again boldly assumed by Prichard, 
without one particle of evidence. What reason is there to suppose 
that climate influences Berbers, any more than it does Mongols, 
American Indians, or other races, who, each with their typical com- 
plexions, are spread over most latitudes ? Moreover, the complexion 
of the Berbers does not, in very many cases at least, correspond with 
climate. The same action, we presume, operates in Barbaresque locali- 
ties that seems to prevail in various parts of the earth; and which we 
have insisted upon iu our general Remarks on Types. The Berber 
family, at present, appears to be made up of many tribes, presenting 
a sort of generic resemblance, but differing specifically, and possess- 



AFRICAN TYPES. 207 

ing physical cliaracteristics that are original, and not amenable to 
climatic influences any more than those which denote the Jew, the 
Iberian, or the Celt. » 

We submit a few examples of Atalantic physical characters, as 
described by various travellers. Jackson informs us, that — 

" The men of Temsena and Showiah are of a strong, robust make, and of a copper-color — 
the women beautiful. . . . The women of Fez are fair as the European, but hair and eyes 
always dark. . . . The women of Mequinas are very beautiful, and have the red and white 
complexion of English women." 

E.OZET gives the annexed description of the Moors : — 

"II existe cependant encore un certain nombre de families, qui n'ont point contracts 
d'alliances avec des strangers, et chez lesquelles on retrouve les caract^res de la race pri- 
mitive. Les hommes sont d'une taille au dessus de la moyenne ; leur d-marche est noble 
et grave ; ils ont les cheveux noirs ; la peau unpeu basanee, mais plutot blanche que brune ; 
le visage plein, mais les traits en sont moins bien prononc6s que ceux des Arabes et des 
Berberes. lis ont gtin^ralement le nez arrondi, la bouche moyenne, les yeux tres ouverts, 
mais peu vifs ; leurs muscles sont bien prononces, et ils ont le corps plutot gros que maigre." 

Spix and Martius, the well-known German travellers, depict 
them as follows : — 

" A high forehead, an oval countenance, large, speaking black eyes, shaded by arched 
and strong eyebrows ; a thin, rather long, but not too pointed, nose ; rather broad lips, 
meeting in an acute angle ; thick, smooth, and black hair on the head and in the beard ; 
brownish-i/ellow complexion; a strong neck, joined to a stature greater than the middle 
height, characterize the natives of Northern Africa, as they are frequently seen in the streets 
of Gibraltar." 

M. EozET recounts, that — 

"The Berbers or Kabyles of the Algerine territory are of middle stature; their com- 
plexion is brown, and sometimes almost black [noir&lre) ; hair brown and smooth, rarely 
blond ; they are lean, but extremely robust and nervous, very well-formed, and with the 
elegance of antique statues ; their heads more round than the Arabs'." 

Lieutenant "Washington declares — 

" The Moors are generally a fine-looking race of men, of middle stature, disposed to 
become corpulent ; they have good teeth ; complexions of all shades, owing, as some have 
supposed, to intermixture with Negroes, though the latter are not sufBciently numerous to 
accoimt for the fact." 

He describes the Shillouhs or Shilhas as having light complexions. 
Prichard thus sums up his inquii-ies : — 

' It seems, from these accounts, that the nations whose history we have traced in this 
chapter, present all varieties of complexion ; and these variations appear, in some instances 
at least, to be nearly in relation to the temperature." 

With all his inclination that way, however, it is evident that he 
himself cannot make his own chmatie theory fit. 

Our reasonings are based upon comparison of Barbaresque fami- 
lies diflused over a vast superficies — comprising tribes now more or 
less commingled, and in all social conditions, civic, agricultural, and 
nomadic. We may mention, although we exclude, as too local and 



)-•«!» 



208 AFEICAN TYPES. 

modern to be important out of towns on the seaboard, the combined 
influences of European captives, at Salee, Tangiers, Algiers, Tunis, 
Tripoli, Bengazi, and other privateering principalities ; which circum- 
stances, in the maritime cities, have blended every type of man that 
could be kidnapped around the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and East- 
ern Atlantic, by Barbary pirates. [As an illustration — Mr. G-liddon 
tells us, that, in 1830, just after the French conquest of Algiers, the 
hold of a Syrian brig, in which he sailed from Alexandria to Sidon, 
was occupied by one wealthy Algerine family, fleeing from Gallic 
heresies to Arabian Isl^m, anywhere. Exclusive of servants and 
slaves, there were at least fifty adults and minors, under the control 
of a patriarchal grand or great-grandfather. Of course, our infor- 
mant saw none of the grown-up females unveiled ; but, while the 
patriarch and some of the sons were of the purest white complexion, 
their various children presented every hue, and every physical diver- 
sity, from the highest Circassian to a Guinea-K"egro. In this case, 
no Arabic interpreter being needed, it was found that each individual 
of the worthy corsair's famity, unprejudiced in all things, save hatred 
towards Christendom in general and Frenchmen in particular, had 
merely chosen females irrespectively of color, race, or creed. — J. C. K".] 
Hodgson states — 

" The Tuarycks are a. white people, of the Berber race. . . . The Mozabicks are a remark- 
ably white people, and are mixed with Bedouin Arabs. . . . The Wadreagans and Wurgelans 
are of a dark bronze, with woolly hair . . . are certainly not pure Caucasian, like the Berber 
race in general. . . . There is every probability that the Kushites, Amalekites, and Kah- 
tanites, or Beni-Toktan Arabs, had, in obscure ages, sent forward tribes into Africa. But 
the first historic proof of emigration of the Aramean or Shemitic race into this region is 
that of the Canaanites of Tyre and of Palestine. This great commercial people settled 
Carthage, and pushed their traders to the Pillars of Hercules." 218 

Upon these various branches of a supposed common stock, there 
have been engrafted some shoots of foreign origin ; for, amidst a uni- 
formity of language, there exist extraordinary differences of color and 
of physical traits — at the same time, are we sure of this alleged 
uniformity of speech itself? ISTow, we repeat, history affords no well- 
attested example of a language outliving a clearly-defined physical 
type ; and, in a preceding chapter, we fully instanced how the Jews, 
scattered for 2000 years over all climates of the earth, have adopted 
the language of every nation among whom the}^ sojourn — thus 
affording one undeniable proof of our assertion, not to mention many 
others one might draw from less historical races. 

Mr, Hodgson is a strenuous advocate of an extreme antiquity for 
the Berbers, or Libyans : — 

" Their history is yet to be investigated and written. I yet maintain the opinion ad- 
vanced some years ago, that, these people were the terra: geniti — the aboriginal inhabitants 



AFRICAN TYPES. 209 

of Egypt, prior to the historic or monumental era, and before the Mizraimites and their 
descendants, the Copts." 2*9 

In our Part 11., these skilful inferences are singularly reconciled 
with, the monuments and histoiy, and from an altogether different 
point of view. "When we remember how, in Hebrew personifications, 
MizRAiM was the grandson of Koah, and how Lepsius traces the 
Egyptian Empire back nearly 4000 years before Christ, a claim of 
such antiquity for the Berbers is certainly a high one, although, 
according to our belief, not extravagant ; for we regard the Berbers 
as a primitive type, and therefore as old as any men of our geological 
period. Hodgson confirms his statement, by abundant proofs, that 
" the grammatical structure of the Berber dialects is everywhere the 
same;" and, in allusion to the affinities among these languages, 
avers : — 

" Yet, with all this identity of a peculiar class of words and similarity of some inflections, 
adjunct particles, and formations — the three most ancient and historical languages, Arabic, 
Berber, and Coptic, are essentially distinct." 

"With perfect propriety, our friend might have added the Chinese 
speech, which is equally peculiar, and can be traced monumentally 
farther back than either the Arabic or the Berber — if not, certainly, 
so far as that ante-monumental tongue which is prototype of the 
Coptic. It seems to us, that no one can read Padthibr's several 
works on Chinese history, language, and literature, without coincid- 
ing in this opinion ; and every one can verify that the languages of 
America, according to Gallatin, Duponceau, and other qualified 
judges, are radically distinct from every tongue, ancient or modern, 
of the Old Continent. 

Our ethnological sweep over the African Continent, from the Cape 
of Good Hope northwards to the !N"ubias on the right hand, and to 
Barbary on the left, incomplete as it is — wearisome, to many read- 
ers, as it may be — has brought us to the confines oi Egypt. In that 
most ancient of historical lands we propose to halt, for a season ; 
devoting the next chapter to its study. But, by way of succinct 
recapitulation of some results we think the present chapter has 
elicited, we would inquire of the candid reader, whether, at the 
present moment, the human races indigenous to Africa do not pre- 
sent themselves, on a map, so to say, in layers ? "Whether the most 
southern of its inhabitants, the Hottentots and Bushmen, are not the 
lowest types of humanity therein found ? And lastly, whether, in the 
ratio of our progress towards the Mediterranean, passing successively 
through the Caffre, the iN'egro, and the Foolah populations, to the 
Abyssinian and Nubian races on the east, and to the Atalantic Berber 
27 



210 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

races on the west, we have not beheld the Types of Mankind rising, 
almost continuously, higher and higher in the scale of physical and 
intellectual gradations ? 

Such are the phenomena. Climate, most certainly, does not explain 
them ; nor will any student of Ifatural History sustain that each type 
of man in Africa is not essentially homogeneous with the fauna and 
the flora of the special province wherein his species now dwells. 

Two questions arise: — 1st, Within human record, has it not always 
been thus ? and 2d, Do the Egyptians, northernmost inhabitants of 
Africa, obey the same geographical law of physical, and consequently 
of mental and moral, progression ? 

Our succeeding chapters may suggest, to the reflective mind, some 
data through which both interrogatories can be answered. 



CHAPTER VII. 

EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

Our survey of African races, so far, has been rapid and imperfect, 
but still we hope it is sufficiently full to develop our idea of gradation 
in the inhabitants of that great continent. A more copious analysis 
would have surpassed our limits, while becoming unnecessarily tedious 
to the reader. Prichard has devoted a goodly octavo of his '■^Physical 
History" to these races alone ; whereas we can afibrd but a few pages. 

We now approach Egypt, the last geographical link in African 
Ethnology. She has ever been regarded as the mother of arts and 
sciences ; and, strange as it may seem, Science now appeals to her to 
settle questions in the IsTatural History of Man, mooted since the days 
of Herodotus, the father of our historians. 

When we cast a retrospect through the long and dreary vista of 
years, which leads to the unknown epoch of Man's creation, in quest 
of a point of departure where we can obtain the first historical 
glimpse of a human being on our globe, the Archaeologist is com- 
pelled to turn to the monuments of the WAe. The records of India 
cannot any longer be traced even to the time of Moses. Hebrew 
chronicles, beyond Abraham, present no stand-point on which we 
can rely; whilst their highest pretension to antiquity falls short 
by 2000 years of the foundation of the Egyptian Empire. The 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 211 

Chinese, according to their own historians, do not carry their true 
historic period beyond 2637 j'ears before Christ. Mneveh and Ba- 
bylon, monumentally speakiiig, are still more modern. But, Egypt's 
proud pyramids, if we are to believe the Champollion-school, elevate 
us at least 1000 yeai-s above every other nationality. And, Avhat is 
more remarkable, when Egypt first presents herself to our view, she 
stands forth not in childhood, but with the maturity of manhood's 
age, arraj'ed in the time-woi'n habiliments of civilization. Her tombs, 
her temples, her pyramids, her manners, customs, and arts, all betoken 
a full-grown nation. The sculptures of the IVth dynasty, the earliest 
extant, show that the arts at that day, some 3500 b. c, had already 
arrived at a perfection little inferior to that of the XVIIIth dynasty, 
which, until the last five years, was regarded as her Augustan age. 

Egyptian monuments, considered ethnologically, are not only in- 
estimable as presenting us two types of mankind at this early period, 
but they display other contemporary races equally marked — thus 
afibrdiug proof that humanity, in its infinite varieties, has existed 
much longer upon earth than we have been taught ; and that physical 
causes have not, and cannot transform races from one type into 
another. 

Among former objections against the antiquity of Egyptian monu- 
ments, it has been urged, that such numerous centuries could not 
have elapsed with so little change in people, arts, customs, language, 
and other conditions. This adverse charge, however, does not in 
itself hold good, because the fixedness of civilization, or veneration 
for the customs of ancestors, seems to be an inherent characteristic 
of Eastern nations. Through the extensive portion of Egyptian his- 
tory which is now known with sufiicient certainty, we may admit a 
comparative adhesion to fixed formulae, and an indisposition to 
change: but no Egj-ptologist will deny that, during nearly 6000 
years, for which monuments are extant, the developing mutations in 
Egyptian economy obeyed the same laws as in that of other races — 
with this signal advantage in the former's favor, that we possess an 
almost unbroken chain of coetaneous records for each progressive 
step. Oriental history anteceding Christian ages (when viewed 
through the eye-glasses of pedagogues who rank among Carlyle's 
" doleful creatures,") looms monstrously, like a chaotic blur, precisely 
where ai'cheeology, using mere naked eyes, has long espied most lumi- 
nous stratifications : and human developments, requiring " chiliads 
of years," even yet are popularly restricted to the action of one 
patriarchal lifetime. For ourselves, referring to the works of the 
hierologists for explanation, we would readily join issue with objectors 
upon the following heads : — 



212 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

IVth dynasty — b c 3400 Egyptian developments down to the 

CHRISTIAN ERA. 

1st. Langxiage — Only 15 articulations, developed, in the Coptic, to 81 letters. 

2d. Writing — HieroglypMcs, then Hieratic, nextDemotic, and lastly Cojo^ic. 

3d. Architecture — Pyramids, then temples ivith Dwic, and lastly with every 

kiiid of column. 
4th. Geography — Egypt proper, then, gradually, knowledge as exteiisive as 

that of the Evangelists. 

5th. Zoology — No horses, camels, or com- ") ., - i i l k • l ia 

' ' I then, every ammal known to Anstotle. 

mon fowls, J 

6th. Arts — No chariots, then, all vehicles generally used by the ancients. 

7th. Sciences — No bitumenized mummies, . then, every form, with many kinds of foreign 

drugs, &c. 

8th. Ethnology, Native — 1st. Egyptian type, then 

2d. Egypto-Asiatic, 

3d'. Egypto-Negroid. 

Foreign — IVth dynasty — Arabs. 

Xllth dynasty — Arabians, Libyans, Nubians, Negroes. 

XVIIIth dynasty — Canaaniies, Jews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, 

Tartars, Hindoos, Thracians, lonians, 

Lydians, Libyans — Nubians, Abyssinians, 

Negroes. 

And, thence to Oriental mankind, as known to the Greeks in 

Alexander's day. 

"We might extend this mnemonical list through many other depart- 
ments of knowledge ; but, until these positive instances of develop- 
ment be overthrown, let us hear no more fables about " stationary 
Egyptians." 

It was, however, only through alien rule, introduced in later times 
by Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks, that all old habits 
were uprooted. Look at India and China ; which countries, accord- 
ing to popular superstitions, seem to have been stereotj^ed some 
three or four thousand years ago : yet, what enormous changes does 
not the historian behold in them ! ITevertheless, every type is more 
or less tenacious of its habits ; and we might cite how the Arabs, the 
Turks, and, still more, the Jews, now scattered throughout all nations 
of the earth, cling to the customs of their several ancestries : but, as 
we are merely suggesting a few topics for the reader's meditation, let 
us inquire, what was the type of that Ancient Egyptian- race which 
linked Africa with Asia ? This interrogatory has given rise to endless 
discussions, nor can it, even now, be regarded as absolutely answered. 
For many centuries prior to the present, as readers of Rollin and of 
VoLNEY may remember, the Egyptians were reputed to be Negroes, 
and Egyptian civilization was believed to have descended the Mle 
from Ethiopia ! Champollion, Rosellini, and others, while unanimous 
in overthrowing the former, to a great extent consecrated the latter 
of these errors, which could hardly be considered as fully refuted 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 213 

until the appearance of Gliddon's Chapters on Ancient Egypt, in 1813, 
and of Morton's Orania jEgyptiaca, in 1844. The following extract 
presents the first-named author's deductions : — 

"The importance of confining history to its legitimate place — to Lower Egypt — is 
evident : 

" 1st. Because it was in Lower Egypt that the Caucasian children of Ham must have 
first settled, on their arrival from Asia. 

" 2d. Because the advocates of the theory which would assert the African origin of the 
Egyptians say that they rely chiefly on history for their African, or Ethiopic, predilections. 

" 3d. Because the same theorists assume, that we must begin with Africans, at the top 
of the Nile, and come downward with civilization ; instead of commencing with Asiatics and 
White men, at the bottom, and carrying it up. 

" I have not as yet touched on ethnography, the effects of climate, and the antiquity of 
the different races of the human family ; but I shall come to those subjects, after establish- 
ing a chronological standard, by defining the history of Egypt according to the hierogly- 
phics. At present, I intend merely to sketch the events connected with the Caucasian 
children of Ham, the Asiatic, on the first establishment of their Egyptian monarchy, and 
the foundation of their first and greatest metropolis in Lower Egypt. 

"The African theories are based upon no critical examination of early history — are 
founded on no Scriptural authority for early migrations — are supported by no monumental 
evidence, or hieroglyphieal data, and cannot be borne out or admitted by practical common 
sense. For civilization, that never came northward out of benighted Africa, (but from the 
Deluge to the present moment has been only partially carried into it — to sink into utter 
oblivion among the barbarous races whom Providence created to inhabit the Ethiopian and 
Nigritian territories of that vast continent,) could not spring from Negroes, or from Berbers, 
and never did. 

"So far, then, as the record, Scriptural, historical, and monumental, will afford us an 
insight into the early progress of the human race in Egypt, the most ancient of all civilized 
countries, we may safely assert, that history, when analyzed by common sense — when 
scrutinized by the application of the experience bequeathed to us by our forefathers — when 
subjected to a strictly impartial examination into, and comparison of, the physical and 
mental capabilities of nations — when distilled in the alembic of chronology, and submitted 
to the touchstone of hieroglyphieal tests, will not support that superannuated, but unten- 
able, doctrine, that civilization originated in Ethiopia, and consequently among an African 
people, by whom it was brought down the Nile, to enlighten the less polished, therefore 
inferior, Caucasian children of Noah, the Asiatics ; or, that we, who trace back to Egypt 
the origin of every art and science known in antiquity, have to thank the sable Negro, or 
the dusky Berber, for the first gleams of knowledge and invention. 

We may therefore conclude with the observation that, if civilization, instead of going 
from North to South, came (contrary, as shown before, to the annals of the earliest histo- 
rians and all monumental facts) down the "Sacred Nile," to illumine our darkness; and, 
if the Ethiopic origin of arts and sciences, with social, moral, and religious institutions, 
were in other respects possible, these African theoretic conclusions would form a most 
astounding exception to the ordinations of Providence and the organic laws of nature, 
otherwise so undeviating throughout' all the generations of man's history. 

" I have already stated that Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson's critical observations, during his 
long residence in Egypt, and his comparisons between the present Egyptians and the ancient 
race, as depicted in the monuments, had led him to assert the Asiatic origin of the early 
inhabitants of the Nilotic valley. The learned hierologist, Samuel Birch, Esq., of the 
British Museum, informed me, in London, that he had arrived at the same conclusion — 
whUe to his suggestion I am indebted for the first idea ' that the most ancient Egyp- 
tian monuments lie North.' The great naturalists, Blumenbach and Cuvier, declared, 



214 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

that all the mtiininies they had opportunities of examining presented the Caucasian type. 
M. Jomard, the eminent hydrographer and profound Orientalist, in a paper on Egyptian 
ethnology, sustains the Arabian, and consequently the Asiatic and Caucasian, origin of 
the early Egyptians ; and his opinions are more valuable, as he draws his conclusions inde- 
pendently of hieroglyphical discoveries. On the other hand, Prof. Piosellini, throughout his 
' Monuvunti,' accepts and continues the doctrine of the descent of civilization from Ethiopia, 
and the African origin of the Egyptians. Champollion-Figeac supports the same theory, 
which his illustrious brother set forth in the sketch of Egyptian history presented by him 
to Mohammed-Ali, in 1829 (published in his ^ Letters from Egypt and Nubia'), wherein he 
derives the Ancient Egyptians, according to the Grecian authorities, from Ethiopia, and 
considers them to belong to ' la race Barabra,' the Berbers or Nubians. Deeming the original 
Bar&bra to have been an African race, engrafted at the present day with Caucasian as well 
as Negro blood, I reject their similitude to the monumental Egyptians in toto, and am fain 
to believe that Champollion-le-Jeune himself had either modified bis previous hastily-formed 
opinion, or, at any rate, had not taken a decided stand on this important point, from the 
following extract of his eloquent address from the academic chair, delivered May 10, 1831 : 

— C'est par I'analyse raisonnfie de la languedes Pharaons, que I'ethnographie decidera si la 
vieille population egyptienne fut d'origine Asiatique, ou bien si elle descendit, avec le fleuve 
divinise, des plateaux de I'Afrique centrale. On decidera en meme temps si les Egyptiens 
n'uppartenaient point a. une race distincte ; car, il faut le declarer ici [in which I entirely 
agree with him], centre I'opinion commune, les Coptes de I'Egypte moderne, regard^s 
comme les demiers rejetons des anciens Egyptiens, n'ont offert a mes yeux ni la couleur 
ni aucun des traits caracteristiques, dans les lineaments du visage ou dans les formes du 
corps, qui put constater une aussi noble descendance.' "250 

[These views received considerable extension in Mr. Gliddon's Otia 
.^gyptiaca ;'^^ and our colleague's enthusiastic concurrence in the 
work now put forth, in our joint names, sufficiently attests his adop- 
tion of our personal modifications, derived especially from Anatomy, 
compared with the more recent hieroglyphical discoveries. — J. C. 'E.'] 

Others, however, though not so decidedly out-spoken in tone, had 
rej ected African delusions. Thus, Pettigre w,^^^ following Bl umenbach 
and Lawrence, had previously alluded to the probability of the ascent 
of civilization, introduced by an Asiatic people, along the ISTile, from 
north to south. De Brotonne,^^ succeeded by Jardot,^ ably sustained 
the Asiatic colonization of Egypt against the l^igritian hypothesis of 
Volney ;^^ and, a hundred years ago, the academician DeFourmont^^ 
declared, "The Egyptians, for the three-fourths, issued either out of 
Arabia or Phoenicia ; . . . Egypt being composed of Chaldaean, Phoe- 
nician, Arab people, &c., but especially of these last." 

Morton, drawing from his vast resources in craniology, skilfully 
combined with history and such monuments as were deciphered in 
1842, terminated his Qrania Mgyptiaca with the subjoined conclusions 

— the utterance of which commenced a new era in anthropological 
researches : — 

" The Valley of the Nile, both in Egypt and Nubia, was originally peopled by a branch 
of the Caucasian race. 

" These primeval people, since called the Egyptians, were the Mizraimites of Scripture, 
the posterity of Ham, and directly affiliated with the Libyan family of nations. 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 215 

<' The Austral-Egyptian or Meroite communities were an Indo-Arabian stock, engrafted 
on the primitive Libyan inhabitants. 

" Besides these exotic sources of population, the Egyptian race was at diflFerent periods 
modified by the influx of the Caucasian nations of Asia and Europe : Pelasgi, or Hellenes, 
Scythians, and Phoenicians. 

" The Copts, in part at least, are a mixture of the Caucasian and the Negro, in extremely 
variable proportions. 

" Negroes ■were numerous in Egypt, but their social position in ancient times was the 
same as it now is : that of servants and slaves. 

" The present Fellahs are the lineal and least mixed descendants of the Ancient Eg3rp- 
tians ; and the latter are collaterally represented by the Tuariks, Kabyles, Siwahs, and 
other remains of the Libyan family of nations. 

"The modern Nubians, with a few exceptions, are not the descendants of the monu- 
mental Ethiopians, but a variously mixed race of Arabs and Negroes. 

" The physical or organic characters which distinguish the several races of men are as 
old as the oldest records of our species." 

Such were the best and most natural results of ethnography prior 
to Lepsius's unanticipated exhumations at Memphis, in 1842-'3 ; but 
the latter's discoveries did not become accessible to the authors' joint 
studies until 1850. "We can now assert, with the plates of his splendid 
Denkmaler before us, that, notwithstanding the labors of our prede- 
cessors, they have left many doubts and difficulties still hanging around 
the primitive inhabitants of Egypt. ISTot only her written traditions, 
but her monumental history, as far back as it has been traced, prove 
that, from the Menaic foundation of the Empire, she had been 
engaged in constant strifes with foreign nations of types very different 
from that of her own aboriginal population, and that she has been 
often conquered and temporarily ruled by foreigners. Hence the 
consequence, prima facie, that the blood of her primitive inhabitants 
must have become greatly adulterated. 

Morton's Crania Egyptiaea issued in 1844 ; at which day the dis- 
coveries of Lepsius were in progress, but not published ; at the same 
time that the works of Rosellini, Champollion, Wilkinson, &c. — then 
the best sources of information respecting the monuments — did not 
extend, with the exception of some meagre materials of the Xllth 
dynasty (by all three scholars then supposed to be the XVIIth), be- 
yond the XVHIth, or about 1600 b. c. All these complicated data 
were, nevertheless, most admirably worked up by our revered friend ; 
and he showed conclusively that, while there existed a pervading 
"Caucasian" Type, which he' regarded as the Egyptian proper, the 
population already, at the XVIIIth dynasty, was a very mixed one, 
comprising many diverse Asiatic and African elements. 

Did archaeological science now solely rely, as before Champollion's 
day, upon the concurrent testimony of early Greek writers, we should 
be compelled to conclude that the Egyptians, previously to the Chris- 
tian era, were literally Negroes ; so widely do such Grseco-Roman de- 



216 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

scriptions vary, and so strangely in their writings do Egyptian attri- 
butes diverge, from tlie Caucasian type. A passage in Herodotus has 
been often cited ; and it possessed the more weight, inasmuch as he 
travelled in Egypt ; and because his authority is generally reliable in 
such matters as fell beneath his personal observation. Of the people 
of Colchis he says, that they were a colony of Egyptians ; supporting 
his assertion, unique among ancient authorities, by the argument that 
they were "black in complexion and woolly-haired."^'' 

PiNDAB also, copying the Halicarnassian, in his fourth Pythian 
Ode, speaks of the Colchians as black. In another passage, when 
retailing the fable of the Dodonian Oracle, Herodotus again alludes 
to the swarthy complexion of the Egyptians, as if it were exceedingly 
dark, or even black, u^schylus, in the Supplices, mentions the crew 
of an Egyptian bark seen from the shore. The person who espies 
them concludes they must be Egyptians from their black complexion : 

" The sailors too I marked, 
Conspicuous in white robes their sable limbs." 

Prichard has collected ample Greek and Latin testimony, of similar 
import, to show that the Egyptians were dark. His erudition renders 
any further ransacking of the Classics here supererogatory : but we may 
remark that the Greek terms might often apply with equal propriety to 
a jet-black ISTegro, or to a brown or dusky K'ubian. The various 
names given to Egypt and her people, together with the mistakes of 
translators, are, however, analyzed in our Part H., where we treat 
upon " Mizraim ; " and therefore a pause to discuss them now would 
be superfluous. 

Prichard sums up in the following strong language : — 

" From comparing these accounts, some of which were written by persons who had tra- 
velled in Egypt, and whose testimony is not likely to have been biassed in any respect, we 
must conclude that the subjects of the Pharaohs had something in their physical character 
approximating to thai of the Negro." 

In opposition to which classical opinions, Bekb, in a paper "On the 
Complexion of the Ancient Egyptians,'"''^ had set forth : — 

1st. The negative testimony of the Hebrew Scriptures — how 
Joseph's brethren, when they first saw him in Egypt, supposed him 
to be an Egyptian :^^ how alliances with the Egyptians were permitted 
by the Israelitish lawgiver:^ how an Egyptian woman was the 
mother of the heads of two of the tribes of Israel : ^^^ another the 
wife of Solomon, &c. : 

2d. That " a description given by Lucian, in one of his Dialogues, 
('Kavigium, sou Vota,') of a young sailor on board an Egyptian 
vessel, who, besides being black, is represented as having pouting lips 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 217 

and spindle-shanks" — rather proves an exception to the usual tint of 
the Egyptian people : 

3d. The incontrovertible evidence of the paintings, and mummy- 
cases. 

"We place these discussions of the learued in juxta-position ; although 
new facts supersede the necessity for recurring to past disputations. 

That the skins of Egyptians, in Grecian times, were much darker 
than those of Greeks and other white races around the Archipelago, 
there can be no question ; nor that this complexion was accompanied 
sometimes with curly or frizzled hair, tumid lips, slender limbs, small 
heads, with receding foreheads and chins, which, by contrast, excited 
the wonder or derision of the fair-skinned Hellenes. But, while it 
must be conceded that IN^egroes, at no time within the reach even 
of monumental history, have inhabited any part of Egypt, save as 
captives ; it may, on the other hand, be equally true, that the ancient 
Egyptians did present a type intermediate between other African and 
Asiatic races ; and, should such be proved to have been the case, the 
autocthones of Egypt must cease to be designated by the misnomer 
of "Caucasian." 

"Whatever the complexion of the real Egyptians may have been, 
all authorities agree that the races south of Egypt were and are 
darker ; and it is equally clear that the local habitats of Negroes in 
early times, having ever been the same as they are now, render it 
geographically impossible that Egyptians could be confounded with 
distinct types of men, never voluntarily resident within 1200 miles of 
the Mediterranean. 

The Egyptians, on their oldest monuments, always painted their 
males in red and their females in yellow ; thus adopting in their painted 
sculptures, (in order to demarcate themselves from foreign nations 
around them,) colors which, of course, were conventional. That there 
was considerable diversity of color among the denizens of Egypt 
need not be doubted, inasmuch as we now find parallel diversity of 
hues among Berbers, Abyssinians, l^^ubians, &c. The "Ethiopians" 
were always darker than the Egyptians proper, as their Greek name 
(ai^w, burn, and u-\>,faee) of " snii-burned faces" implies. In the Ptole- 
maic papyrus published by Young,^ and cited by Morton, one of the 
parties to a sale of land, Psammouthes, is described as being of a 
dark, while the four others are stated to possess sallow, complexions. 
Rosellini supposes the Egyptians to have been of a brown or reddish- 
brown color (rosso-fosco) like the present inhabitants of ITubia ; but 
Morton thinks this remark applicable only to Austral Egyptians, and 
not to the inhabitants of Egypt proper, except when arising from 
intermixture of races. 
28 



218 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

In the Crania JEgyptiaca, Dr. Morton had laid much stress upon an 
observation of Ammianus Marcellinus, quoting but a line. Among 
his inedited MS8. for an improved edition of that work, we find the 
whole citation as he intended that it should appear : — 

" The following paragraph embraces all of this author's remarks, which only make us 
lament that he had not been more full and explicit : ' Homines autem Mgy^tii plerique suh- 
fusculi sunt, et atrati, magisque moestiores, gracilenti et aridi, ad singulos motus, excan- 
descentes, controversi et reposcones acerrimi. Erubescit apud eos si quis non inficiando 
tributa, plurimas in corpore yibices ostendat.' (^Rerum gestarum, lib. xxxii.) " 

But, as the Doctor critically notices, it is difficult to associate the 
idea of a llach skin with the fact related by the same writer, that 
the Egyptians "blush and grow red." 

Investigation of this point, in 1844, impressed upon our judicious 
ethnographer's mind, results which he defines as follows : — 

" From the preceding facts, and many others which might be adduced, I think we may 
safely conclude that the complexion of the Egyptians did not differ from that of the other 
Caucasian races, in the same latitudes. That, while the higher classes, who were screened 
from the action of the sun, were fair, in a comparative sense, the middle and lower classes, 
like the modern Berbers, Arabs, and Moors, presented various shades of complexion, even 
to a dark and swarthy tint, which the Greeks regarded as black, in comparison with their 
own." 

So much contradiction is patent in the opinions of the early Greek 
writers, with regard to the complexion and physical characters of the 
Egyptians, and the dubiousness has been increased to such an inex- 
tricable extent by the opposing scholasticisms of modern historians, 
yoked with the "first impressions" of unscientific tourists, that the only 
inference we can attain is, that the Egyptians of the New Empire — 
that is, fi"om the XVIIth dynasty downwards — were a mixed popula- 
tion ; presenting considerable varieties of color and conformation. 
Morton took the whole question out of the hands of the Greeks and 
their subsequent copyists, when he appealed directly to the iconography 
of the sculptures, and to the mummied remains of the old population 
found in the catacombs. Before pursuing, therefore, the monumental 
history of the Egyptian type into the earliest times, let us endeavor 
to see what were its physical characters subsequently to the Restora- 
tion in the seventeenth century b. c; and afterwards we can better com- 
pare them with the pictorial and embalmed vestiges of earlier date. 

Although it will be shown that Dr. Morton, since the publication 
of his Crania j^gyptiaca, had made important modifications in some 
of his opinions, there are others which have withstood triumphantly 
the test of time. When he published in 1844, his object was to de- 
scribe and figure the people of Egypt as they appear on the monu- 
ments and exist in the sepulchres. Whatever the physical type of the 
anterior population may have been, previously to the date of his 




EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 



219 



matoiials, had nothing to do with the task proposed. He was deahng 
exclusively with known facts, and we cannot but admire the sagacity 
with which, fox' the first time in Egyptian ethnology, Morton brought 
order out of a chaos — universally seen among authors prior to 1844. 
Considering that he had before him but a few monuments of the 
Xllth dynasty (in his day called the XVIIth of Manetho), and no- 
thing of earlier date, his analysis of these, and of the XVIEIth and 
succeeding dynasties, must remain an imperishable attestation to 
his genius. 

In order to institute comparisons between the population of these 
later dynasties with that upon the sculptures of the Old Empire, since 
discovered, extracts at length from the Qrania JEgyptiaea will place 
before the reader the ideas of our great craniologist, together with 
abundant exemplifications of the type of man prevalent in Egypt 
during the l^ew Empire. 

" The monuments from Meroe to Memphis, present a pervading type of physiognomy, 
•which is everywhere distinguished at a glance from the varied forms which not unfrequently 
attend it, and which possess so much nationality, both in outline and expression, as to give 
it the highest importance in Nilotic ethnography. We may repeat that it consists in an 
upward elongation of the head, with a receding forehead, delicate features, but rather sharp 
and prominent face, in which a long and straight or gently aquiline nose forms a principal 
feature. The eye is sometimes oblique, the chin short and retracted, the lips rather tumid, 
and the hair, whenever it is represented,*ong and flowing. 

"This style of features pertains to every class, kings, priests and people, and can be 
readily traced through every period of monumental decoration, from the early Pharaohs 
down to the Greek and Roman dynasties. Among the most ancient, and at the same time 
most characteristic examples, are the heads of Amunoph the Second and his mother, as 
represented in a tomb at Thebes,263 which dates, in Rosellini's chronology, 1727 years 
before our era. In these effigies all the features are strictly Egyptian, and how strikingly 
do they correspond with those of many of the embalmed heads from the Theban catacombs J 



Fio. 121. 



Fia. 122. 




220 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS, 



"A similar physiognomy preponderates among the royal Egyptian personages of every 
epoch, as will be manifest to any one who will turn over the pages of ChampoUion and 
Rosellini. The head of Horus [see our Fig. 56] is an admirable illustration, while in the 
portraits of Raineses IV., [III., of Lepsius] and Rameses IX., the same lines are apparent, 
though much less strongly marked. How admirably also are they seen in the subjoined 
juvenile head, (Fig. 123) which is that of a royal prince, copied from the very ancient 
paintings in the tomb of Pehrai, at Eletheias.26i So also in the face of Rameses VII. (Fig. 
124), who lived perhaps one thousand years later in time. 



Fio. 123. 



Fio. 124, 





" I observe that the priests almost Invariably present this physiognomy, and, in accord- 
ance with the usage of their caste, have the head closely shaven. When colored they are 
red, like the other Egyptians. The subjoined drawing (Fig. 125), which is somewhat harsh 
in outline, is from the portico of one of the pyramids of Meroe,265 and is probably one of 
the oldest human effigies in Nubia. They abound in all the temples of that country, and 
especially at Semneh, Dakkeh, Soleb Gebel-Berkel, and Messoura.266 

" From the numberless examples of similar conformation, I select another of a priest from 
the bas-relief at Thebes, which is remarkable for delicacy of outline and pleasing serenity 
of expression.267 (Fig. 126). 

" So invariably are these characters allotted to the sacerdotal caste, that we readily detect 
them in the two priests who, by some unexplained contingency, become kings in the XXth 
dynasty. Their names read Amensi-Hrai-Pehor and Phisham on the monuments ; and the 
accompanying outline is a fac-simile of Rosellini's portrait of the latter personage, who 
lived about 1100 years before the Christian era.268 in this head the Egyptian and Pelasgic 
characters appear to be blended, but the former preponderate. (Fig. 127). 

" The last outline (Fig. 128) represents a modification of the same type, that of the 
Harper in Bruce's tomb at Thebes. The beautiful form of the head and the intellectual 
character of the face, may be compared with similar efforts of Grecian art. It dates with 
Rameses IV.269 



Fw. 125. 



Fig. 126. 






EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 
Fig. 127. Eio. 128. 



221 





" As I believe this to be a most important ethnograpic indication, and one ■which points 
to the vast body of the Egyptian people, I subjoin four additional heads of priests (Figs. 
129, 130, 131, 132,) fpom a tomb at Thebes of the XVIIIth dynasty. We are forcibly im- 
pressed with the delicate features and oblique eye of the left-hand personage, and with the 
ruder but characteristic outline of the other figures, in which the prominent face, though 
strongly drawn, is essentially Egyptian.270 



Fio. 129. 



Fig. 130. 



Fio. 131. 



Fig. 132. 




" The annexed outlines (Fig. 133), which present 
more pleasing examples of the same ethnographic cha- 
racter, are copied from the tomb of Titi, at Thebes, and 
date with the remote era of Thotmes IV.271 They repre- 
sent five fowlers in the act of drawing their net over a 
flock of birds. The long, flowing hair is in keeping with 
the facial traits, which latter are also well characterized 
in the subjoined drawings (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137), 
derived from monuments of different epochs and lo- 
calities. 



Fig. 133. 




Fig. 134. 



Fio. 135. 



Fig. 136. 



Fig. 137. 




222 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 



" Fig. 134 is the head of a weaver, from the paintings in the very ancient tomb of Roti 
and Menoph at Beni-Hassan, wherein the same cast of countenance is reiterated without 
number. 2"2 

"Fig. 135, a wine-presser, is also from Beni-Hassan, and dates with Osortasen, more than 
2000 years before the Christian era.2~3 

" Fig. 136 is a cook, who, in the tomb of Barneses IV, at Thebes, is represented with 
many others in the active duties of his vocation.274 

" Fig. 137. I have selected this head as an exaggerated or caricatured illustration of 
the same type of physiognomy. It is one of the goat-herds painted in the tomb of Roti, at 
Beni-Hassan.275 

" The most recent of these last four venerable monuments of art dates at least 1450 
years before our era : the oldest belongs to unchronicled times ; and the same physical 
characters are common on the Nubian and Egyptian monuments down to the Ptolemaic and 
Roman epochs. 

" The peculiar head-dress of the Egyptians often greatly modifies, and in some degree con- 
ceals, their characteristic features ; and may, at first sight, lead to the impression that the 
priests possessed a physiognomy of a distinct or peculiar kind. Such, however, was not 
the case, as a little observation will prove. Take, for example, the four following draw- 



FiG. 138. 



Fig. 139. 





ings, from a Theban tomb, in which two mourners (Fig. 138) have head-dresses, and two 
priests (Fig. 139) are without them. Are not the national characteristics unequivocally 
manifest in them all ? " 2'6 

Such, textually, are Morton's words, with the sole "exception that, 
while preserving his references, we have substituted our own numerals : 
but, for the express object of removing, once for all, current impressions 
of Egyptian affinity with IsTegro races, we intercalate a relevant series 
of illustrations, and group into one page various heads from the Cra 
nia ^gyptiaca — five of which (Figs. 140 — 144) appertain to females 
of different classes, and two (Figs. 145 and 146) to males ; indicating 
underneath each the vocations in which they are severally represented 
on the monuments. Apart from their facial angles and high-caste 
configuration, it is their long hair to which the attention of ISTegro- 
philism is more particularly invited. 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 



223 



Fig. 140. 



Fig. 141. 




A Lady coiffee. 
Fig. 143. 





A Mourner. 



A Female Athlete. 



Fio. 145. 



Fig. 146. 





A Carpenter. 



A Rustic-wrestler. 



224 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

" It is thus that we trace this peculiar style of countenance, in its several modifications, 
through epochs and in localities the most remote from each other, and in every class of the 
Egyptian people. How different from the Pelasgic type, yet how obviously Caucasian ! 
How varied in outline, yet how readily identified ! And, if we compare these features with 
those of the Egyptian series of embalmed heads, are we not forcibly impressed with a 
striking analogy not only in osteological conformation, but also in the very expression of 
the face ? ... No one, I conceive, will question the analogy I have pointed out. This type 
is certainly national, and presents to our view the genuine Egyptian physiognomy, which, in 
the ethnographic scale, is intermediate between the Pelasgic and Semitic forms. We may 
add, that this conformation is the same which Prof. Blumenbach refers to the Hindoo 
variety, in his triple classification of the Egyptian people.277 And this leads us briefly to 
inquire, who were the Egyptians ? " 

That tMs ^^ genuine Egyptian physiognomy" was the preponderant 
type, seen throughout the whole monumental period known to Mor- 
ton, cannot be questioned ; but we do not think it is so universal in 
the royal families as in the other classes. There is such a want of 
portraits and other information of the dynasties between the Xllth 
and XVnth, that we know little or nothing of the predominant type 
of those intermediate times. But it is highly probable, owing to 
Ilyksos traditions, that the royal families of that period, called the 
"Middle Empire," were in great part Asiatics ; and we are certain 
that, after the Eestoration, marriages with foreigners were not uncom- 
mon. Alliances of this kind occurred in the XXth and preceding 
dynasties ; and it is but reasonable to conclude that such had been 
the custom of the country in earlier times ; inasmuch as the Bible 
has helped us to prove the same habits respecting Jewish amalgama- 
tions with denizens of the Nile. 

In order that the reader may be enabled to judge for himself of the 
characteristics of the royal families, we have already exhibited some 
of their portraits, back to the XVIIth dynasty. It is evident to us, 
that these portraits do not fully correspond to Dr. Morton's Egyptian 
Type, but that, on the contrary, they are eminently Asiatic, and not 
African. However, it cannot be denied that the pervading type, 
throughout Egypt proper, was the one described by him ; though we are 
not prepared to admit this as the then-common type in the Nubias, 
or so high up as Meroe. The monuments of Meroe, on which his 
opinions were based, have since been discovered to be mere bastard 
and modern copies of those of Egypt. This country, until the eighth 
century B. c, formed part of the Egyptian Empire ; and its later 
edifices were built by consecutively ruling races — Egypto-Meroite, 
then Nubian, and lastly Negro-Nubian. But we have abundant 
reason for opining that the populations of the Nubias, in ancient 
times, were what (Arab elements deducted) they are now : viz., types 
intermediate between Negroes and Egyptians ; viewing the latter such 
as we behold them at the XVmth dynasty, or about 1500 b. c. 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 225 

"We read the Crania JEgyptiaca, with intense interest, so soon as it 
was puUished ; and, down to the time when Lepsius's plates of the 
rVth, Yth, and Vlth dynasties appeared, we had not ceased to regard 
Morton's Egyptian type as the true representative of that of the Old 
Empire ; but the first hour's glance over those magnificent delinea- 
tions of the primeval inhabitants produced an entire. revolution in the 
authors' opinions, and enforced the conviction that the Egyptians 
of the earliest times did not correspond with our honored friend's 
description, but with a type which, although not Negro, nor akin to 
any I^egroes, was strictly African — a type, in fact, that supplied the 
lonsr-souficht-for link between African and Asiatic races. 

There are no portraits, yet discovered, older than the IVth dynasty, 
or the thirty-fifth century B. c. ; and although what may be called a 
Negroid type preponderates at that period, yet the race, even there, is 
already a mixed one ; and we distinguish many heads which are 
clearly Asiatic — possessing, as we have shown {ante, Figs. 34, 35), 
Semitish features. The history of Egypt from the XTTth to the 
XYIIth dynasty is so mutilated, that, for this interregnum, there is 
but little material for definite opinions. Lepsius, upon Manethonian 
tradition, states, that during this time the bulk of native Egyptians 
were driven up the Nile by Asiatic races, and retired into ISTubia ; 
and that when the Hyksos were expelled, their Pharaonic conquerors 
came down the river. It is not probable that eveiy individual of the 
Hyksos race, however, could have been driven out ; and when we 
compare the monumental portraits of the IVth, Yth, and YIth dynas- 
ties with those of the XYIIth and XYIIIth, we cannot doubt that an 
immense amount of Asiatic blood remained in the country, notwith- 
standing these expulsions. Lepsius considers that those Asiatic Shep- 
herds impressed their tj'pe and language upon the native race, although 
the Egyptian people and their tongue still remained essentially Afri- 
can. It should be observed that, if Hyksos invasions be accepted as 
historical, so must the many centuries of the intruders' sojourn ; and 
during !Manetho's five hundred and eleven years, or sixteeia genera- 
tions, these warriors must have found abundant leisure to stamp their 
paternity upon the ofispring of Egyptian women, whose sentiments 
of chastity have never been other than somewhat lax. 

But the Negroid type of the earlier dynasties seems never to have 
become extinguished, notwithstanding the immense influx of Asiatics 
into Eg}-pt ; which has been going on, literally for thousands of years, 
to the present hour. It may be received, in science, as a settled fact, 
that where two races are thrown together and blended, the type of 
the major number must prevail over that of the lesser ; and, in time, 
the latter will become efiaced. This law, too, acts with greater force 
29 



226 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 



where a foreign is attempted to be engrafted upon a native type 
aboriginally suited to the local climate. The Fellahs of Upper and 
Middle Egypt, at the present day, continue to be an unmistakeable 
race, and are regarded by most travelled authorities as the best living 
representatives of the ancient population of Egypt. [Mr. Gliddon, resi- 
dent in Egypt for more than twenty years, may certainly be accepted 
as competent authority respecting the physical characteristics of the 
present inhabitants, whose idioms and customs in all their ramifica- 
tions have been familiar to him from boyhood. He assures us, that 
the predominant type of the modern Fellah, i. e., peasant (deducting 
Arab blood), is just as identical with the majority of portraits on the 
earliest monuments, as Morton concluded by comparing the crania of 
ancient mummies with Fellah-skulls from the present cemeteries. 
To render the latter point obvious, we subjoin, from the Crania 
^gyptiaca, an authentic series of both. The practised eye of the 
anatomist will at once recognize the similitudes between the ancient 
and the modern heads, and detect in these last the osteological 
divergences produced by Arab infiltrations : — 



Fig. 147. 




Ancient Ceania, " from the front of Northern Brick Pyramid of Dashour." 



Fig. 148. 




Ancient Crania, from Thebes; by Morton termed "Negroid Heads," whereas to us they 
yield rather the Old Egyptian type. 



{ 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

Fio. 149. 



227 




MoDEEN Skulls — "the Fellahs," of Lower Egypt. 



Fio. 150. 




MoDEKN Skulls — " the Arabs ; " Bidawees of the Isthmus of Suez. 



Fig. 151. 




Modern Skulls — " the Copts ;" from their Christian cemeteries. 



"With these positive data before him, the reader will be the better 
able to follow our general argument. — J. C. IT.] 

But we have not yet done vrith the Egyptian Type as understood 
by Morton; which, although without question popularly prevalent 
under the New Empire, was not, we think, the predominant type of 



228 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

the royal families. This last, to our eyes, as portrayed in Rosellini's 
Iconography, is clearly Asiatic : and not only Asiatic, but Semitic ; and 
not merely Semitic, but strongly Abrabamic, or, to repeat our adopted 
term, Ohaldaic. From tbe Xlltb to tbe XVIIth dynasty (a period of 
some 511 years, according to Manetbo, in Josepbus), Egypt must 
have been subjected to extraordinary disturbing causes, which, how- 
ever terrible to her denizens, to us, at the present day, are shrouded 
by darkness, and as if circumscribed within a moment of time. 
Ample evidence is now exhumed of the minuteness and fidelity 
with which the Egyptians, before and after the Hyksos-period, 
recorded events and delineated the physical characters of their own 
people, as well as of the foreigners with whom they held intercourse ; 
but during this hiatus our monuments are comparatively few, and 
sculptured portraits, to guide the ethnographer, are wanting. The 
XVIIth dynasty (about 1761 b. c, according to Lepsius) opens to 
view with a completeness and splendor truly astounding ; and from 
this point downward, for more than 1000 years, (we cannot too often 
insist upon with genei'al readers,) there are ample materials for study- 
ing the natural histoiy as well of Asiatic as of African humanity. 
In the magnificent plates of Eosellini, faithful representations of 
these painted sculptures are preserved ; and in order that the reader 
might judge of the quantity of materials and the correctness of our 
deductions, we selected (ante, pp. 145 — 150) a copious series of the 
Royal Portraits of the XVIIth and XVIIIth dynasties. We have 
also illustrated how the same physical characteristics prevail, in pro- 
fusion, down to the XXVth dynasty, when the so-called Ethiopmn 
sovereigns come in for a brief season, to change a dynastic family, 
but not the national type.™ 

In the absence of parallel history (the "Middle Empire," or Hyksos- 
period, separating us from the XTTth dynasty), nothing remains 
beyond genealogical tablets and papyri to guide us, as to the ancestral 
origin of Pharaonic families of the ITew Empire, except their phy- 
sical type, depicted or carved upon coeval monuments. There is a 
family-contour about them all, which at once indicates to the observer 
that they were of high "Caucasian" caste, with but little African of 
any grade, except what was derived from Old Egyptian lineage. 

Having enlarged sufficiently upon the Egyptian race, as portrayed 
upon the sculptures of the New Empire, coetaneously with the times of 
Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Josiah ; (or, from about sixteen cen- 
turies before our era down to the apogee of Assyria's glory) ; none can 
now doubt that Pharaonic Egypt, at least among royalty, nobility, 
and gentry, exhibited in those generations a veiy mixed type, wherein 
Asiatic elements predominated over the Nilotic. Let us next take a 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 229 

retrogressive leap, over the ^^sos-period, from tlie XVIIth. to the 
Xnth dynasty, and inquire, What was the type of Egyptians under the 
Old Empire — that is, backwards, from about the twentieth century 
before Christ ? But before doing so, fairness renders it incumbent 
on the part of one of the authors [Gr. R. G.], whose province it is to 
superintend "Types of Mankind" as it passes through the press, to 
give place to some general observations of his absent colleague. The 
former, immediately in contact with their lamented friend, Dr. Mor- 
ton, at Philadelphia, until within a few weeks of his demise in 1851, 
naturally became more conversant with the great ethnographer's 
matured views ; whereas Dr. Nott's residence at Mobile restricted his 
studies within his own resources : so that what of merit and origi- 
nality may attach to the following analysis of the Old Egyptian type, 
belongs to his individual ratiocinations. 

[On the publication of Dr. Morton's Crania JEgyptiaca, we studied 
it carefully, and compared it, step by step, with the works of Cham- 
pollion and Eosellini. N'o other conclusion than the one adopted by 
him, viz., that the physical traits which he had assumed as character- 
istic of the Egyptians were really and truly typical of the first settlers 
of Egypt, resulted from our researches ; but, after several years, the 
Denhndler of Lepsius, (the first livraisons of which reached us about 
two years ago,) essentially modified our former conclusions. Exami- 
nation of these plates, and a more thorough investigation of the sub- 
ject, have satisfied us, that the Egyptian type as known in 1844 to 
Morton, existed no longer in its pristine purity, but, after the Xllth 
dynasty, was absolutely an amalgam of foreign (chiefly Asiatic) stocks, 
engrafted on an antecedent and aboriginal African type ; that the 
latter, although not l^egro, was Miotic ; and that it constituted the 
true connecting grade between African and Asiatic races. When Mr. 
Gliddon and the writer again met, at Mobile, above eighteen months 
ago, after five years' separation, we mentioned this conclusion to him; 
and he placed in our hands various letters, received by him between 
the years 1846 and 1851, from Morton; through which it became evi- 
dent that the Doctor himself had also so far changed his opinions as 
to feel assured that the primordial Egyptians were not an Asiatic, but 
an aboriginal population, indigenous to the Mle-land, although he 
says nothing of their primitive Negroid type: the ultimatum which 
our personal researches had then attained. We afterwards wrote to 
Chevalier Lepsius, informing him of the impression his Old Egyptian 
portraits had left on our mind, and were much gratified to learn, from 
his reply, that our new convictions accorded with his own. A veiy 
obliging letter also, from Mr. Birch, enables us to add his valid 



230 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

authority to arguments hereinafter presented, without, in either case, 
infringing upon the sanctity of private correspondence. — J. C. I^.] 

Although Dr. Morton had insisted strongly upon his conventional 
Egyptian type, nevertheless, a critical perusal of his work will sho~w 
that, even in 1844, he felt by no means certain as to its Asiatic origin 
— glimmerings of the light that was ere long to break through 
*' Egyptian darkness" already dawning upon the mind of our acute 
anthropologist. In the Crania, he says : — 

" We have already alluded to the opinion of Prof. Kitter and others, that the old Bejas 
and modern Bishareens were derived from the Berber or Libyan stock of nations. I am 
ready to go farther, and adopt the sentiment of the learned Dr. Murray, that the Egyptians 
and monumental Ethiopians were of the same lineage, and probably descended from a 
Libyan tribe. 

" This view of the case [he continues] at once reconciles the statement of ChampoUion, 
Kosellini, Heeren, and Riippell, that they could detect the Nubian physiognomy everywhere 
on the monuments ; but, at the same time, it supersedes the necessity of their inference 
that Nubia was the cradle of civilization, and that the arts, descending the river, were per- 
fected in Egypt." 

In further support of the common origin of the Egyptians, Berbers, 
and other tribes of ITorthern Africa, Morton refers to evidences fur- 
nished by Eitter, Heeren, Shaler, Hodgson, &c. — showing how "the 
Libyan or Berber speech was once the language of all Northern 
Africa," and infinitely more ancient than the Coptic — probably as 
old as the monumental language of Egypt's pyramidal period. 

[For the sake of perspicuity, and to convey to the reader some idea 
of the chronological order of linguistic developments in Egypt, it may 
be well to mention, that the name Coptic {i. e. Christian Jacobite) repre- 
sents the vernacular Egyptian from the seventh century after Christ 
back to about the Christian era ; that Demotic, or Enchorial, refers to 
the colloquial idiom thence used backwards to the seventh century 
B. c. ; that Hieratic, or Sacerdotal, means only the cursive character 
in which the " lingua sancta" of the old hieroglyphics was written, in 
every age, back to at least the YIth dynasty, or 2800 years b. c. ; and 
finally, that the hieroglyphics, "sacred sculptured characters," repre- 
sent that antique tongue which was the speech of Egypt when, long 
prior to the pyramids of the IVth dynasty (that is; centuries anterior 
to 3500 years b. c.) phonetic hieroglyphs succeeded an earlier picture- 
writing. "With the reservation that where our Anglo-Saxon tongue 
counts centuries, the language of Egypt reckons up its thousands of 
years, if we were to call the English of Thackeray, Bulwer, and Irving, 
" Coptic" — that of the forty-seven translators of King James's Ver- 
sion, "Demotic" — that of Chaucer, "Hieratic," and that of the old 
Doom's-day Book, "Hieroglyphic," we should perceive, in modern 
English, some of the linguistic gradations and some phases in the writ- 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 231 

ings of Egypt during 4000 monumental years, clown to tlie introduc- 
tion of Christianity into the Valley of the Nile.^''* Consequently, all 
philologers who, when comparing Coptic with Atalantic Berber dia- 
lects, imagined they were dealing with ancient Egyptian lexicography, 
have committed, ipso facto, a wondrous anachronism ; and science 
must set their futile labors respectfully aside — Latham's inclusive. 
G. R. G.] 

We must remark, in passing, that Dr. Morton's mind had not yet 
freed itself from the old, arbitrary, divisions of races, and that he here 
attempted to force into one common stock many African races which 
in themselves merely constitute a group of proximate, but qmie dis- 
tinct, types. But, it is interesting to obsei^ve the change gradually 
working in a brain so eminently reflective, as new archaeological facts 
offered themselves to its well-disciplined scrutiny ; nor can we ade- 
quately express our admiration at the simple-hearted honesty with 
which Morton sacrificed many hard-earned opinions, in the ratio that 
the field of Egj^ptian science v^ddened before his contemplation. We 
derive extreme pleasure in offering some instances. 

On the 26th of Eebruary, 1846, but two years after his Crania 
^gyptiaea had appeared, in a letter to Gliddon at Paris, he thus 
utters thoughts which it seems had been half-formed for years pre- 
viously, though proofs were yet wanting to mould them into definitive 
shape : — 

" I am more than ever confirmed in my old sentiment, that Northern Africa was peopled 
by an indigenous and aboriginal people, who were dispossessed by Asiatic tribes. These 
aborigines could not have been Negroes, because the latter were never adapted to the climate, 
and are nowhere now, nor ever have been, inhabitants of these latitudes. Were they Bera- 
bra ? — or some better race, more nearly allied to the Arabian race ? " 

This gleam of light received expression long previously to the pub- 
lication of any of the pictorial results of Lepsius's Expedition. To 
our view, Morton here struck the true key to the type of the Egyptian 
population of the ISTew Empire. They were then already a mixed 
race, derived from Asiatic superpositions upon the aboriginal people 
of the lower Kile, From the dawn of monumental history, which 
antedates all chronicles, sacred or profane, we sec the whole basin of 
the IsTile, together with that part of Africa lying north of the Sahara, 
inhabited by races unlike Asiatics, and equally unlike IlTegroes : but 
forming in anthropology a connecting link, and, geographically, 
another gradation. To say nothing of Egyptians proper, such were 
and are the Nubians, the Abyssinians, the Gallas, the Barabra, no 
less than the whole native population of the Barbaiy States ; which 
last, in those ancient days, were absolutely cut off, through want of 
camels, from communication with Mgritia athwart the Saharan wastes. 



232 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

About the time the preceding letter was penned, Dr. Morton was 
in correspondence with a very distinguished savan in Paris — our 
mutual friend, M. le Dr. Boudijst, latterly Medecin en chef de I'armee 
des Alpes — who proposed to translate and republish the Crania 
JEigyptidca. The work was to be rewritten ; and we have before us 
its MS. emendations for a second edition. Writing to Gliddon, then 
in London, in May, 1846, Morton holds the following language : — 

" In this work I maintain, Tvitliout reservation, the following among other opinions — that 
the human race has not sprung from one pair, but from a plurality of centres ; that these 
were created ah initio in those parts of the world best adapted to their physical nature ; 
that the epoch of creation was that undefined period of time spoken of in the first chapter 
of Genesis, wherein it is related that God formed man, 'male and female created he them;' 
that the deluge was a mere local phenomenon ; that it affected but a small part of the then- 
existing inhabitants of the earth ; that these views are consistent with the facts of the case, 
as well as with analogical evidence." 

In another letter to Gliddon, at I^^ew York, December 14, 1849, we 
read : — 

" By the hands of the person to whom you confided them, I last night received Lepsius's 
" Chronologie," and the tin case of fac-simile drawings. 280 These, when studied in connec- 
tion with the Egyptian heads [skulls], and especially with the small series sent me [from 
Memphis] by your brother William [seventeen in number, and very ancient,], compel me 
to recant so much of my published opinions as respects the origin of the Egyptians. They 
never came from Asia, but are the indigenous or aboriginal inhabitants of the valley of the 
Nile. I have taken this position in my letter to Mr. J. R. Bartlett {New York Ethnological 
Soc. Journal, I.) : every day has verified it, and your drawings settle it forever in my 
mind. It has cost me a mental struggle to acknowledge this conviction, but I can withhold 
it no longer." [See confirmations in the MSS. of Dr. Morton; infra, Chap. XI.]. » 

Again, to the same, January 30, 1850 : — 

" You allude to my altered views in Ethnology ; but it all consists in regarding the 
Egyptian race as the indigenous people of the valley of the Nile. Not Asiatics in any 
sense of the word, but autocthones of the country, and the authors of their own civilization. 
This view, which you will recollect is that of Champollion, Heeren, and others [excepting 
only that they do not apply the word indigenous to the Egyptians], in nowise conflicts with 
their Caucasian position : for the Caucasian group had many primordial centres, of which 
the Egyptians represent one." 

Here, then, we behold the matured and deliberately-expressed 
opinion of Dr. Morton, that the earliest monumental type of Egyp- 
tians was not Asiatic, but that of an aboriginal African race. 

A few months ago the writer (J. C. 'S.) addressed the Chevalier 
Lepsius, stating the impressions relative to what we shall call a 
Negroid type, left on our mind by an examination of his plates of the 
rVth dynasty. We received from him a most obliging and compre- 
hensive letter : an extract below indicates its nature. 

We ought to premise that the Chevalier, like Baron von Humboldt,^^ 
is a sustainer of the unity of races, for linguistical and other reasons 
to be detailed by his own pen some day. We wish here simply to 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 233 

present the results of some of his '■Hinguistique" researches — a de- 
partment of science in which he is so justly renowned. His reply to 
our interrogatoiy begins — " Je laisse de cote le point de vue theolo- 
gique qui n'a rien k faire avec la science." Our cleiical adversaries 
need not lean, therefore, upon savans whose sole object is scientific 
truth ; nor, for ourselves, can we refrain from admiring the philoso- 
phic tone with which such intelligences as Agassiz, Lepsius, and 
Morton, have pursued it. 

" Vous parlez d'une gradation des peuples du continent d'Afrique depuis le Capjusqu'a 
dans le nord. II y'a un fait bien curieux, que les langues des Hottentots et des Buslimans 
sont essentiellement diffi6rentes des langues de tout le reste du continent jusqu'a I'^quateur. 
Et ce qui est, peut-etre, encore plus curieux, leur langue porte quelques traits charactgris- 

tiques, qui ne se retrouvent que dans les langues du nord-est de TAfrique Tout le 

continent Africain avait, selon mon id^e, dans un certain temps, une population parente, et 
les langues par consequent analogues aussi. Plus tard les peuples Asiatiques immigraient 
du nord-est. Le melange des races produisait ce large bandeau de peuples et de langues 
disperses et apparemment incoh^rens qui se trouvent maintenant entre la ligne et le \b"^^ 
degr6 lat. nord. Ces langues ont perdu leur caractfere Africain sans acqu^rir le caractfere 
Asiatique ; mais le fond des langues et du sang est Africain 

" Je comprends ce que vous appelez un type negroide dans les figures Egyptiennes, et je 
n'ai rien contre cette observation ; mais cela n'empeclie pas que leur caractfere principal 
ne soit Asiatique. Pendant le temps des Hyksos, la race ancienne se chaiigeait conside- 
rablement." 

We repeat that Prof. Lepsius declares, in the same letter, his con- 
firmed belief in the unity of races ; but the occurrences he speaks of 
must antedate the era by him defined for the foundation of the Egj^D- 
tian Empire, 3893 years b. c, as Frenchmen express it, by " des 
millions et des milliards d'annees." 

I^ot less do we esteem, on these archaic subjects, the high authority 
of Mr. Birch, of the British Museum ; who, in a private letter (to J. 
C. K), dated October, 1852, writes : — 

" You are, I agree, quite right as to the intermediate relation of Egypt to the Asiatic and 
Nigritian races. Benfey and others have already, I think, pointed out that the so-called 
Semitic languages are principally spoken in Africa, and the hieroglyphs are of Semitic con- 
nection — resembling the Semitic languages in the construction and copia verborum ; at the 
same time they differ in many essential points, and have a fair claim to be considered a 
separate species of language. The astounding fact is, that Eg3'ptian civilization was the 
oldest — and that the Assyrian and other nations have left no remains to compare with them 
in respect of time." 

It cannot fail to be remarked, that certain of the portraits on the 
earliest pyramidal monuments already represent a very mixed people ; 
and, consequently, it is clear that Egypt, for anterior centuries unnum- 
bered, must have been, so to say, the battle-ground of Asiatic impinging 
against African races. Some of the heads we have selected as illus- 
trative of the antiquity of a high "Caucasian" type, might readily 
pass unnoticed at the present day in the streets of London, Paris, or 
15'ew York ; while others, again, are so strictlv African, that the 
30 



234 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

typical difference cannot be mistaken. It is note-worthy, "besides, 
tliat many of these Egypto-Caucasian heads are not only strongly 
Semitic, but even Abrahamic in type: thus affording support to 
legends running through the fragments of Manetho, and his muti- 
lator, JosEPHUS, as to connections between the Hyksos and the early 
population of Canaan. The same Ohaldaic features beheld in some 
of the royal likenesses of the XVIIth, XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, 
are seen upon the sculptures of the lYth, Vth and Ylth. 

Philological science generally admits that the roots of the modem 
Coptic language are, in the main, (alien engraffcments deducted) the 
same as those of the " lingua sancta," or Old Egyptian tongue, spoken 
by the priesthood and educated classes, from Roman times, through 
all dynasties, back to the earliest Pharaohs, when the latter was the 
colloquial idiom of every native. As a medium of oral communica- 
tion, the Coptic language ceased to be used in the twelfth century, 
and the last person who could speak it is said to have died in A. d. 
1663 : ^^ but an old Egyptian (G. P. G.) avers that he met with good 
authority for its decease about ninety years ago, with a priest, in the 
Thebaid. 

The ifpa SioksxTog-,^ sacerdotal dialect, or antique language, affords 
one of the strongest evidences of the high antiquity of the early 
population of Egypt, and also of their J^ilotic or aboriginal emana- 
tion. Egypt has been, literally, for many thousands of years, the 
football of foreign conquerors ; and her primordial language became 
infiltrated, from age to age, with Arabic, Persian, Greek, Libyan, 
Latin, and words of other tongues, known to us only at a later stage 
of development ; but, when these exotic injecta are abstracted, there 
remains, nevertheless, a stone-recorded vernacular, possessing all the 
marks of originality, and in itself totally distinct from the utmost 
circumference of Asiatic languages. The proper names of very few 
Nilotic objects, natural or artificial, in primitive hieroglyphics, are 
really identical with the vocalization of Syro- Arabian languages ; and 
their Egyptian structure is characteristically different ; being mono- 
syllabic, in lieu of the posterior triliteral shape in which Semitic 
tongues have come down to us. " K all these languages be kindred, 
Bbnpey, who has compared them most elaborately, holds, they must 
have split off from a parent stock, not only at a period too remote for 
all historical or monumental evidence, but even for plausible con- 
jecture."^ Such, in brief, are the current opinions of Lepsius, Birch, 
of Bunsen, Hincks, Be Saulcy, Lanci, and other eminent authorities 
of the day, as regards Egypt : supported, moreover, by the philological 
discoveries of Rawlinson, Hincks, and Be Longperier, in cuneiform 
Assyria ; and by the studies of Gesenius, Ewald, Munk, and Fresnel, 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 235 

in Shemitisli palfeography. It is the deduction of Lepsius, that 
Eg^'pt had possessed an African population, and a Nilotic language, 
before the foundation of the Old Empire ; and that various disturbing 
causes superimposed, gradually, an Asiatic t}^e and Semitic dialects 
upon the anterior people of the Lower Nile, without obliterating the 
aboriginal frame-work which, as well in type of man as in speech, 
was exclusively African. 

Affinities, tending to establish a remote contemporaneousness, have 
been traced among various languages of Northern Africa: and 
Hodgson, quoted in the last chapter, long ago put forth the doctrine 
that the Berber speech, as now extant, had preceded the Coptic of 
Christianized Egypt. He insisted that many old names of places, 
divinities, &c., along the Nile, were Berber, and neither Coptic nor 
Semitic. Allowance made for some slight anachronisms, in terms 
rather than in facts, we think our learned countrj'man's arrow has 
not flown wide of the target. 

The high antiquity formerly claimed for civilization in India, and 
many coincidences of doctrine and usages that, imagined by Indolo- 
gists, have entirely vanished from Egypt since her hieroglyphics have 
become readable, had led Prichai^d, and other scholars less eminent, 
to connect the Ganges with the Nile : but, so far from any evidence 
of intercommunication, we have nothing to show that the nations on 
these two rivers, in the time of Solomon, much less of Moses or 
Abraham, were even acquainted with each others' existence. The 
ancient Egj^tians never surmised a Hindostanic origin for their own 
nation ; they believed themselves to be, in the strictest sense, autoc- 
thones, natives of the soil. Nor do East-Indians (since Wilford's 
misconceptions became exposed) possess any tradition of having re- 
ceived an Egyptian or sent forth a Hindoo colony .^^ Moreover, the 
rumored resemblances between the languages of India and Egypt — 
Sanscrit and Coptic — compared in their modern phases, are few and 
slight, where not altogether factitious. The whole genius of both, 
and almost their entire stock of words, are entirely different. The 
hieroglyphic system of Egypt is clearly indigenous to the valley of 
the Nile, whilst not even a legendary tale remains to show that such 
mode of writing ever prevailed in India. 

When we reflect that this hieroglyphic writing is found in high 
perfection on the earliest monuments extant, viz. : those of the IVth 
dynasty, 3400 years b. c, and, therefore, must have existed many cen- 
turies previously ; that the figure of every animal, plant, or thing, 
delineated in these hieroglj'phics, is Nilotic to the exclusion of every 
foreign idea ; and that Egj-ptian economy in manners, customs, arts, 
&c., must have been radically diverse from those of all other races, 



236 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

at tlie time such writing received its incipient projection; — when, 
too, we remember the fact that, the physical characters of each type 
of man in India and Egypt were different, and that no physical causes 
but amalgamation have ever transformed one race into another, it is 
impossible to resist the conviction that these Gangeatic and Miotic 
races have always been, that which, modern fusions deducted, they 
are now, distinct. 

The Egyptians, for instance, had practised circumcision from time 
immemorial, long before Abraham adopted this mark after his visit to 
Egypt, in common with the later Ethiopic tribes ; but this Miotic rite 
was not practised in India, until introduced by Mohammedan conquests. 
So, again, with regard to "castes," heretofore almost insolently ob- 
truded, in order to identify Egyptian with Ilindostanic customs ! It 
will be news to some coryphaei of the unity-doctrine, when they are 
taught, in our Part III., that the " caste-system" has never existed 
along the Mle, and that, on the Ganges, it is a very modern invention. 

To the extreme climatic dryness of Egypt are we mainly indebted 
for the preservation of her monumental history. "While the remains of 
Greece, Rome, and other nations, none of them 3000 years old, crumble 
at first touch, Egypt's granitic obelisks, at the end of 4000 years, have 
not yet lost their polish ; and had all the early monuments of that 
country been spared by barbarian hands, we should not now, after 
fifty-three centuries, have to accuse Time as the cause of disputations 
over the history of the old Empire. 

That Menes of This was the first mortal king of Egypt, is one of 
the points in which classical authorities, Herodotus, Manetho, Eratos- 
thenes, and Diodorus, agree with the genealogical lists upon tablets 
and papjrri; and we must regard him as the first historical founder of 
an empire, which, for untold ages previously, had been approaching 
its consolidation. His reign is placed by Lepsius at 3893 years b. c. ; 
and although criticism grants that this date may be a few centuiies 
below or above the true era, yet there is so much irrefragable evi- 
dence of the long duration of the empire prior to the fixed epoch of 
the XHth dynasty, 2300 years b. c, that any error, if there be such, 
in his chronological computations, cannot be veiy great, while almost 
immaterial to our present purposes. The august name of Menes is 
gloriously associated with the building of Memphis, the oldest metro- 
polis, with foreign conquests, with public monuments, with the pro- 
gress of the arts and of internal improvements. To admit the pos- 
sibility of such legislative actions, a numerous population and a long 
preparatory civilization must have preceded him : to say nothing of 
the contemporary nations with which this military Pharaoh held 
intercourse, that must have been at least as old as the Egyptians 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 237 

themselves. To one who knows anything of the topography of the 
Mle-laucl, it need not be told that the science of hydraulic engineer- 
ing, in particular, must have existed in high perfection before the 
Lower Valley of the Mle could have been studded to any extent with 
towns on the alluvium : because this stream had to be controlled by 
dykes, canals, sluices, and similar works, long before the soil on its 
banks could be uniformly cultivated ; and, what an antiquity do not 
these facts necessitate ! 

But, whatever uncertainty may hang over the first three dynasties- 
(of which coetaneous records are now lost), when we come to the IVth — 

" We may [in the language of the Rev. John Kenrick] congratulate ourselves that we 
have at length reached the period of undoubted cotemporaneous monuments in Egyptian 
history. The pyramids, and the sepulchres near them, still remain to assure us that we 
are not walking in a land of shadows, but among a powerful and populous nation, far 
advanced in the arts of life ; and, as a people can only progressively attain such a station, 
the light of historic certainty is reflected back from this era upon the ages which precede 
it. . . The glimpse which we thus obtain of Egypt, in the fifth century after Menes, accord- 
ing to the lowest computation, reveals to us some general facts, which lead to important 
inferences. In all its great characteristics, Egypt was the same as we see it 1000 years 
later. A well-organized monarchy and religion elaborated throughout the country. The 
system of hieroglyphic writing the same, in all its leading peculiarities, as it continued to 
the end of the monarchy of the Pharaohs." 286 

• Bas-reliefs beautifully cut, sepulchral architecture, and pyramidal 
engineering — reed-^ens, inks (red and black), -papjvns-paper, and 
chemically-prepared colors ! — these are proud evidences of the Mem- 
phitic civilization of fifty-three centuries ago, that every man with 
eyes to see can now behold in noble folios, published by France, 
Tuscany, and Prussia ; and concerning which any one, not an igno- 
ramus through education, or a blockhead by nature, can acquire ade- 
quate knowledge by merely reading those English, French, German, 
or Italian works, printed within the last fifteen years, and abundantly 
cited at the end of this volume, which are at the present hour very 
accessible to all intelligent readers, everywhere but on the bookshelves 
of primary seminaries. This reservation made, we appeal, through 
these popular works, to the most ancient sculptures, in hopes of 
ascertaining — What was the Type of the primitive Egyptians ? 

Let our departure be taken, in this inquiry, from one of those 
four efiigies extant in the sepulchral habitation of Seti I., before 
alluded to {vide ante, p. 85, Fig. 1), which establishes what Egyptian 
art considered, in the fifteenth century b. c, the beau-ideal of the 
Egyptians themselves. Beneath the head (Fig. 152) we place a re- 
duction of one' of the same full-length figures (Fig. 153), which, on 
the original, is colored in deep red. The reader has now before his 
eye the standard effigy, tj^^ical of the Egyptian race, such as the "hun- 
dred-gated" Thebes exhibited in her streets about 3400 years ago. 



238 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 




Fig. 153. 



Fig. 152.287 This head we regard as a most inte- 

resting one, in connection with the Egyp- 
tian type ; because it gives the Egyptian 
idea of their own people, whom the 
accompanying hieroglyphics call the 
RoT, that is, "race," par excellence — 
viewed by the Egyptians as the only 
human species, to the exclusion of " out- 
side barbarians" of every nation around 
the "land of purity and justice." 

Now, although this effigy was designed, 
at Thebes, as typical of the Egyptian na- 
tion during the XVTIIth dynasty, to us 
it seems rather to be the long-settled 
type of that race, handed down from early 
times ; for, assuredly, it does not corres- 
pond with the royal portraits of the New 
Empire, which, we have seen, were 
strongly Semitic in their lineaments, and 
therefore chiefly Asiatic in derivation. 

This EoT, if placed alongside the ico- 
nographic monuments of the IVth, Yth, 
and Vlth dynasties, is closely analogous 
to the predominant type of that day; 
which, fact serves to strengthen our view 
that the Egjrptians of the early dynasties 
were rather of an African or Negroid 
type — resembling ^&Bis}iari,m some 
respects, in others, the modern Fellah, or 
peasantry, of Upper Egypt. To show its 
analogy to the primitive stock, we repro- 
duce a better copy of the colored head 
of Prince Mbrhet (Fig. 154), " Priest of 
Shufu" builder of the great pyramid, 
and probably his son [supra, p. 177, Fig. 
118). More than 1700 years of time sepa^ 
rate the two sculptures, and yet how in- 

- delible is the type ! 

Fig. 155 is taken from the temple of Aboosimbel — Wars in Asia 
of Eamses 11., XVUIth dynasty, during the fourteenth century B. c. 
This head is one of a group of full-length portraits of the same type, 
and they are Egyptian picked soldiers of the royal body-guard — pro- 




FiG. 154; 




I m 




Pktel 



™t PR0Pn,£TOR.A„^„„„ ;,„,, „,^„,, (^,M^_^ ^,,^„^ _,^ ^^^^^^^^^_^ ^^^. 



[NOTT.GLIDDONS/;y.„ ,,.,;/. 



'■/'•■' ■;■ Miid-iml im.\ 




EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 239 

Fig. 155.289 bably Calisirians: a word which means " young 

guard," and also persons wearing the calasiris, 
" fringed tunic." ^ 

[The pictorial illustrations designed in 1842 
for Gliddon's Lectures having required a cri- 
tical study of every head then known upon 
the monuments, we will here introduce an 
extract from his Ethnographic Notes, written 
eleven years ago — when, without theory to 
sustain, he could have no idea that his private 
memoi'anda would become available to ana- 
tomists in the year 1853. — J. C. IST.] 

" These are Egyptian soldiers, of the royal body-guard — probably Eermotybians, or Ca- 
lasirians ; but, as the latter name seems derivable from the Coptic SHELOSHIRI, young, 
and since these soldiers are young men, it is likely that they represent Calasirians of the 
royal guard — like the young guard of Napoleon, or the Yenle-cheri (corrupted by Euro- 
peans into Janisaries), 'new guard' of the Ottomans. The Eermotybians were the vete- 
rans — the old guard, in whose charge were the fortresses. 

" Now, as these soldiers were quartered in, and chiefly drafted from. Lower Egypt, this 
soldier is a good specimen of the ' thews and sinews' of Egypt. See his athletic build, his 
muscular frame, and look of bull-dog determination — the very beau-ideal of a soldier ! 
This man is precisely similar to the mass of the Felldhs of Lower Egypt at this day, espe- 
cially on the Damiata branch, and I could pick thousands in these provinces to match him ; 
whereas, above Middle Egypt, as you approach Nubia, this type disappears, to be replaced 
by lank, tall, dark, spare men, until the Fellah merges in the Nubian races, above Esnfe. 
I therefore contend that this soldier is a perfect specimen of the picked men of Lower Egypt, 
B. c. 1560. He shows the superiority of the people of Lower Egypt in that day ; while, as 
he is identical with the picked men of the Fellahs of Lower Egypt at the present day, it fol- 
lows that very great changes have not taken place, in 3500 years, between the ancient and 
modern Lower Egyptians ; and supports my assertion that, apart from a certain amount of 
Arab-cross (easily explained, and easily detected), it is in Lower Egypt, among the FeMhs, 
you will find the descendants of the ancient race — more than among the Copts (whose 
females are, and have been, the ' Gussarieyeh of Nations') ; and infinitely more than among 
the half-witted, dissolute, corrupt, and mongrel African race of Baraberas." 

Morton's comparison of ancient and modern skulls confirms this 
view ; and it will remove some erroneous notions from the reader of 
Osburn,^^ to mention an indisputable proof of the Egyptian origin of 
those guards — that is, the fact that they are painted red in the tableau 
at Aboosimbel. 

iS'ow, a remark made by us when speaking of the last race (RoT), 
applies equally to this figure : viz., that although both are represent- 
ations of Egyptians, di-awn and colored by an Egyptian artist, during 
the XVmth dynasty, yet this soldier does not display the same type 
as the legitimate line of royal portraits, from Amenoph I. downwards. 
There is nothing Asiatic about his physiognomy — on the contrary, 
it perpetuates the Aftican or Negroid type of the first dynasties. 



240 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 



Fio. 156. 




I^^evertheless, already the military 
caste of Egypt was a mixed one ; for 
here are two soldiers (Fig. 156), from 
another brigade, who, as Morton ob- 
served, present rather the Hellenic 
style of feature.^^^ 

So too, allowance made for very- 
possible inattentions on the part of 
European copyists, where the subject 
was not roi/al iconography, do some 
of the following heads of lower 
classes of people (Figs. 15T-161), 
also selected by Morton: — 



EiG. 158. 



Pig. 157, 



Fig. 159. 




Artisan. Leather-dresser. 29* 

Pig. 160. 



Fig. 161. 





Peasants.295 



Servants.296 



The modem Fellahs, constituting the mass of the common people 
of the country, have not even yet become sufficiently adulterated for 
their ancestral type to be extinguished, inasmuch as the same pre- 
ponderating characteristics can be traced, backwards, from the living 
race, through five millennia of stone-chroniclings, to the earliest times. 




flate n . 



MANEFRU.IHE ymn\UmS"'„rr/"'Dr,in.,l,-0j::LualJhom a:.- T,m,l.„o«-m tl,t Ilarnl Musrwn.Vorlm 



[NOTTiGLIDOON's Tr/H's .f.Ua,ih'/u/ /i'j:i\ 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 241 

It is fair to conclude tliat these Felliihs really preserve much of the 
aboriginal Egj'ptian type. Such type bears not the slightest resem- 
blance (except in casual instances, themselves doubtful, when we first 
see it in the IVth dynasty, about 3400 b. c.) to any Asiatic race, and 
must therefore have been inherent in that indigenous race which was 
created to people the Valley of the N'ile. 



The authors esteem it a very high privilege that " T;y^es of Man- 
kind" should be the first work to remove all doubts upon the type 
of the earliest monumental Egyptians. Further discussion becomes 
superseded by the publication of the annexed lithographic Plates I., 
n., m., and rV. Being fac-similes of the most ancient human heads 
now extant in the world, and transfer-copies of impressions stamped, 
by the hand of Chevalier Lepsius himself, upon the original bas-reliefs 
preseived in the Royal Museum of Berlin, their intrinsic value in eth- 
nography cannot be overrated ; at the same time that, like an axe, 
these effigies cleave asunder fads and suppositions as to what primor- 
dial art at Memphis, above 5000 years ago, considered to be the 
"canonical proportions" ascribable to the facial and cephalic struc- 
ture of the heads of the Egyptian people themselves. 

Prefacing our exposition of the guarantees the lithographs possess 
for exactitude and authenticity with the remark, that these portraits 
belong to the tombs of princely, aristocratic, and sacerdotal person- 
ages, who lived during the r\^th, Vth, and Vlth Memphite dynasties, 
we proceed to state how such illustrations (alike precious from their 
enormous antiquity and for their unique excellence) have been 
obtained. 

Attendants on Mr. Gliddon's Archaeological Lectures in the United 
States have been informed, yearly, from 1842 to 1852,^^^ of the 
discoveries of the Prussian Scientific Mission to Egypt : in every case, 
before the winter of 1849, far in advance of detailed publication, 
whether in America or in Europe. In that year, the first volume of 
Lepsius's quarto Chronologic der j^gypter was quickly followed by the 
fiKt livraisons of the folio Denkmdler aus ^gypten und ^thiopien — 
the former judiciously constructing the chronological and historical 
framework within which the stupendous facts unfolded by the latter 
are enclosed. To facilitate popular appreciation of the magnitude of 
these Prussian labors and discoveries, Lepsius put forth, at Berlin, in 
1852, his octavo Briefe aus ^gypten, ^thiopien, &c. ; which, trans- 
lated and ably annotated by Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, being now 
equally accessible to every reader of our tongue, renders any account 
31 



242 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

here of these l!^ilotic explorations superfluous, beyond mentioning 
that four of the most ancient tombs discovered at Memphis by Lep- 
sius, independently of his vast collection of other materials, were 
taken to pieces on the spot, with the utmost care, and became rebuilt 
into the Koyal Museum at Berlin. 

Invited by Chevalier Lepsius to visit,^^® and inspect personally, anti- 
quarian treasures endeared by a lifetime's Egyptian associations, Mr. 
Gliddon was at once so struck with the ethnographic importance of 
these sepulchral bas-reliefs, that he solicited paper-impressions of a few 
heads for the joint and future studies of Dr. Morton and himself; and, 
on the 10th of May, 1849, he had the gratification of assisting Cheva- 
lier Lepsius to make numerous estampages ; while, to insure perfection 
and authenticity, the paper was stamped upon the sculptures by the 
Chevalier's own hands. 

One singular fact, illustrative of the superior antiquity of these 
tombs of pyramidal magnates to any heretofore described by Egypt- 
ologists, may here be mentioned. Laid bare, through excavation, at 
a depth of many feet below the rocky surface, and emptied of the 
sand with which they had become refilled since their desecration by 
unknown hands (probably Saracenic) centuries ago, the relievos pre- 
sented themselves in colors so vivid as to appear " fi:-esh and perfect, 
as if painted only yesterday;" but, despite every precaution, on 
removing each slab into the open air, the painted stucco-superficies 
fell oflT — leaving, however, the uninjured low-relief (about the sixth 
of an inch) sculpture to endure long as time shall respect the 
Berlin Museum. N'ow, in the dry climate of Memphis, Egyptian 
colors known to range from 2500 to 4000 years old, where not exposed 
to the dew, or to the Etesian winds, still adhere on the wall of tombs 
in their pristine freshness and brilliancy. Well, therefore, is an anti- 
quity of at least 5300 years for these now colorless relievos (imperi- 
ously demanded also by their hieroglyphical and other conditions) 
corroborated by their exceptional friability. With his wonted fore- 
eight, Lepsius had caused the colored sculptures to be copied by his 
draughtsmen, in situ, before removal ; and in the Denkmdler^ their 
gorgeous paintings may still be admired. 

On the writer's (G. R. G.'s) return to London, these estampages, 
after being outlined, were transferred upon tracing-paper by his 
wife's accurate pencil, in duplicate, for Dr. Morton and himself. 
The originals, as acknowledged by the Doctor in a foregoing letter 
(p. 232, ante), were duly passed on to his cabinet, where their inspec- 
tion completed that revulsion of earlier views toward which his pro- 
gressive studies had long been leading. The second copy, shaded 
and colored in imitation of the limestone originals, has often embel- 






<l'^\^i:: 



\ 







PEASANTS- t,-.o.M^NlFRU-^''^,r;/''*/>r•/,,,../^(A<■ ■.'««.) /<Vr,,/.r/,««/».-*rrt'»~ 



fNOTT» GLIOOONS Ti?'"' :'• JH'-'-n./.'SSJ- 



EGYPT AND EGTPT^IANS. 243 

lished Mr. Gliddon's lecture-rooms when "Egyptian Etlinology" was 
the topic of his address. 

When the authors projected the present work, at Mobile, in the 
spring of 1852, they acquainted Chevalier Lepsius, among other Eu- 
ropean colleagues, with their respective desiderata, archaeological or 
ethnographical. Answering one of Gliddon's letters, the Chevalier 
complaisantly remarks : — 

" Berlin, 1 Nbvembre, 1852. 

..." Pour les individus vous ne pouvez vous fier que sur les empreintes que vous avez ; 
et si Tous en desirez je vous en enverrai encore d'avantage. . . . Les empreintes des bas- 
reliefs et les platres des anciennes statues sont, a ce qu'il me parait, les seuls mat^riaux 
utiles pour ^tudier I'ancien caractere des Egyptiens ; et memo pour ceux-la il faut admettre 
qu'on pourrait se tromper sur plusieur traits qui paraissent etre surs, parceque le canon 
[that is, the canon of proportion accorded by Old Egyptian art to the human figure. — G. R. 
G.] re9U pouvait s'^carter en quelques points de la \4nt6, comme dans la position haute de 
roreille." 

"We have to record our joint obligations for the receipt, in August 
of the present year, of the second collection of stamps promised in 
the above letter ; and it is from careful comparison of the duplicate 
originals with their tracings, that the models for our lithographic 
plates were designed. We feel confident, therefore, that our litho- 
graphs are facsimiles — submitting them to Chevalier Lepsius for com- 
parison with the original bas-reliefs, while taking the liberty to urge 
upon his scientific attention, no less than upon that of possessors of 
such remains generally, the benefit they would confer upon ethno- 
logical studies, were they to publish similar fac-similes, where the 
lithographer, copying the original monument under their own critical 
eyes, would attain precision from which the Atlantic debars art in 
this country. 

Abstraction made of the divergence from nature in the " high posi- 
tion of the ear," to which the above epistolary favor alludes, as a 
subject set at rest by Morton ;^''° and repeating our previous notice of 
false delineation of the ei/e in Egyptian profiles : there remains no 
doubt that the facial outlines, and, where naked, the cranial conforma- 
tion, in these most antique of all known sculptures, are rigorously 
faithful. Without hesitation, these heads may be accepted by eth- 
nography as perfect representations of the type of Egyptians under 
the Old Empire. 

Assuming such to be facts — and, beyond accidents of some trivial 
slip of a pencil, none can dispute them but the unlettered in these 
sciences — we may now claim as positive that the originals of our 
fac-simile heads date back, as a minimum, from 3000 to 3500 years 
before Christ, or to generations deceased above 5000 years ago ; at 



244 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 

wHch time Egypt had already existed for many centuries as a powei'fal 
empire, borne along on full tide of civilization : and, let us ask, what 
trace of an Asiatic type does the reader perceive in these hoary like- 
nesses ? How distinct, physiologically, are these heads from the royal 
portraits of the New Empire ! Does not the low, elongated head ; the 
imperfectly-developed forehead ; the short, thick nose ; the large, full 
lip ; the short and receding chin ; with their tout-ensemble, all point to 
Africa as the primeval birth-place of these people ? When, too, we 
look around and along this ancient valley of the !N^ile at the present 
day, and compare the mingled types of races, still dwelling where 
their fathers did — the Eell^hs, the Bishariba, the Abyssinians, the 
ITubians, the Libyans, the Berbers (though they are by no means iden- 
tical among each other), do we not behold a group of men apart from 
the rest of human creation ? and all, singularly and collectively, in- 
heriting something in their lineaments which clusters around the type 
of ancient Egypt ? A powerful and civilized race may be conquered, 
may become adulterated in blood ; yet the type, when so widely 
spread, as in and around Egypt, has never been obliterated, can 
never be washed out. History abundantly proves that human lan- 
guage may become greatly corrupted by exotic admixture — nay, even 
extinguished ; but physiology demonstrates that a type will survive 
tongues, writings, religions, customs, manners, monuments, tradi- 
tions, and history itself. 

Dr. Morton's voluminous correspondence with scientific men 
throughout both hemispheres is replete with interest, exhibiting as it 
does so many charming instances of that philosophical abandon, or 
freedom from social rigidities, which characterizes true devotees to 
science in their interchanges of thought. There is one epistle among 
these, that almost electrified him^°^ on its reception, bearing date 
"Alexandria, Dec. 17, 1843." It is invested with the signature of a 
voyager long "blanched under the harness" of scientific pursuits; 
who, as l^aturalist to the United States' Exploring Expedition, had 
sailed round the world,, and beheld ten types of mankind, before he 
wrote, after exploring the petroglyphs of the ISTile : — 

" I have seen in all eleven races of men; and, thougli I am hardly prepared to fix a 
positive limit to their number, I confess, after having visited so many different parts of the 
globe, that I am at a loss where to look for others." 302 

Qualified to judge, through especial training, varied attainments, 
and habits of keen observation that, in ^Natural History, are pre- 
eminent for accuracy, the first impressions of the gentleman from 
whose letter to his attached friend we make bold to extract a few 
sentences, (preserving their original form,) are strikingly to the point: 



\ 



Plite W. 





SERVANT »ith.kox_tombofMANEFRU, 
T'''m-Tl'''-])jiiastf(At'.2iao}RiryuJMtu:eimi,derhi. 



A PEASANT TOMBOE SPETKHEMKA, 

]r!!'orr!''Hmasif(S. C.3ooo}IloraI2lmmn. Sir/m 




A SERVANT rm„ il,- most ancient tomb m PL l- 



[Nona gliddon's ■/iy,e.,y.yh,Mm/m.i}, 



EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 245 

" Dear Morton : 

"This is the fourth day I have been in the land of the Pharaohs Well, now for 

the Egyptian problem. 

"Your October letter is now before me, and the left-hand drawing bears a most aston- 
ishing resemblance to my long-legged valet, Ali ! (whom I intend to get daguerreotyped, if 
such a thing can be found at Cairo). The Robber Race has swept away everything at 
Alexandria ; — nevertheless, by means of a specimen here and there, I had not been three 
hours in the country before I arrived at the conclusion, that the ancient Egyptians were 
neither Malays nor Hindoos, but 

Egyptians Yours, truly, 

" Charles Pickering." 

So inferred Champollion-le-Jeune ; '"^ so pronounced Morton, 
after a formal recantation of his published views ; so, finally and 
deliberately, think the authors of this volume ; viz. : that the primi- 
tive Egyptians were nothing more nor less than — EGYPTLAJN'S. 

Objectors must restrict themselves henceforward merely to cavils as 
to the antiquity of these Egyptian records. In Part III. their claims 
to reverence are superabundantly set forth. For ourselves we are 
content to rest the chronological case upon the authority of Baron 
Alexander von Humboldt: — 

" The valley of the Nile, which has occupied so distinguished a place in the history of 
Man, yet preserves authentic portraits of kings as far back as the commencement of the 
IVth dynasty of Manetho. This dynasty, which embraces the constructors of the great 
pyramids of Ghiza, Chefren or Schafra, Cheops, Choufou, and Menkara or Menkergs, 
commences more than 3400 years b. c, and twenty-four centuries before the invasion of 
Peloponnesus by the Heraclides."^*"* 



246 NEGRO TYPES. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

NEGEO TYPES. 

"When the prophet Jeremiah 305 exclaims, 'Can the Ethiopian change his 
skin, or the leopard his spots ? ' he certainly means us to infer that the one 
■was as impossible as the other." — Morton's MSS. 

" Niger in die (quodam) exuit vestes suas, incepitqne capere nivem et fricare 
cum ea corpus suum. Dictum autem ei fuit : quare fricas corpus tnum nive ? 
Et dixit (ille) : fortasse albescam. Venitque vir (quidam) sapiens, (qui) dixit 
ei : tu, ne afflige te ipsum ; fieri enim potest, ut corpus tuum nigram faciat 
nivem, ipsum autem non amittet nigredinem." — Locmani Fabula XXIII : 
translated from the Arabic by RosenmMler.'^'^ 

Had every nation of antiquity emulated Egypt, and perpetuated 
tlie portraits of its own people with a chisel, it would now be evident 
to the reader that each, type of manhind, in all zoological centres of 
man's creation, is by nature as indelibly permanent as the stone- 
pages upon which Egyptians, Chinese, Assyrians, Lycians, Greeks, 
Romans, Carthaginians, Meroites, Hindoos, Peruvians, Mexicans, (to 
say naught of other races,) have cut their several iconographies. How 
instantaneously would vanish pending disputes about the Unity or 
the Diversity of human origins ! 

Contenting ourselves at present with the now-acquired fact, that 
the Egyptians, according to monumental and craniological evidences, 
no less than to all history, written or traditionary, were really autoc- 
thones of the Lower Nile, we think the question as to their "type" 
has been satisfactorily answered. In reply, furthermore, to our pre- 
vious interrogatory, whether this ancient family obeyed the same law 
of "gradation" established for other African aborigines; we may now 
observe, that the Egyptians, astride as it were upon the narrow isthmus 
which unites the once-separate continents of Africa and Asia, figure, 
when the Aurora of human tradition firat breaks, as at one and the 
same time, the highest among African, and (physiologically, if not 
perhaps intellectually) as the loivest type in West- Asiatic gradations. 

Were we to prosecute our imaginaiy journey northwards, the dark 
CMsA^Ye-Arabs would naturally constitute the next grade, and the 
ancient Canaanites probably the one immediately succeeding. The 
primitive group of Semitic nations would be found to have aborigi- 
nally occupied geographical levels commencing with Mount Lebanon 
and rising gradually in physical characters as we ascend the Tauric 



NEGRO TYPES. 



247 



chain — passing, almost insensibly, into the Japethic or whitest races 
(also possessing their own gradations), until the highest types of pre- 
historic humanity would reveal their birth-places around the Caucasus. 
But, dealing mainly with the Natural History of Man, elucidated 
through new archaeological data, the scope of our work permits no 
geographical digressions beyond the Caucasian mountains. We have 
already insisted that the term " Caucasian" is a misnomer, productive 
of infinite embarrassments in anthropology ; because a name in itself 
specifically restricted, since the times of Herodotus, to one locality 
and to one people, has become misapplied generically to types of 
mankind whose origins have no more to do with the mountains of 
Caucasus than with those of the moon. Would it not be ridiculous 
to take, for example, the name "Englander" (a compound of J. ?z^Z 
and land — "man of the land of the Angli"), and to classify under 
such an appellative, Hebrews, Egyptians, Hindoos, &c. ? That " Cau- 
casian" is equally fallacious, will be made clear to the reader, in Part 
n., under the article on MaGUG ; but we anticipate a portion of the 



philological 



argument 



by mentioning, that the Hellenized name 



CAIJC-ASOS means simply the '^Mountain of the Asi;" being the 
Indo-Germanic word Khogh, signifying "mountain," prefixed to the 
proper name of a nation and a race : \'iz., the Aas, Asi, Jases, Osseth, 
or Osses; who, dwelling even yet at the foot of that Cauc-Asos where, 
from immemorial time, their ancestors lived before them, would be 
astonished to learn that European geographers had bestowed their 
national name upon the whole continent of Asia, and that modern 
ethnologists actually derive a dozen groups of distinct human animals 
from the mountain ("Khogh") of which such Asi 



Fig. 162. 



are aborigines ! ^°' 




White races — Japhetu. 



Turning our backs upon the Caucasus, and 
retracing our steps toward Africa, let us inciden- 
tally notice the recognition by ante-Mosaic Egyp- 
tian, and by post-Mosaic Hebrew, ethnographers, 
of the general principle of gradation among such 
types of mankind as lay within the horizons of 
their respective geographical knowledge. The 
Egyptians, for instance, in their quadripartite 
division of races, already explained {ante, p. 85, 
Fig. 1), assigned the most northerly habitat to 
the '■'■tvhite race," of which we here reproduce the 
standard type (Fig. 162) — one of the four de- 
signed in the tomb of Seti I., about 1500 b. c. 

Precisely does the writer of Xth Genesis, as 
set forth elaborately in Part H., follow the same 



248 



NEGRO TYPES. 



Fig. 163. 




Fellow races — Shem. 



system, in his tripartite division; inasmuch as he groups the ^'Affi- 
liations of Japheth," that is, his ''white races," between the Tauric 
chain of mountains and the Caucasian, along and within the northern 
coast of Asia Minor to the Black Sea. 

So, again, Egyptian ethnography chose, for 
the standard-tj'pe of "yellow races," four effigies 
which entirely correspond, in every desideratum 
of locality, color, and physical conformation, 
with those families classified, in Xth Grenesis, as 
the "Affiliations of Shem;" and like the He- 
brew geographer, the Theban artist must have 
known, that the yellow, or Semitic, groups of 
men occupied countries immediately south of 
the "white races," and stretching from the Tau- 
rus to the Isthmus of Suez, including the river- 
lands of the Tigris and Euphrates, together with 
the Arabian Peninsula. 

The specimen illustrative of these groups of 
yellow-skinned races here presented in Eig. 163, 
is also, like the following (Eigs. 164, 165), a re- 
production from the four figures before shown 
on page 85. 
Equally parallel is the Jewish classification, in respect to the "Affili- 
ations of Ham" (Fig. 164), with those "red races" among which the 
Egj'ptians placed the RoT, or themselves. To the 
latter, KAaM was nothing but the hieroglyphical 
name of Egypt proper ; KAeMe, or KAiMe, " the 
dai-k land" of the Mle; corrupted by the Greeks 
into " Cheramis" and " Chemia," and by us 
preserved in such words as "ehem-istry" and 
" al-chem-j," both Egyptian sciences ; while, in 
Hebrew geography, KAaM, signifying dark, or 
stvarthy, merely meant all those non-Shemitish 
families which, under the especial cognomina of 
Cushites, Oanaanites, Mizraimites, Libyans, Ber- 
bers, and so forth, formed that group of proxi- 
mate types situate, aboriginally, east and west 
of the N'ile, and along its banks north of the 
first cataract at Syene. Our wood-cut illustrates 
the Egyptian standard-type of these populations. 
But here the analogy between the earlier 
Egyptian and the posterior Hebrew sj'stems 
ceases. Nigritian races, never domiciled nearer to Palestine than 
1500 miles to the south-westward, did not enter into the social 



Fig. 164. 




Swarthy {or red) races 
Ham. 



NEGRO TYPES. 



249 



Fig. 1G5. 




economy of the Solomonic Jews, any more than into that of the 
Homeric Greeks ; and, if not perhaps absolutely unknown, Negroes 
were then as foreign to, and remote from, either nation's geography, 
as the Samoidans or the Tungousians are to our popular notions of 
the earth's inhabitants at the present day. In consequence, (as it is 
thoroughly demonstrated in Part 11.), the winter of Xth Genesis omits 
Negro races altogether, from his tripartite classifi- 
cation of humanity under the sj^mbolical appel- 
latives of " Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; " whereas 
the Egyptians of the XlXth dynasty, about 1500 
years B. c, having become acquainted with the 
existence of Negroes some eight centuries previ- 
ously (when Sesourtasen I., of the XHth dynasty, 
about B. c. 2300, pushed his conquests into Up- 
per N'ubia), could not fail to include this fourth 
type of man in their ethnological system ; be- 
cause the river Mle was the most direct viaduct 
through which the Soodan, ITegro-land^ could 
be reached, or N'egro captives procured. J 

With this preliminary basis, calling attention 

to the effigy (Fig. 165) by which they personified 

E"egroes generall}', we proceed to draw from the 

ancient stone-books of Egypt such testimonies 

concerning the permanence of type among Nigritian races as they 

may be found to contain. 

<^ Our K"egro (Fig. 166) is from 
the bas-reliefs of Eamses HI. 
(XXth dynasty, thirteen centu- 
ries B. c), at Medeenet-Haboo, 
where he is tied by the neck to 
an Asiatic prisoner. The head, 
in the original, is now unco- 
lored; and it serves to show 
how perfectly Egj-ptian artists 
represented these races.^*^ We 
quote from Gliddon's Ethnogra- 
phic Notes, before referred to : 
" This head is remarkable, fur- 
thermore, as the usual type of 
two-thirds of the ITegroes in Egypt at the present day." And any 
one li\'ing in our Slave-States will see in this face a type which is 
frequently met -with here. 'We thus obtain proof that the Negro has 
remained unchanged in Africa, above Egypt, for 3000 years ; coupled 
32 



Black races. 



Fig. 166. 




250 



NEGEO TYPES, 



with tlie fact that the same type, during some eight or ten genera- 
tions of sojourn in the United States, is still preserved, despite of 
transplantation. , 

The following representation (Fig. 167) is traced upon a spirited 
reduction by Cherubini.^"^ It is a double file of IS'egroes and Baralra 
(ISTubians), bound, and driven before his chariot by Ramses 11., at 
Aboosimbel. This picture answers well as a complement to the two 

Fig. 167. 




Fig. 168. 



preceding ; for we here have the brown Nubian — a dark one, and a 
light-colored family — admirably contrasted with the jet-black ITegro; 
thus proving that the same divisions of African races existed then as 
now, above the first cataract of the l!Tile at Syene. 

One of the same series (Fig. 168), on a larger 
scale, taken from Rosellini.^'" It should be ob- 
served that he is shaded hrowner than the next 
head (Fig. 169) ; thereby showing the two com- 
monest colors and physiognomical lineaments 
prevalent among Nubian Barahra of the present 
day ; who, whether owing to amalgamation, or 
from original type, approach closer to the ITegro 
than do the adjacent tribes — Ahabdeh, Bisha- 
riba, &c. 
The same group supplies a lighter (cinnamon) shaded sample of a 
ls"ubian Berberri (Fig. 169); whose name in the Arabic plural is Bar- 
hbra. The identical designation, BaEaBaRa, is applied to the same 
people in the sculptures of several Pharaohs of the XVIIth and 
XVmth dynasties, 1500 years b. c.^" 




NEGRO TYPES. 



251 



Fig. 169. 



Fia. 170. 





To I'ender the contrast more striking, we place in juxta-position an 
enlarged head (Fig. 170) of the last ISTegro from the above prisoners. 
The face is ingeniously distorted by the Egyptian artist, who repre- 
sents this captive bellowing with rage and pain. 

One of Mr. Gliddon's personal verifications on the Kile is here 
worthy of note. He observed that the fusion between Nubian and 
modern Arab races is first clearly apparent, exactly where nature had 
placed the boundary-line between Egypt and I^ubia : viz., at the first 
cataract. Here dwell the Shellalees, or "cataract-men" — descended, 
it is said, from intermixture between the Saracenic garrisons at As- 
souan and the women of Lower N'ubia. Persian, Greek, and Eoman 
troops had been consecutively stationed there, centuries before the 
Arabs ; while European and American tourists at the present day 
cooperate vigorously to stem the blackening element as it flows in 
fi'om the South. The Shellalees count perhaps 500 adults and children ; 
and they are mulattoes of various hues, compounded of IsTubian, Arab, 
Eg}^tian, Turkish, and European blood ; whilst, incidentally, ISTegresses 
enter as slaves among the less impoverished families — their cost there 
seldom exceeding fifty dollars. But, the predominating color, especially 
among the female Shelalleeyeh, is alight 
cinnamon ; and in both sexes are seen 
some of the most beautiful forms of hu- 
manity; as may be judged from the 
" jSTubian Girl," so tastefully portrayed 
by Prisse d'Avesnes.^^^ 

This (Fig. 171) is the type of the 
]S"aHSU {Negroes), on a larger scale, 
among the four races in the tomb of 
Seti-Meneptha I. ; before spoken of, 
and delineated, at full length on pages 
85 and 249, supra. 

Beautifully drawn and strikingly contrasted, see two of the nine 
Asiatic and African heads (Fig. 172) smitten by king, Seti I., at 



Fig. 171.313 




252 



NEGRO TYPES. 
Fig. 172.314 




Karmac. Tlie ISTegro's features are true to the life, if we deduct the 
ancient defective drawing of the eye ; as must be done in all copies 
of Egyptian art. 

"We next present (Fig. 173) one of the many proofs that E'egro 
slavery existed in Egypt 1500 years b. c. An Egyptian scribe, colored 

Fia. 173.315 




red, registers the black slaves ; of which males, females, and their 
children are represented ; the latter even with the little tufts of wool 
erect upon their heads : while the leopard-skin around the first iN'egro's 
loins is grotesquely twisted so as to make the animal's tail belong to 
its human wearer. 

In connection with this scene, which is taken fi'om a monument at 
Thebes, Wilkinson remarks : — 

" It is evident that both white and black slaves were employed as servants ; they attended 
on the guests when invited to the house of their master ; and from their being in the fami- 
lies of priests as well as of the military chiefs, we may infer that they were purchased 
with money, and that the "right of possessing slaves was not confined to those who had 
taken them in war. The traffic in slaves was tolerated by the Egyptians ; and it is reason- 
able to suppose, that many persons were engaged, as at present, in bringing them to Egypt 



NEGRO TYPES. 



253 



for public sale, independent of those who were sent as part of the tribute, and who were 
probably, at first, the property of the monarch ; nor did any difficulty occur to the Ishmael- 
ites in the purchase of Joseph from his brethren, nor in his subsequent sale to Potiphar on 
arriving in Egypt." 

In his comments on the antiquity of " eunuchs," Gliddon has ex- 
tended these analogies of slavery among the Hebrews, and other 
ancient nations.^'® 

'We might thus go on, and add numberless portraits of N'egro races. 
Hundreds of them are represented as slaves, as prisoners of war, as 
fugitives, or slain in large battle-scenes, &c. ; all proving that, as far 
back as the XVHth dynasty, b. c. 1600, they existed as distant na- 
tions, above Egypt. 

Taken at random from the plates of Eosellini, the three subjoined 
portraits (Figs. 174, 175, 176) are submitted, to fortify our words. 

Fig. 174. Fia. 176. 





Fig. 176. 



The lotus-bnd at the end of their halters means the word "south," in 
hieroglyphical geography : while 
their varieties of physical conforma- 
tion suffice to show that anciently, 
as at this day, the basin of the upper 
Kile included many distinct Kegro 
races. 

It has been for several years as- 
serted^" by the authors of the pre- 
sent volume, and it is now finally 
demonstrated in PartH., that JVegro 
races are never alluded to in ancient 
Jewish literature ; the Greek word 

"Ethiopia" being a false interpretation of the Hebrew KUSh, which al- 
ways meant Southern Arabia, and nothing but the Oushite-Arabmn race. 

The Greeks, of course, were unacquainted vnth the existence of 
Negroes until about the seventh century b. c. ; when Psametik I. 
opened the ports of Lower Egypt to Grecian traffickers. Their 
"Ethiopians," Bun-hurned-faceg, before that age, were merely any 




254 KEGKO TYPES. 

people darker than a Hellene — Arabs, Egyptians, and Libyans, fi'om 
Joppa (Jaffa) westward to Carthage : nor, camels being unknown to 
the Carthaginians, as well as to the early Cyreneans, could Negroes 
have been brought across the Sahara deserts into the Barbary States, 
until about the first century before the Christian era. The only 
channel to the natural habitat of ]N"egro races, (which never has lain 
geographically to the northward of the limit of the Tropical rains, or 
about 16° IS. lat.,) until camels were introduced into Barbary, after 
the fall of Carthage, was along the Mle, and through Egypt exclu- 
sively. The Carthaginians never possessed l^egro slaves, excepting 
what they may have bought in Egyptian bazaars ; of which incidents 
we have no record. It is worthy of critical attention, that in the 
Periplus of Hanno, and other traditionary voyages outside the Pillars 
of Hercules, while we may infer that these Carthaginian navigators 
(inasmuch as they reached the country of the Grorillse, now known 
to be the largest species of the chimpanzee,) must have beheld 
Kegroes also ; yet, after passing the Lixitse, and other " men of 
various appearances," they merely report the whole coast to be inha- 
bited by " Ethiopians." ^^^ Now, the Punic text of this voyage being 
lost, we cannot say what was the original Carthaginian word which 
the Greek translator has rendered by " Ethiopians ; " so that, even if 
Negroes be a very probable meaning, these Atlantico- African voyages 
prove nothing beyond the fact that, in Hanno's time, b. c. five or six 
centuries, there was already great diversity/ of races along the north- 
western coast of Africa, and that all of them were strange to the 
Carthaginians. 

It is now established, moreover, that the account given by Hero- 
dotus of the Nasamonian expedition to the country of the Garamantes, 
never referred to the river Xiger, but to some western journey into 
Mauritania ; as we have explained in Part H. 

Apart, then, from a few specimens of the I>[egro type that, as curi- 
osities, may have been occasionally carried from Egypt into Asia, 
there was but one other route through which ITegroes, until the times 
of Solomon, could have been transported from Africa into Asiatic 
countries ; viz. : by the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea. 
We have diligently hunted for archaeological proofs of the existence 
of a Negro out of Egypt in such ancient times, and have found but 
two instances ; dependent entirely upon the fidelity of the superb 
copies of Texibr, and of Elandin. 

In Texier's work^'^ we think a Negro, (in hair, lips, and facial 
angle,) may be detected as the last figure, on the third line, among 
the foreign supporters of the throne of one of the Acheemenian kings 
at Persepolis. There is nothing improbable in the circumstance ; for 



NEGRO TYPES. 



255 



the vast Satrapies of Persia, in the fifth century B. c, extended into 
Africa. The more certain example we allude to is found in the sculp- 
tures of Eliorsabad, or Mneveh ; ^" and probably appertains to the 
reign of Sargan, b. c. 710-668. It is a solitary figure of a beardless 
Negro ^nth woolly hair, wounded, and in the act of imploring mercy 
from the Assyrians. 

Turn we now to Roman authority. 



Latin description of a Negress, written early in the 
second century after c. 

" Interdum clamat Cybalen ; erat unica custos ; 
Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura ; 
Torta comam, labroque tumens, et fusca colorem ; 
Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo, 
Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta ; 
Contiuuis rimis calcanea scissa rigebant." 

"In the meanwhile he calls Cybale. She was 
•his only [house-] keeper. African by race, her 
whole face attesting her father-land : with crisped 
hair, swelling lip, and blackish complexion ; broad 
in chest, with pendant dugs, [and] very contracted 
paunch ; her spindle-shanks [contrasted with her] 
enormous feet ; and her cracked heels were stiffened 
by perpetual clefts." 



Egyptian delineation of a Negress, 
cut and painted some 1600 years 
before the Latin description. 

Fig. 177. 




To Mr. Gustavus A. Myers, (an eminent lawyer of Richmond, Va.,) 
are we indebted for indicating to us this unparalleled description of a 
Negress ; no less than for the loan of the volume in which an un- 
applied passage of Virgil ^^^ is contained. Through it we perceive 
that, in the second century after c, the physical characteristics of a 
"field," or agricultural, "Mgger" were understood at Rome 180O 
years ago, as thoroughly as by cotton-planters in the State of Ala- 
bama, still flourishing in A. D. 1853. 

Time, as every one now can see, has efi^ected no alteration, even by 
transfer to the K'ew "World, upon African types (save through amalga- 
mation) for 3400 years downwards. Let us inquire of the Old conti- 
nent what metamorphoses time may have caused, as regards such 
alleged transmutations, upwards. 

About the sixteenth century b. c, Pharaoh HoRUS of the XVIIIth 
dynasty records, at Hagar Silsilis, his return from victories over Ni- 
gritian families of the upper Nile.^-^ The hieroglyphical legends 
above his prisoners convey the sense of — " KeSA, barbarian country, 
perverse race ;" expressive of the Egyptian sentimentalities of that 
day towards Nubians, Negroes, and "foreigners" generally. 




256* NEGRO TYPES. 

Among his captives is the 'Negress already portrayed (Fig. 177); to 

whose bas-reliefed effigy we have merely restored one of the colors now 

effaced by time. We present (Fig. 178) a head indicative of her male 

companions, traced upon EoselHni's size; our 

Fig. 178. reduction of her full-length figure being taken 

from the Prussian Denkmdler.^^ 

Here, then, is a JSTegress, sculptured and 
' painted in Egypt about B. c. 1550, whose effigy 
corresponds with Virgil's description at Rome a 
little after A. D. 100 ; which female is identical 
with living ISTegresses, of whom American States, 
south of "Mason and Dixon's line," could produce many hundreds 
in the present year, 1853. 

Have 3400 years, or any transplantations, altered the ]N"EGRO race ? 

"When treating of the " Caucasian" type, we were obliged to jump 
from the XVHth back to the XHth dynasty, owing to the lack of in- 
tervening monuments, since destroyed by foreign invaders. The same 
difficulty recurs with regard to ISTegro races. In fact, our materials 
here become still more defective ; for, although in the XHth dynasty 
abundant hieroglyphieal inscriptions attest the existence of Negro 
nations, no portraits seem to be extant, of this epoch, upon whose 
coetaneous date of sculpture we can rely. That Kegroes did, how- 
ever, exist in the twenty -fourth century B. c, or contemporaneously 
with Usher's date of the Flood, we shall next proceed to show. 

Aside from the Tablet of "Wady Haifa, cut by Sesourtasen I., of 
the Xnth dynasty, [supra, p. 188,) we quoted from Lepsius (supra, 
p. 174), a paragraph illustrative of the diversity of types at this early 
period, of which the following is a portion rendered from his Brief e : 

" Mention is often made on the monuments of this period of the victories gained by the 
kings over the Ethiopians and Negroes, wherefore we must not be surprised to see black 
slaves and servants." 

Mr. Birch kindly sent us, last year, an invaluable paper, wherein 
the political relations of Egypt with Ethiopia are traced by his mas- 
terly hand, from the earliest times down to the XlXth dynasty. The 
"Historical Tablet of Ramses H.," from which the most recent facts 
are drawn, dates from the sixteenth year of a reign, that lasted 
upwards of sixty years.^^ The subjoined extract is especially import- 
ant, not only because demonstrative of the existence of Negroes as far 
back as the XHth dynasty, but also because it establishes the extended 
intercourse which Egypt held at that remote day (b. c. 2400-2100) 
with numerous Asiatic and African races. 

" The principal inducements which led the Phai-aohs to the south were the valuable pro- 
ducts, especially the minerals, with which that region abounded. At the early period of 



'■•*■ 



NEGRO TYPES. 257 

the IVth and Vlth Egyptian dynasties, no traces occur of Ethiopian relations, and the 
frontier was probably at that time Eileithyia (El Hegs). So far indeed from the Egyptian 
civilization having descended the cataracts of the Nile, there are no monuments to show 
that the Egyptians were then even acquainted with the black races, the Nahsi as they 
•were called. 325 Some information is found at the time of the Xlth dynasty. The base of 
a small statue inscribed with the name of the king Ra nub Cheper, apparently one of the 
monarchs of the Xlth dynasty, whose prenomen was discovered by Mr. Harris on a stone 
built into the bridge at Coptos, intermingled with the Enuentefs, has at the sides of the 
throne on which it is seated Asiatic and Negro prisoners. Under the monarchs of the 
Xllth dynasty, the vast fortifications of Samneh show the growing importance of Ethiopia, 
while the conquest of the principal tribes is recorded by Sesertesen I. at the advanced 
point of the Wady Haifa. The most remarkable feature of this period are the hydraulic 
observations carefully recorded under the last monarchs of the line, and their successors 
the Sebakhetps of the Xlllth dynasty. A tablet in the British Museum, dated in the reign 
of Amenemha I. has an account of the mining services of an officer in Ethiopia at that 
period. ' I worked,' he says, ' the mines in my youth ; I have regulated all the chiefs of 
the gold washings ; I brought the metal penetrating to the land of Phut to the Nahsi.' It 
is probably for these gold mines that we find in the second year of Amenemha IV. an officer 
bearing the same name as the king, stating that he 'was invincible in his majesty's heart 
in smiting the Nahsi.' In the nineteenth year of the same reign were victories over the 
Nahsi. At the earliest age .^Ethiopia was densely colonized, and the gold of the region 
descended the Nile in the way of commerce ; but there are no slight difficulties in knowing 
the exact relations of the two countries. 

"The age of the XVIIIth dynasty is separated from the Xllth by an interval during 
which the remains of certain monarchs named Sebakhetp, found in the ruins of Nubia, 
ehow that they were at least jEthiopian rulers. The most important of the monuments of 
this age is the propj'lon of Mount Barkal, the ancient Napata, built by the so-called S-men- 
ken, who is represented in an allegorical picture vanquishing the .Ethiopians and Asiatics. 
The XVIIIth dynasty opened with foreign wars. The tablet of Aahmes-Pensuben in the 
Louvre records that he had taken ' two hands,' that is, had killed two Negroes personally 
in Kish or ^Ethiopia. More information, and particularly bearing upon the Tablet of 
Barneses, is afforded by the inscription of Eilethyia, now publishing in an excellent memoir 
by M. de Roug^, in the line, 'Moreover,' says the officer, 'when his majesty attacked the 
Mena-en-shaa,' or Nomads, ' and when he stopped at Penti-han-nefer to cut up the Phut, 
and when he made a great rout of them, I led captives from thence two living men and 
one dead (hand). I was rewarded with gold for victory again ; I received the captives for 
slaves.' During the reign of Amenophis I., the successor of Amosis, the Louvre tablet 
informs that he had taken one prisoner in Kash or Ethiopia. At El Hegs, the functionary 
states, ' I was in the fleet of the king — the sun, disposer of existence (Amenophis I. ), jus- 
tified ; he anchored at Kush in order to enlarge the frontiers of Kami, he was smiting the 
Phut with his troops.' Mention is subsequently made of a victory, and the capture of 
prisoners. It is interesting to find here the same place, Penti-han-nefer, which occurs in 
a Ptolemaic inscription on the west wall of the prbnaos of the Temple of Philse, where Isis 
is represented as ' the mistress of Senem and the regent of Pent-han-nefer.' From this it 
is evident that these two places were close to each other, and that this locality was near 
the site more recently called Ailak or Philse. The speos of this monarch at Ibrim, the 
chapels at Tennu, or the Gebel Selseleh, show that the permanent occupation of Nubia at 
the age of the XVIIIth dynasty extended beyond Philse. Several small tesserse of this 
reign represent the monarch actually vanquishing the ^Ethiopians. 

" The immediate-successors of Amenophis occupied themselves with the conquest of .Ethi- 
opia. There is a statue of Thothmes I. in the island of Argo, and a tablet dated on the 
15 Tybi of his second year at Tombos. The old temple at Samneh was repaired and dedi- 
cated to Sesertesen III., supposed by some to be the Sesostris who is worshipped by Thoth- 

33 



258 NEGRO TYPES. 

mes III. as the god Tat-un, or ' Young Tat.' It is at the temple of Samneh that the first 
indication occurs of that line of princes who ruled over Ethiopia, by an officer who had 
served under Amosis and Thothmes I., in which last reign he had been appointed Prince 
of Ethiopia. The reign of Thothmes III. shows that Kush figured on the regular rent-roll 
of Egypt. The remains of the mutilated account of the fortieth regnal year of the king is 
mentioned as ' 240 ounces' or ' measures of cut precious stones and 100 ingots of gold.' 
Subsequently ' two canes' of some valuable kind of wood, and at least ' 300 ingots of gold,' 
are mentioned as coming from the same people. It appears from the tomb of Rech-sha-ra, 
who was usher of the Egyptian court at the time, and who had duly introduced the tribute- 
bearers, that the quota paid from this country was bags of gold and gems, monkeys, pan- 
ther-skins, logs of ebony, tusks of ivory, ostrich-eggs, ostrich-feathers, camelopards, dogs, 
oxen, slaves. The permanent occupation of the country is at the same time attested by 
the constructions which the monarch made, at Samneh, and the Wady Haifa. At Ibrim, 
Nehi, prince and governor of the South, a monarch, seal-bearer, and counsellor or eunuch, 
leads the usual tribute mentioned as ' of gold, ivory, and ebony' to the king. Set, or Ty- 
phon, called ^ Nub' or ^ Nub-Nub,' Nubia, instructs him in the art of drawing one of those 
long bows which these people, according to the legend, contemptuously presented to the 
envoys of Cambyses. The successor of this monarch seems to have held the same extended 
territory, since, in the fourth year of his reign, these limits are mentioned, and some blocks 
with the remains of a dedication to the local deities. One of the rock temples at Ibrim 
was excavated in the reign of Amenophis II. by the Prince Naser-set, who was ' monarch' 
(repa ha), 'chief counsellor' (sabu shaa), and 'governor of the lands of the south.' The 
wall-paintings represent the usual procession of tribute-bearers to the king, with gold, 
silver, and animals, some of whom, as the jackals, were enumerated. The same monarch 
continued the temple at Amada, and a colossal figure of him, dedicated to Chnumis and 
Athor, and sculptured in the form of Phtha or Vulcan, has been found at Begghe, and in 
the fourth year of his reign the limits of the empire are still placed as Mesopotamia on the 
north, and the Kalu or Gallaa on the south. 

" In the reign of his successor Thothmes IV. a servant of the king, apparently his chari- 
oteer, states he had attended the king from Naharaina on the north, to Kalu, or the Gallae, 
in the south. 

" The constructions of this monarch at Amada and at Samneh, show that tribute came 
at the same time from the chiefs of the Naharaina on the north, and also from jEthiopia. 
This is shown by the tombs of the military chiefs lying near the hill which is situate be- 
tween Medinat Haboo and the house of Jani, one of whom had exercised the office of royal 
scribe or secretary of state, from the reign of Thothmes III. to that of Amenophis III. 
The reign of his successor, the last mentioned monarch, is the most remarkable in the 
monumental history of Egypt for the Ethiopian conquests. The marriage scaraboei of the 
king place the limits of the empire as the Naharaina (Mesopotamia) on the north, and the 
Karu or Kalu (the Gall») on the south. Although these limits are found, yet it is evident 
from the number of prisoners recorded that the Egyptian rule was by no means a settled 
one. They are Kish, Pet or Phut, Pamaui, Patamakai Uaruki, Taru-at, Baru, . . . kaba, 
Aruka, Makaiusah, Matakarbu, Sahabu, Sahbaru, Ru-nemka, Abhetu, Turusu, Shaarushak, 
Akenes, Serunik Karuses, Shaui, Buka, Shau, Taru Taru, Turusu, Turubenka, Akenes, 
Ark, Ur, Mar. 

Amongst these names will be seen in the list of the Pedestal of Paris that of the Akaiat 
or Aka-ta, a name much resembling that of the Ath-agau, which is still preserved in the 
Agow or Agows, a tribe near the sources of the Blue Nile. Amenophis appears by no 
means to have neglected the conquests of his predecessors, and his advance to Soleb, in the 
province of El Sokhot, and Elmahas, proves that the influence of Egypt was still more 
extended than in the previous reigns. 

" In the reign of Amenophis, ^Ethiopia appears to have been governed by a viceroy, who 
was an Egyptian officer of state, generally a royal scribe or military chief, sent down for 



NEGRO TYPES. 



259 



the purpose of administering the country ; the one in this reign bore the name of Merimes, 
and appears to have ended his days at Thebes, as his sepulchre remains in the ■western 
hills. He was called the sa suten en Kush, or prince of Kush, which comprised the tract 
of country lying south of Elephantina. In all the Ethnic lists this Kash or Ethiopia is 
placed next to the head of the list, ' all lands of the south,' and its identity with the Bibli- 
cal Kush is uniyersally admitted. It is generally mentioned with the haughtiest contempt, 
as the Tile Kush [Kash kh'aas,) or Ethiopia, and the princes were of red or Egyptian 
blood. They dutifully rendered their proscynemata to the kings of Egypt." 326 

[Substantial reasons may be found in our Part 11. for questioning 
a somewhat unlimited extension of the Biblical KUSA, which certain 
opponents might draw from Mr. Birch's language. The hierogly- 
phical name for ISTegroes i^JSfahsu, ox Nahsi; and, on the other hand, 
the Egyptian (not the Hebrew) word KiSA, KeSA, KaSAI,^^'' was ap- 
plied to the ancient Bardhra of ISTubia, between the first and second 
cataracts, specifically ; and sometimes to all Nubian families, gene- 
rically. The vowels a, e, i, o, in antique Egyptian no less than in 
old Semitic writings, when not actually inserted, are entirely vague : 
nor is the hieroglyphical word ever spelt JcTJsh, like the Hebrew desig- 
nation " Cush;" which is maltranslated by "Ethiopia," because it de- 
notes Southern Arabia. — G. R. G.] 

The authors regret that their space compels them to abstain from 
reproducing the archaeological references with which Mr. Birch sup- 
ports his erudite conclusions. 

Ethnological science, then, possesses not only the authoritative tes- 
timonies of Lepsius and Birch, in proof of the existence of Negro 
races during the twenty-fourth century b. c. ; but, the same fact being 
conceded by all living Egyptologists, we may hence infer that these 
Nigritian types were contemporary with the earliest Egyptians. Such 
inductive view is much strengthened by a comparison of languages ; 
concerning the antiquity of which we shall speak in another chapter. 

To one living in, or conversant with, the Slave-States of jN^orth 
America, it need not be told, that the Negroes, in ten generations, 
have not made the slightest physical approach either towards our 
aboriginal population, or to any other race.y As a mnemonic, we 
here subjoin, sketched by a friend, the likenesses of two Negroes (Figs. 



Fig. 179. 



FiQ. 180. 





/ 



260 NEGRO TYPES. 

179, 180), who ply their avocations every day in the streets of Mobile ; 
where anybody could in a single morning collect a hundred others 
quite as strongly marked. Fig. 179 (whose portrait was caught when, 
chuckling with delight, he was "shelling out corn" to a favorite hog) 
may be considered caricatured, although one need not travel far to 
procure, in daguerreotype, features fully as animal ; but Fig. 180 is a 
fair average sample of ordinary field-lTegroes in the United States. 
( Mr. Lyell, in common with tourists less eminent, but in this ques- 
tion not less misinformed, has somewhere stated, that the Negroes in 
■America are undergoing a manifest improvement in their physical 
type. He has no doubt that they will, in time, show a development 
in skull and intellect quite equal to the whites. This unscientific 
assertion is disproved by the cranial measurements of Dr. Mortoh. 

That ^N'egroes imported into, or born in, the United States become 
more intelligent and better developed in \hQ\v physique generally than 
their native compatriots of Africa, every one will admit ; but such intel- 
ligence is easily explained by their ceaseless contact with the whites, 
from whom they derive much instruction ; and such physical improve- 
ment may also be readily accounted for by the increased comforts 
with which they are supplied. ^ In Africa, owing to their natural im- 
providence, the N'egroes are, more frequently than not, a half-starved, 
and therefore half-developed race ; but when they are regularly and 
adequately fed, they become healthier, better developed, and more 
humanized. Wild horses, cattle, asses, and other brutes, are greatly 
improved in like manner by domestication : but neither climate nor 
food can transmute an ass into a horse, or a bufialo into an ox. 

One or two generations of domestic culture efiect all the improve- 
ment of which ]S"egro-organism is susceptible. "We possess thousands 
of the second, and many more of l!^egro families of the eighth or tenth 
generation, in the United States ; and (where unadulterated by white 
blood) they are identical in physical and in intellectual characters. 
'So one in this country pretends to distinguish the native son of a 
l^egro from his great-grandchild (except through occasional and ever- 
apparent admixture of white or Indian blood) ; while it requires the 
keen and experienced eye of such a comparative anatomist as Agassiz 
to detect structural peculiarities in our few African-born slaves. 
l^The "improvements" among Americanized N'egroes noticed by Mr. 
Lyell, in his progress from South to ITorth, are solely due to those 
ultra-ecclesiastical amalgamations which, in their illegitimate conse- 
quences, have deteriorated the white element in direct proportion that 
they are said to have improved the black. / 

But, leaving aside modern quibbles upon simple facts in nature, (so 
often distorted through philanthropical panderings to political ambi- 



NEGRO TYPES. 



261 



Fio. 181. 




Fig. 182. 



tion), we select, from Abrahamlc antiquity, two other heads (Figs. 
181, 182) which, although not ISTegroes, constitute an interesting link 
in the gradation of races ; being placed, geographically and physically, 
between the two extremes. 

This specimen (Fig. 181) is from 
the " Grand Procession " of Thot- 
mes in. — XVnth dynasty, about 
the sixteenth century b. c. The 
original leads a leopard and car- 
ries ebony-wood : and his skin is 
ash-colored in Rosellini.^^ The 
same scene is given in Hoskins's 
Ethiopia, where this man's person 
is improperly painted red.^^ He is 
again figured without colors by 
"Willdnson,^^" no less than by Champollion-Figeac.^^^ He is another 
sample of those '■'■gentes subfusei eoloris " — abounding around Ethiopia, 
above Egj^pt — neither ISTegro, Berberri, nor Abyssinian; but of a 
race affihated probably to the latter ; judging, that is, by characteristics 
alone, in the absence of hieroglyphical explanations now effaced by time. 

Here we behold (Fig. 182), un- 
doubtedly, a true Abyssinian, who 
should be represented, as he is at 
Thebes, orange-color?^''' We have 
the valid authority of Pickering'^ 
on this point ; who concludes his 
chapter on Abyssinians as fol- 
lows : — 

" It seems, however, that the true Abys- 
sinian (as first pointed out to me by Mr. 
Gliddon) has been separately and distinctly 
figured on the Egyptian monuments : in the 
two men leading the camelopard in the tri- 
bute procession of Thoutmosis III.; and this 
opinion was confirmed by an examination of the original painting at Thebes." 

Pickering's Races of Men contains a beautiful cinnamon-coXovQdi 
poi'trait of an Abyssinian warrior, taken by Prisse ; and, as before 
remarked, offers to the reader a good idea of the living type of this 
people. 

It is worthy, too, of special note, that the above Fig. 182 is repre- 
sented, in the Theban procession, leading a giraffe ; which animal is 
not met with nearer to Egypt than Dongola ; a fact that fixes his 
parallel of latitude along the Abyssinian regions of the Mle. Such 
heads seem to confirm the fidelity of Egyptian draughtsmen, together 
with the correctness of their ethnographical conceptions and varied 




262 



NEGRO TYPES. 



materials. Our Abyssinian head exMbits the same form and color 
as the present race of that country, even after the lapse of 3300 years ; 
and it stands as another proof of the permanence of human types. 

Conceding the extreme probability of Birch's conjecture, that the 
Negro captives discovered by Mr. Harris belong to the Xlth dynasty, 
(which thus would place the earliest known effigies of JSTegroes in the 
twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth century B. c.,) we cannot lay hold of the 
indication as a stand-point ; because the sculpture may (through cir- 
cumstances of recent masonry) be assigned to a later age. But, of 
one fact we are made certain by Birch's former studies :^^ viz., that 
the officers or superintendents appointed by the Pharaohs to regulate 
their ITubian provinces, were invariably Egyptians, painted red, and 
never Mgritians of any race whatever. The title "Prince of KeSA" 
was that of Egyptian viceroys, or lord-lieutenants, nominated by the 
Diospolitan government to rule over distant teiTitories occupied by 
Nubians and Negroes of the austral Nile. 

In the Theban tomb, opened previously to 1830 by Mr. Wilkinson, 
(about the epoch of which the theory of an Argive, "Danaus,"^^^ led 
him into some odd hallucinations), and critically examined in 1839- 
'40 by Harris and Gliddon, there was an amazing collection of Negro 
scenes. A Negress, apparently a princess, arrives at Thebes, drawn 
in a plaustrum by a pair of humped oxen — the driver and groom 
being red-colored Egyptians, and, one might almost infer, eunuchs.^" 
Following her, are multitudes of Negroes and Nubians, bringing 
tribute from the Upper country, as well as black slaves of both sexes 
and all ages, among which are some red children, whose /aiAers were 
Egyptians. The cause of her advent seems to have been to make 
offerings in this tomb of a "royal son of KeSA — Amunoph," who 
may have been her husband. The Pharaoh whose prenomen stands 
recorded in this sepulchral habitation is an Amenophis ; ^ but, beyond 
the fact that his reign must fall towards the close of the XVHIth 



Fig. 183. 



Fig. 184.338 





NEGRO TYPES, 



263 



dynasty, and about the times of the " disk-heresy," we were not aware 
that his place could be determined, until we opened the Denhndler; 
where the major portion of these varied African subjects, unique for 
their singularity and preservation, are reproduced in brilliant colors. 
"We have already chosen a Semitic head, deemed by us to present 
Phoenician affinities {supra, p. 164, Fig. 90), from sculptures of the 
same times. We here repeat it (Fig. 183), for the sake of contrasting 
its type with a K'egro, and a N'ubian 
apparently (Fig. 184), taken from the 
menagerie of African curiosities above 
mentioned. We say apparently, be- 
cause the slighter shade, given by 
Egyptian artists to figures grouped 
closely together, sometimes arises 
from the necessity of distinguishing 
the interlocked limbs, &c., of men of 
the same color. Instances may be 
found, of this attempt at perspective, 
in various colored scenes indicated in 
the notes,™ so that the unblackened 
face in our Fig. 184 may be that of 
a ITegro also. 

. For the sake of illustrating that, 
even in Ancient Egypt, African sla- 
very was not altogether unmitigated 
by moments of congenial enjoyment ; 
not always inseparable from the lash. 
and the hand-cuff; we submit a copy 
of some N^egroes " dancing in the 
streets of Thebes " (Fig, 185), by way 
of arch£eological evidence that, 3400 
years ago, (or before the Exodus of 
Israel, b. c, 1322), " de same ole W\g- 
ger" of our Southern plantations 
could spend his Nilotic sabbaths in 
saltatory recreations, and 

"Turn about, and wheel about, &nijump 
Jim Crow .'" 

Before closing our comments upon 
"Ethiopians," it is due to the me- 
mory of the author of Crania ^^gyp- 
tiaca not to omit some notice of two 




264 



NEGRO TYPES. 



problems that attracted his penetrating researches. The first con- 
cerns the ancient Meroites ; the second, that mixed family in which, 
under the name of "Austral-Egyptians," Morton perceived some 
■possiloly-ITindoo affinities. Commencing with the former question, 
we recall to mind how the discoveries of the Prussian Scientific Mis- 
sion (supra, p. 204), in and around the far-famed Isle of Meroe, have 
relieved archaeologists from farther discussions as to the illusory anti- 
quity of a realm that, previously to the eighth century b. c, was merely 
a Pharaonic province and an Egyptian colony ; and which, moreover, 
did not become important, as an independent kingdom, until Ptole- 
maic times. It was not, however, until after the publication of his 
j^gyptiaca (of which Chevalier Lepsius received a first copy, together 
with Gliddon's Chapters, under the pyramid of Gebel Birkel, in Ethi- 
opia itself^"), that Dr. Morton was informed, by the Chevalier directly, 
of results so demolishing to the learned theories of Heeren, Prichard, 
and other scholars. Unhappily for science, death arrested the hand 
of our illustrious friend before it could register the emendations con- 
sequent upon such immense changes in former historical opinions. 
Although one of the authors (Gr. P. G.) has, in the interim, enjoyed 
the advantage of beholding, at Berlin, the sculptures brought from 
Ethiopia, and of hearing Chevalier Lepsius's criticisms, viva voce, upon 
Meroite subjects, we deem ourselves peculiarly unfortunate that the 
Denhmdler, so far as its Uvratsons have reached us, has not yet com- 
prised copies of these newly-discovered bas-reliefs. We are unable, 
at present, therefore, to demonstrate to the reader, by the reproduction 
of portraits of Queen Candace and her mulatto court, the true causes 
why the civilization of Meroe declined, and finally became extin- 
guished : viz., owing to Negro amalgamations, during the first centu- 
ries of our era. This fact may serve as a topic for some future 
Appendix to our volume. 

To obviate, however, any argu- 
ment respecting Meroite affinities 
with regard to ITegro races in ante- 
rior times, we reproduce the portrait 
ofManetho's "Ethiopian" sovereign, 
Tirhaka [supra, p. 151, Eig. 71) ; the 
"Melek-KUSA, or Cushite king (2 
Kings, xix. 9) ; contemporary with the 
Assyrian Sennacherib, whose like- 
ness has also been submitted under 
our Fig. 27 (supra, p. 130.) 

Kor did the high-caste lineaments 
of these "Ethiopian" princes, and 



Fig. 186, 




NEGRO TYPES. 



265 



the total absence of N'igritian elements in the physiognomies of all 
Meroites, as known in 1844, escape Morton's attention.^*^ His com- 
ments on the accompanying effigies from Meroe suffice. 



Fio. 187.3« 



Fia 188.«* 






"The one on the left hand [Fig 87] (that of an Fio. 189.315 

unknown king), has mixed lineaments, neither 
strictly Pelasgic nor Egyptian; while the right- 
hand personage [Fig. 188], who appears to be a 
priest doing homage, presents a countenance which 
corresponds, in essentials, to the Egyptian type, 
although the profile approaches closely to the Gre- 
cian. The annexed head [Fig. 189 — is] also a king, 
bearing some resemblance to the one above figured." 

With regard to the "Hindoo" re- 
semblances perceived by Morton in cer- 
tain Egyptian crania of his vast collection, vphile we will neither 
affirm nor deny them, the authors cannot but think that their lamented 
colleague was herein biassed, rather by traditionary data (even yet 
supposed to be historical), than by anatomical evidences which, at 
any rate, do not strike our eyes as salient. Indeed, we know per- 
sonally that, had Morton lived, Prichard's scholastic learning, but 
pertinacious ignorance of hieroglyphical Egypt, would have been dealt 
with as by ourselves, under full recognition of the one, and through 
respectful exposure of the other. Part IH. of our volume renders it 
unnecessary to dwell, in this place, upon Sir "W. Jones's Oriental eru- 
dition, or upon CoLWilford's self-delusions, in respect to now-exploded 
connections between ancient India and primordial Egypt. 

The Greek tradition (Latinice) runs as follows : '■'^thiopes, ab Indo 
fluvio profecti, supra -^gyptum sedem sibi eligerunt."^*^ But, who 
are these Ethiopians ? At most, Asiatic " ?,^xrL-hurned faces " — some 
34 



266 



NEGKO TYPES. 



people, darker in hue than Greeks, who emigrated from the Indus. 
The era, assigned for their migration to countries south of Egypt, is 
attributed to that of one among many Pharaohs, called by Grecian 
narrators " Amenophis; " and the legend reaches us through a Byzan- 
tine monk, the Syncellus (writing 3000 years after the events), at once 
the most diligent, and the least critical, compiler the seventh century 
of our era produced. To say the least, the historical surface we tread 
on trembles, as though it floated over a quagmire. These doubts 
suggested, we submit extracts from the Crania j^gyptiaca : — 

" I observe, among the Egyptian crania, some which differ in nothing from the Hindoo 
type, either in respect to size or configuration. I have already, in my remarks upon the 
ear, mentioned a downward elongation of the upper jaw, which I have more frequently 
met with in Egyptian and Hindoo heads than in any other, although I have seen it occa- 
sionally in all the races. This feature is remarkable in two of the following five crania 
(A, B), and may be compared with a similar form from Abydos."3*7 

Fig. 190. 




Fig. 191. 




Fig. 192. 




"It is in that mixed family of nations which I 
have called Austral-Egyptian that we should expect 
to meet with the strongest evidence of Hindoo lineage ; 
and here, again, we can only institute adequate com- 
parisons by reference to the works of ChampoUion and 
Kosellini. I observe the Hindoo style of features in 
several of the royal efBgies ; and in none more deci- 
dedly than in the head of Asharramon (Fig. 191), as 
sculptured in the temple of Debod, in Nubia. The 
date of this king has not yet been ascertained ; but, 
as he ruled over Meroe, and not in Egypt, (probably 
in Ptolemaic times [b. c. 200-300],) he may be re- 
garded as an illustration of at least one modification 
of the Austral-Egyptian type. 

"Another set of features, but little different, how- 
ever, from the preceding, is seen among the middling 
class of Egyptians as pictured on the monuments, 
and these I also refer to the Hindoo type. Take, 
for example, the four annexed outlines (Fig. 192), 
copied from a sculptured fragment preserved in the 
museum of Turin. These effigies may be said to be 
essentially Egyptian ; but do they not forcibly remind 
us of the Hindoo 1" 




NEGRO TYPES. 267 

So great is our respect for Morton's judgment ; such manifold ex- 
periences have we acquired of his perceptive acuteness in craniological 
anatomy, that we should prefer the affirmatory decisions of others 
relative to this Hindoo-Meroite problem, to any negation on our own 
parts. 

The preceding brief digressions enable us to leave Meroe, and re- 
sume Avith a more positive, because osteological, proof of the perdu- 
rable continuance of the Negro type. 

This semi-embalmed cranium of a 
Negress (Fig. 193), from Morton's Fia. 193.348 

cabinet, is preserved at the Acade- 
my of ITatural Sciences in Phila- 
delphia. Beyond the fact that mum- 
mification ceased towards the fifth 
century of our era ; and that, being 
from an ancient tumulus at the sa- 
cred Isle of Beghe, the female 
owner of the annexed skull may 
have been a domestic slave of some 
"Ethiopian" worshipper at the 

shrine of Osiris, on the adjacent Isle of Philte ; all that can be said 
as to the antiquity of our specimen confines it to a period between 
the fourth century b. c. (when Pharaoh N"egtanebo founded the temple 
of Philas), and the extinction of embalming, coupled with the substi- 
tution of Christianity (as understood by "Ethiopians,") for the reli- 
gion of Osiris, about the fifth centur}^ after c.^^ Fifteen hundred 
years may, therefore, be assumed as the reasonable lapse of time since 
this aged IsTegress was consigned to the mound where hundreds of 
other Osirian pilgrims lie, coarsely swathed in bitumenized wrappers. 
The specimen is unique in the annals of Egyptian embalmment ; inas- 
much as no other purely-Negro vestiges have as yet turned up in 
tumuli or catacombs. 

Trivial to many as the incident may seem. Science, nevertheless, 
can make "these dry bones speak" to the following points. First, 
they establish Nigritian indehbility of type, even to the woolly hair ; 
because, our American cemeteries could yield up thousands of heads 
identical with this woman's. Secondly, they attest the comparative 
paucity of Negro individuals in Egypt during all ancient times ; be- 
cause, although the priests embalmed every native pauper, such M- 
gritian mummies have never, that we can learn, been discovered by 
ransackers of that country's sepulchres. And, thirdly, as this skull 
is a solitary exception, among millions of mummies disinterred, it 
demonstrates that the Egyptians possessed no craniological proximity 



268 



NEGRO TYPES. 



Iia. 194, 



to those E'egro tj^pes with whom their existence was ever coeval. 

Indeed, this head was not found in Egypt proper, but immediately 

above the first cataract in Lower !N"ubia. 

As Mr. Birch has mentioned, 
in the extract previously given, 
history reposes upon the Tablet 
of Wadee Haifa for the conquest 
of Tipper ]S"ubia ; and also for 
the earliest monumental ren- 
contre with Negroes, by Se- 
SOURTESEN L, sccond king of the 
XTTth dynasty, near about 2348 
years b. c. ; which is the autho- 
rized date of the Deluge in 
King James's version. The 
tablet is small, and very much 
abraded; but, Morton having 
enlarged the royal portrait,^^ 
we repeat it here, for what it 
may be worth ethnologically. 
It proves, at least, that Sesour- 
tesen's lineaments were any- 
thing but African. 

The heads of austral captives, 
surmounting shields in which 

their national names are written, exist in this tablet, too mutilated 

for us to distinguish anything beyond the African contour of their 

features. 




Birch ^^' reads their cognomina — 



' 1. Kas, or Gas. 

2. Shemki, or Temhi. 

3. Chasaa. 



4, Shaat. 

5. Khilukai; or, perhaps the Shilougis, who 

now are called ' Shillouks ' ? " 



It therefore becomes settled by the hieroglyphics, that the Egyptians 
had ascended the Mle, and had encountered Negro-xSkC&B, at least as 
far back as the twenty-fourth century b, c. 

"We can now add a most extraordinary fact, since discovered by 
Viscount De Rouge, to the extracts we have culled from Birch's 
memoir. An inscription on the rocks near Samneh, in N"ubia,^^^ cut 
by Sesourtesen lU. (of the same Xllth dynasty — about 2200 B. c), 
in the " Vlllth year" of his reign, establishes that he had then ex- 
tended the southern frontier of Egypt to that point, viz,, the third 
cataract ; whereas his predecessor, Sesourtesen I,, had only guarded 
the passes at W^dee Haifa, the second cataract, some 180 miles 
below. M. De Rouge,^^^ with that felicitous acumen for which he is 
renowned, reads a passage in this inscription as follows : — 



NEGRO TYPES. 269 

"Frontier of the South. Done in the year VIII., under King Sesourtesen [HI.], ever 
living; in order that it may not be permitted to any Negro to pass by it in navigating" 
[down the river]. 

The repugnance of the Egyptians towards Nigritian races, exhibited 
in their epithet of "KallSI — barbarian country, perverse race," be- 
comes now a soUd fact in primeval history ; at the same time that 
the above inscription proves conclusively how, just about 4000 years 
ago, the geographical habitat of Negroes commenced exactly where 
it does at this day : viz., above the third cataract of the Nile. 

"We have shown, by their portraits, that the three "Ethiopian" 
kings (Sabaco, Sevechus, and Tarhaka) of the XXVth dynasty, b. c. 
719-695), possess nothing Negroid in their visages. Meroe, as Lep- 
sius has determined irrevocably, became an independent principality 
at a far later day ; and, so soon as she was cut off from Egyptian 
blood and civilization, the influx of Negro concubines deteriorated 
her people, until, by the fifth century after Christ, she sank amid the 
billows of surrounding African barbarism, mentally and physically 
obliterated for ever. 

To our lamented countryman, Morton, belongs the honor of first 
rendering these data true as axioms in the science of anthropology. 
Our part has been to demonstrate that the principles of his method 
were correct, as well as to support them with fresher evidences than 
he was spared to investigate. At the time of the publication of the 
Crania JEgyptiaca, the " Gallery of Antiquities in the British Mu- 
seum"^** had not reached him; consequently he was not then 
aware that the vast tableau from Beyt-el-AValee, out of which he 
had selected the following heads (Eig. 151) stands, moulded in fac- 
simile and beautifully colored, on the walls of an Egyptian hall in 
that great Institution. The copy lies before us, elucidated by Mr. 
Birch's critical description. Here Negroes and Nubians are painted 
in all shades — blacks and browns ; while the red (or color of honor) 
is given to the Egyptians alone. 

"With these emendations, which unfortunately the nature of our 
work does not permit us to portray in colors, Morton's own words 
and wood -cuts may appropriately close this chapter on the Negro 
Type : — 

" For the purpose of illustration, we select a single picture from the temple (hemispeos) 
of Beyt-el-Walee, in Nubja, in which Rameses II. is represented in the act of making war 
upon the Negroes — who, overcome with defeat, are flying in consternation before him. 
From the multitude of fugitives in this scene (which has been vividly copied by Champol- 
lion^M and Rosellini, and which I have compared in both), I annex a fac-simile group of 
nine heads, which, while they preserve the national features in a remarkable degree, pre- 
sent also considerable diversity of expression. 

" The hair on some other figures of this group is dressed in short and separate tufts, or 



270 



NEGRO TYPES. 
Fig. 195. 




inverted cones, precisely like those now worn by the Negroes of Madagascar, as figured in 
Botteller's Voyage. 

" In the midst of the vanquished Africans, standing in his car and urging on the conflict, 
is Rameses himself; whose manly and beautiful countenance will not suffer by comparison 
with the finest Caucasian models. The annexed outline (for all the figures are represented 
in outline only), will enable the reader to form his own conclusions respecting this extra- 
ordinary group," which dates in the fourteenth century before the Christian era.^ss 

Fig. 196. 




ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 271 

The authors confidently trust, that the antiquity of ITegro races, 
no less than the permanence of Negro types, during the (1853 + 2348) 
4201 years that have just elapsed since Usher's Flood, are questions 
now satisfactorily set at rest in the minds of lettered and scientific 
readers. A parable, thrown back among our notes,^^'' suffices to illus- 
trate popular impressions in regard to the cuticular and osteological 
changes produced by climate, and in respect to the philological meta- 
morphoses caused by transplantation, upon human races aboriginally 
distinct. It is not incumbent upon us to inquire, whether the delu- 
sions, generally current upon such very simple matters of fact, are 
to be ascribed to intellectual apathy among the taught, or to ignorance 
and mystifications among their teachers. 

At the close of Chapter VI. {supra, p. 210), in reference to the per- 
manency of Asiatic and African types in their respective geographical 
gradations, we asked, " Within human record, has it not always been 
thus?" Every national tradition, all primitive monuments, and the 
whole context of ancient and modern history, answer affirmatively 
for each of those parts of the' Old continents hitherto examined. 
Deviations from the historical point of view requiring no notice, at 
the present day, by any man of science, it would be sheer waste of 
time to discuss them. We lose none, therefore, in passing over at 
once to that continent which no students of K'atural History now 
miscall "the New." 



CHAPTER IX. 

AMERICAN AND OTHER TYPES. — ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

The Continent of America is often designated by the appellation 
of the New World; but the researches of modern geologists and 
archaeologists have shown that the evidences in favour of a high anti- 
quity, during our geological epoch, as well as for our Fauna and Flora, 
are, to say the least, quite as great on this as on the eastern hemi- 
sphere. Prof. Agassiz, whose authority will hardly be questioned in 
matters of this kind, tells us that geology finds the oldest landmarks 
here ; and Sir Charles Lyell, from a mass of well-digested facts, and 
from the corroborating testimony of other good authorities, concludes 
that the Mississippi river has been running in its present bed for more 
than one hundred thousand years.^^ The channel cut by the N'iagara 
river, below the Falls, for twelve miles through solid rock, in the 



272 ABORIGINAL EACES OF AMERICA. 

estimation of the same distinguished author, as well as of others, gives 
no less satisfactory proof of the antiquity of the present relative 
position of continents and oceans. 

Dr. Bennet Dowler, of New Orleans, in an interesting essay,^^* 
recently published, supplies some extraordinary facts in confirmation 
of the great age of the delta of the Mississippi, assumed by Lyell, 
Eiddell, Carpenter, Forshey, and others. From an investigation of 
the successive growths of cypress forests around that city, the stumps 
of which are still found at different depths, directly overlying each other ; 
from the great size and age of these trees, and from the remains of 
Indian bones and pottery found below the roots of some of these 
stumps, he arrives at the following conclusion : — 

" From these data it appears that the human race existed in the delta more than 57,000 
years ago ; and that ten subterranean forests, and the one now growing, wUl show that an 
exuberant flora existed in Louisiana more than 100,000 years anterior to these evidences 
of man's existence." 

The delta of the Alabama river bears ample testimony to the same 
efiect. Along the Mobile river and bay we find certain shell-fish, 
whose relative positions are determined at present, as they always 
have been, by certain physical conditions, viz. : the unio and paludina, 
the gnathodon, and the oyster. The first are always found above 
tide-water, where the water is perfectly fresh ; the second flourishes in 
brackish water alone; and the oyster never but in water that is 
almost salt. As the delta of the river has extended, they have each 
greatly changed their habitats. The most northern habitat, at the pre- 
sent day, for example, of the gnathodon, stands about Choctaw Point, 
one mile below Mobile ; whereas we have abundant evidence that it 
formerly existed fifty miles above. The unio, paludina, and oyster 
have changed positions in like manner. 

Immense beds of gnathodon shells are found, and in the greatest 
profusion, all along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, where they 
have doubtless been deposited by Indians in former times. Great 
numbers of these beds exist on the Mobile bay, and along the river, 
for fifty miles above the city, where only a scattering remnant of the 
living species is still found. The Indians had no means for, and no 
object in, transporting such an immense number fifty miles up the 
river ; and we miTst, therefore, conclude that the Mobile bay once ex- 
tended to the locality of these upper " shell banks ;" and that the 
Indians had collected them for food, near where these banks are now 
beheld. One strong evidence of this conclusion is gathered from the 
fact, that the difierent artificial beds of the unio, the gnathodon, and 
the oyster, are never here formed of a mixture of two or more shells ; 
which would be the case if their locations had been near each other. 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 273 

That these beds are of Indian origin is clear, from the fact that the 
shells have all been opened, and that we find in them the marks of 
fire, extending over considerable spaces — the shells converted into 
quick-lime, and mingled with charcoal, so that the successive accu- 
mulations of shells may be plainly traced.^^ Fish-bones and other 
remains of Indian feasts are common : i. e. fragments of Indian pot- 
tery ; and of human bones, which can be identified by their crania. 

Some of these beds are covered over by vegetable mould, from one 
to two feet thick, which must have been a very long time forming ; 
and upon this are growing the largest forest trees, beneath whose 
roots these Indian remains are often discovered. It is more than 
probable, too, that these huge trees are the successors of former 
growths quite as large. 

We cannot, by any conjecture, approximate, within many centu- 
ries, perhaps thousands of years, the time consumed in thus extending 
the delta of the Alabama river, and in producing the changes we 
have hinted at ; nor dare we attempt to fijc the time at which the Red 
men fed upon the gnathodons that compose the first beds to which we 
have alluded. 

It is worthy also of special remark that the gnathodon, of which 
a few surviving specimens still endure along the Gulf coast of Florida, 
Alabama, and Mississippi, was once a living species in the" Chesapeake 
ba}'-; but has been so long extinct that it now exists there only in a 
fossil state. This would extend the living fauna very much farther 
back than the Chesapeake deposits : all our recent shells, or nearly 
all, being found in the pliocene, and many shells in still earlier forma- 
tions. Such facts, with many others of similar import, which might 
be adduced, point to a chronology very far beyond any heretofore 
received : and who will doubt that, when the Mississippi, Alabama, 
and Niagara rivers first poured their waters into the ocean, a fauna 
and a flora already existed? and, if so, why did not man exist? 
They all belong to one geological period, and to one creation. 

These authorities, in support of the extreme age of the geological 
era to which man belongs, though startling to the unscientific, are 
not simply the opinions of a few ; but such conclusions are substan- 
tially adopted by the leading geologists everywhere. And, although 
antiquity so extreme for man's existence on earth may shock some 
preconceived opinions, it is none the less certain that the rapid accu- 
mulation of new facts is fast familiarizing the minds of the scientific 
world to this conviction. The monuments of Egypt have already 
carried us far beyond all chronologies hei'etofore adopted ; and when 
these barriers are once overleaped, it is in vain for us to attempt to 
approximate, even, the epoch of man's creation. This conclusion is 
35 



274 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

not based merely on the researches of such archseologists as Lepsius, 
Bimsen, Birch, De Longperier, Humboldt, &c., but on those, also, of 
strictly-orthodox writers, Kenrick, Hincks, Osburn ; and, we may add, 
of all theologians who have really mastered the monuments of 
Egypt. JSTor do these monuments reveal to us only a single race, at 
this early epoch in full tide of civilization, but they exhibit faithful 
portraits of the same African and Asiatic races, in all their diversity, 
which hold intercourse with Egypt at the present day. 

Now, the question naturally springs up, whether the aborigines of 
America were not contemporary with the earliest races, known to us, 
of the eastern continent? If, as is conceded, "Caucasian," Negro, 
Mongol, and other races, existed in the Old World, already distinct, 
what reason can be assigned to show that the aborigines of America 
did not also exist, with their present types, 5000 years ago ? The 
naturalist must infer that the fauna and flora of the two continents 
were contemporary. All facts, and all analogy, war against the sup- 
position that America should have been left by the Creator a dreary 
waste for thousands of years, while the other half of the world was 
teeming with organized beings. This view is also greatly strength- 
ened by the acknowledged fact, that not a single animal, bird, rep- 
tile, fish, or plant, was common to the Old and New "Worlds. No 
naturalist of our day doubts that the animal and vegetable kingdoms 
of America were created where they are found, and not in Asia. 

The races of men alone, of America, have been made an exception 
to this general law ; but this exception cannot be maintained by any 
course of scientific reasoning. America, it will be remembered, was 
not only unknown to the early Romans and Greeks, but to the Egyp- 
tians ; and when discovered, less than four centuries ago, it was found 
to be inhabited, from the Arctic to Cape Horn, and from ocean to 
ocean, by a population displaying peculiar physical traits, unlike any 
races in the Old World ; speaking languages bearing no resemblance 
in structure to other languages ; and living, everywhere, among 
animals and plants specifically distinct from those of Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and Oceanica. 

But, natural as this reasoning is, in favor of American origin for our 
Indians, we shall not leave the question on such debatable ground. 
There is abundant positive evidence of high antiquity for this popu- 
lation, which we proceed to develop. 

In reflecting on the aboriginal races of America, we are at once 
met by the striking fact, that their physical characters are wholly in- 
dependent of all climatic or known physical influences. Notwith- 
standing their immense geographical distribution^ embracing every 
variety of climate, it is acknowledged by all travellers, that there is 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 275 

among this people a pervading type, around which all the tribes (north, 
south, east, and west) cluster, though var^'ing within prescribed limits. 
"With trifling exceptions, all our American Indians bear to each other 
some degree of family resemblance, quite as strong, for example, as 
that seen at the present day among full-blooded Jews ; and yet they 
are distinct from every race of the Old World, in features, languages, 
customs, arts, religions, and propensities. In the language of Morton, 
who studied this people more thoroughly than any other writer : — 
"All possess, though in various degrees, the long, lank, black hair; 
the heaA'y brow ; the dull, sleepy eye ; the full, compressed lips ; and 
the salient, but dilated nose." These characters, too, are beheld in the 
civilized and the most savage tribes, along the rivers and sea-coasts, in 
the valleys and on the mountains ; in the prairies and in the forests ; 
in the torrid and in the ice-bound regions ; amongst those that live 
on fish, on flesh, or on vegetables. 

The only race of the Old World vnih. which any connection has 
been reasonably conjectured, is the Mongol ; but, to say nothing of 
the marked difference in physical characters, their languages alone 
should decide against any such alliance. 

" The American race differs essentially from all others, not excepting the Mongolian; 
nor do the feeble analogies of language, and the more obvious ones of civil and religious 
institutions and arts, denote anything beyond casual or colonial communication with the 
Asiatic nations; and even these analogies may, perhaps, be accounted for, as Humboldt 
has suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from similar wants and impulses in nations 
inhabiting similar latitudes." 36i 

Ko philologist can be found to deny the fact that the Chinese are 
now speaking and writing a language substantially the same as the 
one they used 5000 years ago ; and that, too, a language distinct from 
every tongue spoken by the Caucasian races. On the other hand, 
we have the American races, all speaking dialects indisputably 
peculiar to this continent, and possessing no mai^ked affinity with any 
other. I^ow, if the Mongols have preserved a language entire, in 
Asia, for 5000 years, they should have likewise preserved it here, or 
to say the least, some trace of it. But, not only are the two linguistic 
groups radically distinct, but no trace of a Mongol tongue, dubious 
words excepted, can be found in the American idioms. If such imagi- 
nary Mo^igolians ever brought their Asiatic speech into this country, 
it is clear that their fictitious descendants, the Indians, have lost it ; 
and the latter must have acquired, instead, that of some extinct race 
which preceded' a Mongol colonization. It will be conceded that a 
■colony, or a nation, could never lose its vocabulary so completel}', 
unless through conquest and amalgamation ; in which case they would 
adopt anotlier language. But, even when a tongue ceases to be 



276 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

spoken, some trace of it will continue to survive in the names of 
individuals, of rivers, places, coimtries, &c. The names of Moses, 
Solomon, David, Lazarus, Isaac and Jacob, are still found among the 
Jews everywhere, although the Hehrew language has ceased to be 
spoken for more than 2000 years. And the appellatives Mississippi, 
Missouri, Orinoko, Ontario, Oneida, Alabama, and a thousand other 
Indian names, will live for ages after the last Red man is mingled 
with the dust. They have no likeness to any nomenclature in the 
. Old "World. 

In treating of American races, our prescribed limits do not permit 
us to go into details respecting the infinitude of types which compose 
them. Our purpose at present is simply to bring forward such facts 
as may be sufiicient to establish their origin and antiquity. The 
broad division of Dr. Morton, into two great families, which contrast 
in many points strongly Avith each other, is sufficiently minute, viz. : 
"The Toltecan nations and the Barbarous tribes." This classification 
is somewhat arbitrary ; but it is impossible, in our day, to establish 
any but very wide boundary-lines. Here, as in the Old World, wars, 
migrations, amalgamations, and endless causes, have, during several 
thousand years, disturbed and confused Nature's original work ; and 
we must now deal with masses as we find them. In fact, our main 
object in alluding at all to the diversity of types among the aborigines 
of America, is to give another illustration of a position advanced else- 
where in this volume. We have shown that the major divisions of 
the earth, or its dift'erent zoological provinces, were populated by 
groups of races, bearing to each other certain family resemblances ; 
notwithstanding that, in reality, these races originated in nations, and 
not in a single pair ; thus forming proximate, but not identical spe- 
cies. The Mongols, the Caucasians, the ^N'egroes, the Americans, 
each constitute a group of this kind. In our chapters on the Cauca- 
sian races, for example, we have shown how the Jews, Egyptians, 
Hindoos, Pelasgians, Romans, Teutons, Celts, Iberians, &c., which 
had all been classed under this common head, can be traced, as dis- 
tinct forms, beyond all human chronology. The same law applies to 
the American races. Although every tribe has some characters that 
mark it as American, yet there are certain sharply- drawn distinctions, 
among some of these races, which cannot be explained by climatic 
infiuences. The Toltecan, and Barbarous tribes, taken separately, en 
masse, afford a good illustration, for they differ essentially in their 
moral and physical characteristics. The most prominent distinction 
between these two families results from comparison of their cranio- 
logical developments. Dr. Morton, whose collection of human crania 
is the most complete in the world, bestowed unrivalled attention on 



ABORIGINAL EACES OF AMERICA. 277 

American races, and has given actnal measurements of 338 Indian 
skulls, in which the two great divisions are almost equally represented. 
1st. The Toltecan Family — comprising all the semi-civilized nations 
of Mexico, Peru, and Bogota, who, there is eveiy reason to believe, 
were the builders of the great system of mounds found throughout 
N"orth America. Of 213 skulls, Mexican and Peruvian, 201 belong 
to the latter — each having been obtained from the oldest burial- 
grounds and through the most reliable sources. On these heads, 
Morton makes the following striking comment : — 

" When we consider the institutions of the old Peruvians, their comparatively advanced 
civilization, their tombs and temples, mountain-roads and monolithic gateways, together 
with their knowledge of certain ornamental arts, it is surprising to find that they possessed 
a brain no larger than the Hottentot or New Hollander, and far below the barbarous hordes 
of their own race." [We have shown, in our remarks on anatomical characters of races, 
that the Hottentot has a brain on the average 17 cubic inches less than the Teutonic race 
— the latter being 92, and the former 75 cubic inches.] "For, on measuring 155 crania, 
nearly all derived from the sepulchres just mentioned, they give but 75 cubic inches for 
the average bulk of brain, while the Teutonic, or highest developed white race, gives 92 
cubic inches. Of the whole number, one only attains the capacity of 101 cubic inches — 
[the highest Teutonic in Dr. Morton's collection is 114 cubic inches] — and the minimum 
sinks to 58 ; the smallest in the whole series of 641 measured crania of all nations. It is 
important to remark, also, that the sexes are nearly equally represented: viz., 80 men and 
75 women. 

The mean of twenty-one Mexican skulls is seventy-nine, or five 
cubic inches above the Peruvian average ; but the authenticity of this 
series is not so well made out as the other, and it may be too small 
for the establishment of a very correct mean. 

2d. The Barbarous Tribes. — The semi - civilized communities of 
America seem at all times to have been hemmed in and pressed upon 
by the more restless and warlike barbarous tribes, as they are at the 
present day. We now see the unwarlike Mexican constantly pillaged 
by daring Camanches and relentless Apaches ; who, since the intro- 
duction of horses, have become most fearful marauders, scarcely 
inferior to the Tartars or Bedouins of Asia. 

On this series, collected both from modern tribes and ancient tumuli 
the most widely separated by time and space, Morton remarks : — 

"Of 211 crania derived from the various sources enumerated in this section, 161 have 
been measured, with the following results: the largest cranium gives 104 cubic inches — 
the smallest, 70 ; and the mean of all is 84. There is a disparity, however, in the male 
and female heads, for the former are 96 in number, and the latter only 65. 

" We have here the surprising fact, that the brain of the Indian, in his savage state, is 
far larger than that of the old demi-civilized Peruvian or ancient Mexican. How are we 
to explain this remarkable disparity between civilization and barbarism ? The largei't Pe- 
ruvian brain measures 101 cubic inches; and the untamed Shawnee rises to 104; and the 
average difference between the Peruvian and the savage is nine cubic inches in favor of the 
latter. Something may be attributed to a primitive difference of stock ; but more, perhaps, 
'to the contrasted activity of the two races." [Here Dr. Morton might appear to endorse the 



278 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

theory tliat cultivation of the mind, or of one set of faculties, can give expansion or increased 
size of brain. There is no proof of the truth of such a hypothesis. The Teutonic races, in 
their barbarous state, 2000 years ago, possessed brains as large as now ; and so with other 
races. — J. C. N.] 

Taken collectively, the American races yield an average mean, for 
the whole 338 crania, of only seventy-nine cubic inches, or thirteen 
below that of the Teutonic race. 

The general law laid down by craniologists, that size of brain is a 
measure of intellect, would seem to meet with an exception here ; 
but it is only apparent. A veiy satisfactory solution of the fact will 
be found in Mr. J. S. Phillips's Appendix to Morton's memoir on the 
Physical Type of the American Indians ;^^^ also, in Mr, George Combe's 
Phrenological Remarks, in \he Appendix to Moi-ton's Crania Americana. 
The appendix of Mr. Phillips, published after Morton's death, adds 
some new materials, which the Doctor had not time to work up 
before his demise. The additional crania make a little variation 
from the means or averages obtained by Morton, but too slight to 
influence the general conclusions. Mr. Phillips's closing observations 
are so well expressed that we are sure the reader will prefer them 
entire, to wit : — 

" The average volume of the brain in the Barbarous tribes is shown to be from 83 1 to 84 
cubic inches, while that of the Ifexicans is but 79, and in the Peruvians only 75 ; thus exhi- 
biting the apparent anomaly of barbarous and uncivilized tribes possessing larger brains 
than races capable of considerable progress in civilization. This discrepancy deserves 
more investigation than time permits at present; but the following views of the subject 
may make it appear less anomalous : — 

" The prevailing features in the character of the North American savage are, stoicism, a 
severe cruelty, excessive watchfulness, and that coarse brutality which results from the 
entire preponderance of the animal propensities. These so outweigh the intellectual por- 
tion of the character, that it is completely subordinate, making the Indian what we see 
him — a most unintellectual and uncivilizable man. 

"The intellectual lobe of the brain of these people, if not borne down by such over- 
powering animal propensities and passions, would doubtless have been capable of much 
greater efforts than any we are acquainted with, and have enabled these barbarous tribes 
to make some progress in civilization. This appears to be the cerebral difference between 
the Mexicans and Peruvians on the one hand, and the Barbarous tribes of North America 
on the other. The intellectual lobe of the brain in the two former is at least as large as in 
the latter — the difference of volume being chiefly confined to the occipital and basal por- 
tions of the encephalon ; so that the intellectual and moral qualities of the Mexicans and 
Peruvians (at least as large, if not larger than those of the other group) are left more free 
to act, being not so subordinate to the propensities and violent passions. This view of the 
subject is in accordance with the history of these two divisions: barbarous and civilizable. 
When the former were assailed by the European settlers, they fought desperately, but 
rather with the cunning and ferocity of the lower animals, than with the system and courage 
of men. They could not be subjugated, and were either exterminated, or continued to 
retire into the forests, when they could no longer maintain their ground. Had their intel- 
lect been in proportion to their other qualities, they would have been most formidable ene- 
mies. With the Mexicans and Peruvians the case has been the reverse. The original 
inhabitants of Mexico were entirely subjugated by the Aztecs, who appear to have been a 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 279 

smnll tribe in compai'ison with the Mexicans; and then they were all conquered and enslaved 
by a mere handful of Spaniards — although the Mexicans had the advantage over the bar- 
barous tribes of concerted action, some discipline, and preparation, in which the latter were 
greatly deficient. The Mexicans, with small brains, were evidently inferior in resolution, 
in attack and defence, and the more manly traits of character, to the Barbarous races, who 
contested every inch of ground until they were entirely outnumbered. And at the present 
time, the Camanches and Apaches, though a part of the great Shoshonee division (one of 
the lowest of the races of North America), are continually plundering and destroying the 
Indians of Northern Mexico, who scarcely attempt resistance. 

" Viewed in this light, the apparent contradiction of a race with a smaller brain being 
superior to tribes with larger brains, is so far explained, that the volume and distribution 
of their respective brains appear to be in accordance with such facts in their history as 
have come to our knowledge." 

Again, Mr. Phillips remarks, of the Indians of the United States, 
that he has "grouped them, on a large scale, into families, according 
to language ; and the result of measurement of the volume of brain 
is strikingl}' in accordance with the ascertained chai^acter of the differ- 
ent groups thus constituted. His arrangement is — 1st, Iroquois ; 
2d, Algonquin and Apalachian ; 3d, Dacota ; 4th, Shoshonees ; 5th, 
Oregonians. Of the first division (the Iroquois), he observes : — 

" The average internal capacity of the cranium in this group is about 82 inches higher 
than the lowest types, and 4 J inches higher than the average — being 88 J cubic inches. 
This result is strikingly in keeping with the fact that they were so completely the master- 
spirits of the land ; that, at the time of the first settlement of this country by the white 
race, they were so rapidly subduing the other tribes and nations around them ; and that, if 
their career of conquest had not been cut short by the Anglo-Saxon predominance, they 
bade fair to have conquered all within their reach." 

He then states the measurements and characters of other families, 
in all of which the morale and physique most strikingly correspond. 

These facts afford very instructive material for reflection. We 
here behold one race, with the larger, though less intellectual brain, 
subjugating the unwarlike and half-civilized races; and it seems 
clear, that the latter were destined to be either swallowed up or exter- 
minated by the former. Who can doubt that similar occurrences 
had been going on over this continent for many centuries or even 
thousands of y^ars? There are scattered over JSTorth America count- 
less tumuli, which it is believed were built by races different from the 
savage tribes found around them on the advent of the whites, and 
an impenetrable oblivion rests upon these earth-works. There are 
many reasons for supposing that these mound-builders were either 
identical with, or closely allied to, the Toltecs ; and, that they were 
driven south or exterminated by more savage and bellicose races, 
such as the Iroquois : for the traditions of the Mexicans point to the. 
Korth as their original country. 

At the present day, we see in America large settlements of S]3an- 
iards, French, Germans, &c., as well as Indians — all speaking their 



2S0 ABORIGINAL EACES OF AMERICA. 

own languages ; yet who doubts that in a century or two the Indians 
will be extinct, and the others swallowed up in the Anglo-Saxon 
tongue and tj-pe ? Then, when the ethnographer shall undertake to 
analyze the population, what can he learn of the history of races 
that first overspread this continent, or what light upon the origins of 
lost or absorbed autocthones can he draw from the European dialects 
spoken by their destroyers? What will be the condition of this 
countiy two or three thovisand years hence, we may ask, when we 
see Europe pouring its population into it from the East and Asia from 
the West ? We can reason on the things of this world merely from 
what we see and know ; and we must infer that a succession of events 
has been going on for ages, during ante-historic times, similar to those 
we encounter in the pages of written history. Human nature never 
changes, else it would cease to be human nature, 

Now, how are we to explain these opposite intellectual and physical 
characters in the two great families of America, except by primitive 
cranial conformations, each aboriginally distinct? Certainlj^, no 
known facts exist leading to the conclusion that any particular mode 
of life can change the size or form of brain in man ; while, on the 
contrary, we have abundant reason to be convinced that the size and 
form of brain play a conspicuous part in the advancement and destiny 
of races. The large heads, in many instances, having emerged from 
barbarism (Teutons, Celts, for example), within historical times, have 
reached the higher pinnacles of civilization, and everywhere outstrip- 
ped and dominated over the small-headed races of mankind. 

It is interesting here to note that the ancient Egyptians and Hin- 
doos, who in very early times reached a considerable degree of civili- 
zation, had, like the Mexicans and Peruvians, much smaller heads 
than the savage tribes around them.^^ Each of these people give an 
internal mean-capacity of eighty cubic inches, which is but one inch 
above the average of American races. The N"egro races, exclusive 
of Hottentots, yield an average of eighty-three inches. 

If the Jews have lived during 1500 years in Malabar, the Magyars 
1000 in Hungary, the Parsees as many ages in India, the Basques or 
Iberians in France and Spain for more than 3000, without material 
change — and, if the Anglo-Saxons and Spaniards have lived through 
ten generations in America without approximating the aboriginal 
type of the country, it is a reasonable inference that the intellectual 
and physical diiferences of the Toltecan and Barbarous tribes are not 
attributable to secondary causes, either moral or physical. 

Mr. Squier makes the following philosophical remarks : — 

" The casual resemblance of certain -vvorcls in the languages of America and those of the 
Old World cannot be taken as evidence of a common origin. Such coincidences may be 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 281 

easily accounted for as the result of accident, or, at most, of local infusions, which -were 
■without any extended effect. The entire number of common words is said to be one hun- 
dred and eighty-seven ; of these, one hundred and four coincide with words found in the 
languages of Asia and Australia, forty-three with those of Europe, and forty with those of 
Africa. It can hardly be supposed that these facts are sufficient to prove a connec- 
tion between the four hundred dialects of America and the various languages of the 
other continent. It is not in accidental coincidences of sound or meaning, but in a 
comparison of the general structure and character of the American languages with those 
of other countries, that we can expect to find similitudes at all conclusive, or worthy of 
remark, in determining the question of a common origin. And it is precisely in these 
respects that we discover the strongest evidences of the essential peculiarities of the Ame- 
rican languages : here they coincide with each other, and here exhibit the most striking 
contrasts with all the others of the globe. The diversities which have sprung up, and 
which have resulted in so many dialectical modifications, as shown in the numberless voca- 
bularies, furnish a wide field for investigation. Mr. Gallatin draws a conclusion from the 
circumstance, which is quite as fatal to the popular hypothesis, respecting the origin of the 
Indians, as the more sweeping conclusion of Dr. Morton. It is the length of time which 
this prodigious subdivision of languages in America must have required, making every 
allowance for the greater changes to which unwritten languages are liable, and for the 
necessary breaking up of nations in a hunter-state into separate communities. For these 
changes, Mr. Gallatin claims, we must have the very longest time which we are permitted 
to assume ; and, if it is considered necessary to derive the American races from the other 
continent, that the migration must have taken place at the earliest assignable period. 

" The following conclusions were advanced by Mr. Duponceau, as early as 1819, in sub- 
stantially the following language : — 

"1. That the American languages, in general, are rich in words and grammatical 
forms ; and, that in their complicated construction the greatest order, method, and regu- 
larity prevail. 

" 2. That these complicated forms, which he calls polysynthetic, appear to exist in all 
these languages, from Greenland to Cape Horn. 

" 3. That these forms differ essentially from those of the ancient and modern languages 
of the Old Hemisphere." 3si 

The type of a race would never change, if kept from adulterations, 
as we have shown in the case of the Jews and other peoples. So 
with languages : we have no reason to believe that a race would 
ever lose its language, if kept aloof from foreign influences. It is 
a fact that, in the little island of Great Britain, the Welch and the 
Erse are still spoken, although for 2000 years pressed upon by the 
strongest influences tending to exterminate a tongue. So with the 
Basque in France, which can be traced back at least 3000 years, and 
is still spoken. Coptic was the speech of Egypt for at least 5000 
years, and still leaves its trace in the languages around. The Chinese 
lias existed equally as long, and is still undisturbed, 

" An effort has been made by Mr. Blackie, Professor of Greek in the University of 
Edinburgh, to reform the pronunciation of Greek in that University. He is teachipg his 
students to pronounce Greek as they do in Greece, insisting that it is not a dead, but a 
living language — as any one may see by looking at a Greek newspaper. Prof. Blackie 
gives an extract from a newspaper printed last year, at Athens, giving an account of Kos- 
suth's visit to America, from which it is evident that the language of Homer lives in a state 
of purity to which, considering the extraordinary duration of its literary existence (2500 

36 



282 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

years at least), there is no parallel, perhaps, on the face of the globe. After noticing a few 
trifling modifications, -which distinguish modern from ancient Greek, he states, as a fact, 
that in three columns of a Greek newspaper of the year 1852, there do not certainly occur 
three words that are not pure native Greek — so very slightly has it been corrupted from 
foreign sources." 365 

Althougli the nations of Europe and "Western Asia have been in 
constant turmoil for thousands of years, and their languages torn to 
pieces, jet they have been moulded into the gi-eat heterogeneous 
Indo-European mass, everywhere showing affinities among its own 
fragments, but no resemblance to American languages. The subjoined 
extract from a paper of Prof Agassiz admirably expresses new and 
most interesting views upon the natural origin of speech : — 

" As for languages, their common structure, and even the analogy in the sounds of differ- 
ent languages, far from indicating a derivation of one from another, seem to us rather the 
necessary result of that similarity in the organs of speech which causes them naturally to 
produce the same sound. Who would now deny that it is as natural for men to speak as 
it is for a dog to bark, for an ass to bray, for a lion to roar, for a wolf to howl, when we 
see that no nations are so barbarous, so deprived of all human character, as to be unable 
to express in language their desires, their fears, their hopes ? And if a unity of language, 
any analogy in sound and structure between the languages of the white races, indicate a 
closer connection between the different nations of that race, would not the difference which 
has been observed in the structure of the languages of the wild races — would not the' 
power the American Indians have naturally to utter gutturals which the white can hardly 
imitate, afford additional evidence that these races did not originate from a common stock, 
but are. only closely allied as men, endowed equally with the same intellectual powers, the 
same organs of speech, the same sympathies, only developed in slightly different ways in 
the different races, precisely as we observe the fact between closely allied species of the 
same genus among birds ? 

" There is no ornithologist who ever watched the natural habits of birds and their notes, 
who has not been surprised at the similarity of intonation of the notes of closely allied 
species, and the greater difference between the notes of birds belonging to different genera 
and families. The cry of the birds of prey, are alike unpleasant and rough in all; the 
song of all the thrushes is equally sweet and harmonious, and modulated upon similar 
rhythms, and combined in similar melodies ; the chit of all titmice is loquacious and hard ; 
the quack of the duck is alike nasal in all. But who ever thought that the robin learned 
his melody from the mocking-bird, or the mocking-bird from any other species of thrush ? 
Who ever fancied that the field-crow learned his cawing from the raven or jackdaw ? Cer- 
tainly, no one at all acquainted with the natural history of birds. And why should it be 
different with men ? Why should not the different races of men have originally spoken 
distinct languages, as they do at present, differing in the same proportions as their organs 
of speech are variously modified ? And why should not these modifications in their turn 
be indicative of primitive differences among them ? It were giving up all induction, all 
power of arguing from sound premises, if the force of such evidence were to be denied." 366 

To which may be added the familiar instance, that, although the 
Negro has been domiciliated in the United. States for many genera- 
tions among white people, he nevertheless, whether speaking English, 
French, or Spanish, preserves that peculiar, unmistakeably-iVie^/-o, in- 
tonation, which no culture can eradicate. So, again, who ever heard the 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 283 

voice of au Indian uttering English, and could not instantly detect 
the articulations of the Red man ? 

A review of the preceding facts shows conclusively, we think, that 
the N'atural History of the American ahorigines runs a close parallel 
with that of races in other countries. We have made hut two divisions ; 
hut it is more than probable that each of these families, instead of 
springing from a single pair, have originated in man}'. But we have 
discussed this point elsewhere, and need not reopen it here. 

Let us now glance at the history of those aboriginal races which 
made the only approach towards civilization. It is true that our ma- 
terials are very defective in many particulars, yet enough remain to 
lead ethnologists to some important results. 

1^0 trace of an alphabet existed at the time of the conquest of the 
continent of America; but some tribes possessed an imperfect sort of 
picture-writing, from which a little archaeological aid can be derived ; 
though we are compelled to look chiefly to traditions, which are 
often vague, and to the light which emanates from the physical cha- 
racters, antiquities, religions, arts, sciences, languages, or agriculture. 

The decided structural connection which exists among the various 
Indian languages has been regarded as sufficient evidence, not only 
of the common origin of these languages, but of the races speaking 
them. The venerable Albert Gallatin, who devoted much time and 
talent to American ethnography, says : — 

"AU those who have investigated the subject appear to have agreed in the opinion that, 
however differing in their vocabularies, there is an evident similarity in the structure of all 
the American languages, bespeaking a common origin." 3S7 

!N"ow, we are not disposed to deny the close affinity of these lan- 
guages, but we cannot agree that this aftbrds any satisfactory proof 
of unity of their linguistic derivation. The conclusion, to our minds, 
is a non sequitur. 

Let us assume, with Agassiz and Morton, that all mankind do not 
spring from one pair, nor even each race from distinct pairs; but that 
men were created in nations, in the different zoological provinces where 
history first finds them. The Caucasians, Mongols, Indians, 'Negroes, 
were, for example, created in large numbers, or in scattered tribes. 
What, let us ask, would necessarily be the result as regards types and 
languages? Various individuals of these tribes, baving no language, 
would soon come in contact, either through proximity, or early wan- 
derings. Unions would soon take place, and there would be a fusion 
of types, so as perhaps to change, more or less, each original ; just as 
amalgamations have taken place among all historical nations, and are 
now going on in every country of the globe. 

So with languages. As soon as individuals . came in contact, they 



284 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

would necessarily commence the first steps towards forming a speech, 
as birds instinctively sing and dogs bark. The wants, and range of 
ideas of these tribes, would, for a long time, be very limited, and 
their vocabulary, thus formed, very meagre. The aboriginal races of 
America, though not identical, display a certain similarity in their phy- 
sical and intellectual characters, as species of 'a genus in the animal 
kingdom possess certain physical characters and instincts in common ; 
and it is probable that their primitive languages would, in conse- 
quence, more or less, resemble each other. This view is strengthened 
by the fact of general resemblance amongst American crania. But 
nothing in human anatomy can be more striking, than the wide dif- 
ference in the conformation of the skulls of American and African 
races. 

If two distinct races, created on incommunicable continents, had 
been left alone, originally, each to form its own languages indepen- 
dentl}^ of the other, is it not presumable, tt priori, that there would 
accrue a much greater similarity among the tongues of the one race, 
on the same continent, than between these tongues and those spoken 
on the other continent by the other race ? > Especially, when the phy- 
sical and moral characteristics of the former diifer radically from 
those of the latter ? 

As, then, the crania of American races resemble each other, while 
diflering entirely from those of African races, so do American and 
African languages differ from each other in structure and vocabulary ; 
although both are in harmony with the various dialects spoken on 
their respective continents by races osteologically similar. 

Whether the above proposition be true or false, all languages which, 
in their infant state, came together, would uecessarilj^ become fused into 
one heterogeneous mass. Let us illustrate this point a little farther. 
Suppose that, five thousand years ago, a country had existed large as 
Europe, covered by a virgin forest, and that the Creator had scattered 
over it tribes, bearing the type of the old Teutonic stock — each of 
whom commenced at once in forming a language — what would be 
the result in our day, after 5000 years of migrations, wars, amalga- 
mations ? Can any one doubt that these languages would be fused 
into one whole, quite as homogeneous as those of the aborigines of 
America ? When we reflect that there is every reason to believe that 
this continent has been inhabited for more than 5000 years, such case 
becomes a much stronger one. Mebuhr, in one of his letters, ex- 
presses views very similar.^^ 

" These great national races have never sprung from the growth of a single family 

into a nation, but always from the association of several families of human beings, raised 
above their fellow animals by the nature of their wants, and the gradual invention of a 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 285 

language; each of which families probably had originally formed a language peculiar to 
itself. This last idea belongs to Reinhold. By this I explain the immense variety of lan- 
guages among the North American Indians, which it is absolutely impossible to refer to any 
common source, but which, in some cases, have resolved themselves into one language, as 
in JNIexico and Peru, for instance ; and also the number of synonyms in the earliest periods 
of languages. On this account, I maintain that we must make a very cautious use of dif- 
ferences of language as applied to the theory of races, and have more regard to physical 
conformation; which latter is exactly the same, for instance, in most of the Indian tribes 
of North America. I believe, farther, that the origin of the human race is not connected 
with anj' given place, but is to be sought everywhere over the face of the earth ; and that 
it is an idea more worthy of the power and wisdom of the Creator, to assume that he gave 
to each zone and each climate its proper inhabitants, to whom that zone and climate would 
be most suitable, than to assume that the human species has degenerated in such innumer- 
able instances." 

"Wiseman approaclies the subject from a diiFerent point of view, 
offering another explanation for the dissimilarity of languages. He 
maintains that there are affinities among all languages, which can only 
be explained by original unity, but acknowledges, on the other side, 
certain radical differences, which are only to be explained by a mi- 
racle. He says, in Lecture second : — 

" As the radical difference among the languages forbids their being considered dialects, 
or offshoots of one another, we are driven to the conclusion that, on the one hand, these 
languages must have been originally united in one, whence they drew their common ele- 
ments, essential to them all ; and, on the other, that the separation between them, which 
destroyed other and no less important elements of resemblance, could not have been caused 
bj' any gradual departure, or individual development — for these we have long since ex- 
cluded — but by some violent, unusual, and active force, sufiScient alone to reconcile these 
conflicting appearances, and to account at once for the resemblances and the differences." ^^9 

This view of the enigma would be much the most agreeable to 
many readers, inasmuch as, by the obtrusion of an unwarranted phy- 
sical impossibility, it gets clear of that radical diversity of languages 
which philology has not yet been able to overcome. Such reasoning, 
however plausible at the time when it was written, will not stand 
the test of criticism in the year 1853. The facts revealed to us by 
the subsequent discoveries of Lepsius and others, require a much 
higher antiquity for nations and languages than the Cardinal had any 
idea of; and which is entirely irreconcilable with the Jewish date for' 
the "confusion of tongues" at Babel, to which he plainly points. K 
that confusion of tongues in Genesis were even taken as literally true, 
it could neither have applied to all the nations of the earth, nor, 
particularly, to those inhabiting parts of the world unknown to 
Oriental geography in the time of Moses or Abraham ; and this 
owing to exegetical reasons hereinafter set forth. 

Cla\ngero, whose ability and opportunities confer upon his autho- 
rity especial weight, gives the following chronology, derived from 
data obtained through Mexicans : — 



286 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

A. D. 

The Toltecs arrived in Anahuac, or the country now called Mexico, 

migrating from the North 648 

They abandoned the country 1051 

The Chicheraecs arrived 1170 

The Acholchuans arrived about 1200 

The Mexicans reached Tula 1296 

They founded Mexico 1325 

Here, then, we have tlie dates of successive migrations of these 
Toltecan races, from the seventh to the fom'teenth century; and, 
although much douht exists with regard to the accuracy of some of 
these dates, no one who investigates the subject will deny that they are 
sufficiently close for all practical jDurposes, and maybe taken as the basis 
of chronological calculation. Clavigero, Gallatin, Humboldt, Pres- 
eott, Squier, Morton — in short, all authorities, are substantially agreed 
on this point. These Toltecan races, who it seems inhabited, though 
perhaps at different epochs, almost every portion of the present terri- 
tory of the United States, must have been pressed ^poh by causes 
now unknown to us, and forced to migrate from their original abodes. 
They sought an asylum in the southern countries — Mexico, Central 
America, Peru ; and here gave birth to the semi-civilization found at 
the time of the Spanish conquest. Gallatin, however, thinks it most 
probable that the Toltecan races and their civilization commenced in 
the tropic, and spread towards the north. Over an immense territory, 
bounded by the Atlantic and Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Great Lakes, are scattered those countless mounds, on the origin 
of which the savage tribes surrounding them for the last three or 
four centuries have not even preserved a tradition. 

" Not far from one hundred enclosures, of various sizes, and five hundred mounds, are 
found in Ross county, Ohio. The number of tumuli in the State may be safely estimated 
at ten thousand, and the number of enclosures at one thousand or fifteen hundred." 3~o 

From this single State, constituting but a small fraction of the 
surface over which they are scattered, may be formed some idea of 
the enormous number of these remains and of the ante-historical popu- 
lation which constructed them. These tumuli were of several distinct 
kinds, viz., sepulchral and sacrificial ; dikes, fortifications, &c. Squier's 
investigations lead him to aver : — 

" The features common to all are elementary, and identify them as appertaining to one 
grand system, owing its origin to a family of men moving in the same general direction, 
acting under common impulses, and influenced by similar causes." 

These mounds, from their number and magnitude, present indis- 
putable evidence of the existence of very large agricultural popula- 
tions. How many centuries were these people increasing, migrating, 
and concentrating, around so many thousand widely-scattered nuclei ? 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 287 

How long was it before they possessed a density and command of 
labor requisite for such structures ? How long, after building such 
national monuments, did they live around, before abandoning them ? 
"Were they not the same people who migrated into Mexico and Cen- 
tral America from the seventh to the thirteenth century A. c. ? Surely, 
any reply to this view of the subject alone, in connection with the 
physical type of the race, must carry them back to times contempo- 
rary with the Pharaohs of Egj-pt. 

Too valuable to be mutilated, a long extract from the standard 
work before quoted is here introduced. 

" The antiquity of the ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley has been made the 
subject of incidental remark in the foregoing chapters. It ■will not be out of place here to 
allude once more to some of the facts bearing upon this point. Of course, no attempt to 
fix their data accurately, from the circumstances of the case, can now be successful. The 
most that can be done is, to arrive at approximate results. The fact that none of the 
ancient monuments occur upon the latest formed terraces of the river-valleys of Ohio, is one 
of much importance in its bearing upon this question. If, as we are amply warranted in 
believing, these terraces mark the degrees of the subsidence of the streams, one of the four 
(which may be traced) has been formed since those streams have followed their present 
courses. Thei'e is no good reason for supposing that the mound-builders would have 
avoided building upon that terrace, while they erected their works promiscuously upon all 
the others. And if they had built upon it, some slight traces of their works would yet be 
visible, however much influence one may assign to disturbing causes — overflows, and shift- 
ing channels. Assuming, then, that the lowest terrace, on the Scioto river, for example, 
has been formed since the era of the mounds, we must next consider that the excavating 
power of the Western rivers diminishes yearly, in proportion as they approximate towards 
a general level. On the Lower Mississippi, where alone the ancient monuments are some- 
times invaded by the water, the bed of the stream is rising, from the deposition of the ma- 
terials brought down from the upper tributaries, where the excavating process is going on. 
This excavating power, it is calculated, is in an inverse ratio to the square of the depth — 
that is to say, diminishes as the square of the depth increases. Taken to be approxi- 
mately correct, this rule establishes, that the formation of the latest terrace, by the opera- 
tion of the same causes, must have occupied much more time than the formation of any of 
the preceding three. Upon these premises, the time since the streams have flowed in their 
present courses may be divided into four periods of different lengths — of which the latest, 
supposed to have elapsed since the race of the mounds flourished, is much the longest. 

"The fact that the rivers in shifting their channels have in some instances encroached 
upon the superior terraces, so as in part to destroy works situated upon them, and after- 
wards receded to lon^ distances of a fourth or half a mile or upwards, is one which should 
not be overlooked in this connection. In the case of the ' high bankworks,' the recession 
has been nearly three-fourths of a mile, and the intervening terrace or ' bottom' was, at 
the period of the early settlement, covered with a dense forest. This recession and subse- 
quent forest growth must of necessity have taken place since the river encroached upon the 
ancient works here alluded to. 

" Without doing more than to allude to the circumstance of the exceedingly decayed state 
of the skeletons found in the mounds, and to the amount of vegetable accumulations in the 
ancient excavations and around the ancient works, we pass to another fact, perhaps more 
important in its bearing upon the question of the antiquity of these works, than any of 
those presented above. It is, that they are covered with primitive forests, in no way dis- 
tinguishable from those which surrtund them, in places where it is probable no clearings 



288 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

■were ever made. Some of the trees of these forests have a positive antiquity of from six 
to eight hundred years. They are found surrounded with the mouldering remains of 
others, undoubtedly. of equal original dimensions, but now fallen and almost incorporated 
■with the soil. Allow a reasonable time for the encroachment of the forest, after all the works 
were abandoned by their builders, and for the period intervening between that event and 
the date of their construction, and we are compelled to assign them no inconsiderable anti- 
quity. But, as already observed, the forests covering these works correspond in all 
respects with the surrounding forests ; the same varieties of trees are found, in the same 
proportions, and they have a like primitive aspect. This fact was remarked by the late 
President Habrison, and was put forward by him as one of the strongest evidences of the 
high antiquity of these works. In an address before the Historical Society of Ohio, he 
said : — 

" ' The process by which nature restores the forest to its original state, after being once 
cleared, is extremely slow. The rich lands of the West are indeed soon covered again, but 
the character of the growth is entirely different, and continues so for a long period. In 
several places upon the Ohio, and upon the farm which I occupy, clearings were made in 
the first settlement of the country, and subsequently abandoned and suffered to grow up. 
Some of these new forests are now, sure, of fifty years' growth ; but they have made so 
little progress towards attaining the appearance of the immediately contiguous forest, as 
to induce any man of reflection to determine that at least ten times fifty years must elapse 
before their complete assimilation can be effected. We find, in the ancient works, all that 
variety of trees which give such unrivalled beauty to our forests, in natural proportions. 
The first growth, on the same kind of land, once cleared and then abandoned to nature, on 
the contrary, is nearly homogeneous, often stinted to one or two, at most three, kinds of 
timber. If the ground has been cultivated, the yellow locust will thickly spring up ; if 
not cultivated, the black and white .walnut will be the prevailing growth. ... Of what 
immense age, then, must be the works so often referred to, covered, as they are, by at 
least the second growth after the primitive-forest state was regained ? ' 

" It is not undertaken to assign a period for the assimilation here indicated to take place. 
It must, however, be measured hy centuries. 

" In respect to the extent of territory occupied at one time, or at successive periods, by 
the race of the mounds, so far as indicated by the occurrence of their monuments, little 
need be said, in addition to the observations presented in the first chapter. It cannot, how- 
ever, have escaped notice, that the relics found in the mounds — composed of materials pe- 
culiar to places separated as widely as the ranges of the Alleghanies on the east, and the 
Sierras of Mexico on the west, the waters of the great lakes on the north, and those of the 
Gulf of Mexico on the south — denote the contemporaneous existence of communication 
between these extremes. For we find, side by side, in the same mounds, native copper 
from Lake Superior, mica from the Alleghanies, shells from the Gulf, and obsidian (perhaps 
porphyry) from Mexico. This fact seems to conflict seriously with the hypothesis of a 
migration, either northward or southward. Further and more extended investigations and 
observations may, nevertheless, serve satisfactorily to settle, not only this, but other equally 
interesting questions, connected with the extinct race, whose name is lost to tradition itself, 
and whose very existence is left to the sole and silent attestations of the rude, but oft im- 
posing monuments, which throng the valleys of the West." 

A dispassionate review of the evidences thus cursorily presented, 
in support of the contemporaneousness of American races with those 
first recorded on the monuments of the eastern world, when taken 
together, ought, we think, to satisfy any unprejudiced mind. Nor 
can anything he twisted out of the Jewish records to show that, at 
the time when many races were already formed in the old Levant. 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 289 

at least one distinct type of man did not exist on the Western Conti- 
nent, But, to our minds, stronger than all other reasonings, not ex- 
cepting the antithesis of languages, is that drawn from the antiquity 
of skulls. 

The vertical occiput, the prominent vertex, the great interparietal 
diameter, the low defective forehead, the small internal capacity of 
the skull, the square or rounded form, the quadrangular orbits, the 
massive maxillae, are peculiarities which stamp the American groups, 
more especially the Toltecan family, and distinguish them widely 
from any other races of the earth, ancient or modern. 

As before remarked, these characters are seen to some extent in all 
Indians : although the savage tribes exhibit a greater development 
of the posterior portion of the brain than the Toltecs — thus supply- 
ing, in Natural Histor}', the link of organism which assimilates the 
Barbarous septs of America to the savage races of the Old World. 

Au interesting fact was mentioned to us by an American officer, 
of high standing, who accompanied our army in its march through 
Mexico during the late war. Although his head, which we mea- 
sured, is below the average size of the Anglo-Saxon race, he told us 
that it was wnth difficulty he could find, in a large hat-store at Mata- 
moras, a single hat which would go on his head. Hats suited to 
Mexicans are too small for Anglo-Saxons : a fact corroborated by 
ample testimony. Throughout the winter season, in Mobile, at least 
one hundred Indians of the Choctaw tribe wander about the streets, 
endeavoring to dispose of their little packs of wood ; and a glance 
at their heads will show that they correspond, in ever}' particular, with 
the anatomical description just given. They present heads precisely 
analogous to those ancient crania taken from the mounds over the 
whole territory of the United States ; while they most strikingly 
contrast with the Anglo-Saxons, French, Spaniards and Negroes, 
among whom they are moving. 

It is impossible to say how long human bones may be preserved in 
a dry soil. There are some curious statements of Squier, and many 
more of Wilson,^^ respecting the barrows of the ancient Britons, where 
skeletons have been preserved at least 2000 years : — 

" Considering that the earth around these skeletons is wonderfully compact nnd dry, and 
that the conditions for their preservation are exceedingly favorable, while they are in fact 
so much decayed, we may form some approximate estimate of their remote antiquity. In 
the barrows of the ancient Britons, entire, well-preserved skeletons are found, although 
possessing an undoubted antiquity of at least eighteen hundred years. Lociil causes may 
produce singular resalts in particular instances, but we speak now of these remains in the 
aggregate." ^"^ 

From the ruins of I^ineveh and Babylon we have bones of at least 
2500 years old;'^ from the pyramids^"* and the catacombs of Egypt, 
37 



290 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

both mummied and unmummied crania have been taken, of still 
higher antiquity, iu perfect preservation ; and numerous other proofs 
might be brought forward to the same effect : nevertheless, the ske- 
letons deposited in our Indian mounds, from the Lakes to the Gulf, 
are crumbling into dust through age alone ! 
Speaking of the mound-builders, it is said : — 

" The only skull incontestably belonging to an individual of that race, which has been 
recovered entire, or sufficiently Vfell preserved to be of value for purposes of comparison, 
■was taken from the hill-mound, numbered 8 in the map of a section of twelve miles of the 
Scioto Valley." 

Squier's account continues : — 

" The circumstances under which this skull was found are, altogether, so extraordinary 
as to merit a detailed account. It will be observed, from the map, that the mound above 
indicated is situated upon the summit of a high hill, overlooking the valley of the Scioto, 
about four miles below the city of Chilicothe. It is one of the most prominent and com- 
manding positions in that section of country. Upon the summit of this hill rises a conical 
knoll, of so great regularity as almost to induce the belief that it is itself artificial. Upon 
the very apex of this knoll, and covered by the trees of the primitive forests, is the mound. 
It is about eight feet high, by forty or fifty feet base. The superstructure is a tough yellow 
clay, which, at the depth of three feet, is mixed with large, rough stones ; as shown in the 
accompanying section, (Fig. 197). 

" These stones rest upon a dry, calcareous deposit of buried earth and small stones, of a 
dark black colour, and much compacted. This deposit is about two feet in thickness, in 
the centre, and rests upon the original soil. In excavating the mound, a large plate of 

mica was discovered, placed upon the stones Immediately underneath this plate of 

mica, and in the centre of the buried deposit, was found the skull figured in the plates 
(Figs. 198, 199). It was discovered resting upon its face. The lower jaw, as, indeed, the 
entire skeleton, excepting the clavicle, a few cervical vertebrae, and some of the bones of 
the feet, all of which were huddled around the skull, were wanting. 

" From the entire singularity of this burial, it might be inferred that the deposit was a 
comparatively recent one ; but the fact that the various layers of carbonaceous earth, stones, 
and clay were entirely undisturbed, and in no degree intermixed, settles the question be- 
yond doubt, that the skull was placed where it was found, at the time of the construction 
of the mound. . . . 

" This skull is wonderfully preserved ; unaccountably so, unless the circumstances under 
which it was found may be regarded as most favorable to such a result. The impervious- 
ness of the mound to water, from the nature of the material composing it, and its position 
on the summit of an eminence, subsiding in every direction from its base, are circumstances 
which, joined to the antiseptic qualities of the carbonaceous deposit enveloping the skull, 
may satisfactorily account for its excellent preservation." 

A twofold interest attaches to the mound (Fig. 197), of which we 
offer a sectional tracing. On the one hand it indicates the pains 

Fig. 197. 




ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 



291 



bestowed by aucieut American man upon the dead ; thus evincing 
considerable civilization : on the other, the central tumular position 
in which this unique cranium was discovered, establishes an ante- 
Columbian age for its builders, and segregates it entirely from the 
ruder sepulchres of our modern Indians. 

^We present a vertical and a profile engraving of this ancient skull, 
one exceedingly characteristic of our American races, although more 



Fig. 198. 



Fig. 199. 





particularly of the Tolteean ; having already stated that the Barba- 
rous tribes possessed more development of the posterior part of the 
brain than the Toltecs. An examination of this skull will elicit the 
following characteristic peculiarities — forehead low, narrow, and re- 
ceding ; flattened occiput ; a perpendicular line drawn through the 
external meatus of the ear, divides the brain into two unequal parts, 
of which the posterior is much the .smaller; forming, in this respect, 
a striking contrast with other, and more particularly the Negro, races. 
Viewed from above, the anterior part of the brain is narrow, and the 
posterior and middle portion, over the organs of caution, secretive- 
ness, destructiveness, &c., very broad, thus lending much support to 
phrenology : vertex prominent. [These peculiarities are confirmed by 
the numerous measurements of Dr. Morton, and by the observations 
of many other anatomists, as well as our own. Identical characters, 
too, pervade all the American races, ancient and modern, over the 

whole continent. "We have compared 
many heads of living tribes, Cherokees, 
Choctaws, Mexicans, &c., as well as cra- 
nia from mounds of all ages, and the 
same general organism characterizes 
each one. — J. C. K.] 

Any South- African race, compared 
with an American Indian, would ex- 
hibit a contrast almost as salient ; but 
a Bosjesman (Fig. 200) from the Cape 



Fig. 200.375 




292 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 



of Good Hope answers our purpose. Osteologically, they are as dis- 
tinct from each, other as the skull of a fossil hyena is from that of a 
prairie wolf; at the same time that each human cranium is emphati- 
cally typical of the race to which it appertains. 

But, if comparison of an antique American cranium (Fig. 198) 
with the skull of a modern Bushman (Fig. 200), evolves instantane- 
ously such palpable contrasts, still more extraordinary and startling 
are those which resile when we compare either or both with one of 
the primeval ^' kumbe-kephalic," or hoat-shaped skulls (Figs. 201, 202), 



Fig. 202. 



Fig. 201. 





exhumed from the pre-Celtic cairns of Scotland.^'^ Can anything 
human be more diverse than the osteological conformation of the most 
ancient type of man known in America from that of the primordial 
Briton ? Be it duly noted, too, that while, on the American conti- 
nent, the earliest cranium resulting from Squier's researches is every 
way identical (as we shall demonstrate hereinafter) with crania of the 
Creeks, and other Indian nations of our own generation, men of this 
kumbe-kephalic type occupied the British Isles long prior to the ad- 
vent of those hrachy-keplialic races, who were precursors of the old 
Celts ; themselves, in Britain, antedating all history ! Of this fact 
"Wilson's Archaeology of Scotland furnishes exuberant evidences ; to 
be enlarged upon by us in dealing with "Comparative Anatomy." 

Hamilton Smith and Morton have contended that no test is 
known by which fossil human are distinguishable from other fossil 
bones of extinct species.^" The question, to say the least, is an open 
one ; although none can aver that there are not human fossils as old 
as those of the mastodon and other extinct animals. The following 
extract from Moi'ton's memoir is interesting, taken in connection 
with the American type : — 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 293 

" It is necessary to advert to the discoveries of Dr. Lund, among the bone-caves of Minas 
Gerdas, in Brazil. This distinguished traveller has found the remains of man in these 
caverns associated with those of extinct genera and species of animals; and the attendant 
circumstances lead to the reasonable conclusion that they were contemporaneous inhabit- 
ants of the region in which they were found. Yet, even here, the form of the skull differs 
in nothing from the acknowledged type, unless it be in the still greater depression of the 
forehead and a peculiarity of form in the teeth. With respect to the latter, Dr. Lund 
describes the incisors as having an oval surface, of which the axis is antero-posterior, in 
place of the sharp and chisel-like edge of ordinary teeth of the same class. He assures us, 
that he found it equally in the young and the aged, and is confident it is not the result of 
attrition, as is manifestly the case in those Egyptian heads in which Professor Blumenbach 
noticed an analogous peculiarity. I am not prepared to question an opinion which I have 
not been able to test by personal observation ; but it is obvious that, if such diiferences 
exist independently of art or accident, they are at least specific, and consequently of the 
highest interest in ethnology. 

"The head of the celebrated Guadaloupe skeleton forms no exception to the type of the 
race. The skeleton itself, which is in a semi-fossil state, is preserved in the British Mu- 
seum — but wants the cranium, which, however, is supposed to be recovered in the one 
found by M. L'H^minier, in Guadaloupe, and brought by him to Charleston, South Carolina. 
Dr. Moultrie, who has described this very interesting relic, makes the following obser- 
vations : ' Compared with the cranium of a Peruvian presented to Professor Holbrook, 
by Dr. Morton, in the Museum of the State of South Carolina, the craniological similarity 
manifested between them is too striking to permit us to question their national identity, 
There is in both the same coronal elevation, occipital compression, and lateral protu- 
berance, accompanied with frontal depression, which mark the American variety in 
general. ' " 

It seems clear, that the Indians of America are indigenous to the 
soil ; but it does not follow, that in ancient times there might not 
have been some occasional or accidental immigrations from the Old 
"World, though too small to affect materially the language or the type 
of the aborigines. There are several quite recent examples recorded, 
where boats with persons in them have been blown, from the Pacific 
islands and other distant parts, to the shores of America ; and in this 
way may be explained certain facts, connected with language, which 
have been adduced as evidence of Asiatic origin for our Indians. 
But we protest, in the name of science, against the notion that any 
of these ancient possibilities have yet entered into the category of 
ascertained facts. On the contrary, all known anatomical, archaeo- 
logical, and monumental proofs oppose such hypothesis. 

Possible, also, is it that the N'orthmen discovered this country 
several hundred years before Columbus, and held intercourse with it 
as far as Labrador ; yet they have left no trace of tongue nor vestige 
of art. 

Agriculture is acknowledged on all hands to have incited the first 
steps toward civilization, and, for some most curious facts on this head, 
the reader is referred to Mr. Gallatin's paper.™ Was the agriculture 
found in America by the Whites, introduced at an early epoch from 
abroad, or was it of domestic origin ? This question has excited 



294 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

much conjecture, and is an important one, as it necessarily involves 
the origin of American civilization. The following facts are certainly 
very significant : — 

1. All those nutritious plants cultivated and used for food in the 
other hemisphere, such as millet, rice, wheat, rye, barley, and oats, 
as well as our domestic animals — horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats, 
&c., were entirely unknown to the Americans. 

2. Maize, the great and almost sole foundation of American civili- 
zation, is exclusively indigenous, and was not known to the other 
hemisphere until after the discovery of America.^™ 

The kind of beans by the Spaniards called frijoles, still cultivated 
by the Indians in Mexico and Central America, is indigenous to our 
continent, and even now unused in the other. • 

If these facts be conceded, as they have heretofore been by all 
naturalists and archseologists, it will not be questioned that the agri- 
culture of America was of domestic origin, as well as the semi-civiliza- 
tion of any Indian cultivators. These premises alone estabhsh a 
primitive origin and high antiquity for the American races. 

Inquiry into their astronomical knowledge, their arithmetic, divi- 
sion of time, names of days, &c., will show that their whole system was 
peculiar ; and, if not absolutely original, must antedate all historical 
times of the Old World, since it has no parallel on record. The 
Chaldeans, the Chinese, the Egyptians, and other nations of the East- 
ern hemisphere, had divisions of time and astronomical knowledge 
more than 2000 years b. c. ; nevertheless, among ancient or modern 
Indians, there remains no trace of these trans- Atlantic systems. 

"Almost all the nations of the world appear, in their first attempts to compute time, to 
have resorted to lunar months, which they afterwards adjusted in various ways, in order to 
make them correspond with the solar year. In America, the Peruvians, the Chilians, and 
the Muyscas, proceeded in the same way ; but not so with the Mexicans. And it is a 
remarkable fact, that the short period of seven days (our week), so universal in Europe and 
in Asia, was unknown to all the Indians, either of North or South America." 380 [Had this 
learned and unbiassed philologist lived to read Lepsius,38i he would have excepted the 
Egyptians ; who divided their months into three decades, and knew nothing of weeks of 
senen days. Neither did the Chinese, ancient or modern,3**2 ever observe a " seventh day of 
rest." — G. E.G.] 

" All the nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and probably of Central America, which were 
within the pale of civilization, had two distinct modes of computing time. The first and 
vulgar mode, was a period of twenty days; which has certainly no connection with any 
celestial phenomenon, and which was clearly derived from their system of numeration, or 
arithmetic, whioh was peculiar to them. 

" The other computation of time was a period of thirteen days, which was designated as 
being the count of the moon, and which is said to have been derived from the number of 
days when, in each of its evolutions, the moon appears above the horizon during the greater 
part of the night. . . . 

" AVe distinguish the days of our months by their numerical order — first, second, third, 
&c., day of the month; and the days of our week by specific names — Sunday, Monday. 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 295 

&c. The Mexicans distinguished every one of their days of the period of twenty days, by 
a specific name — Cipaclli, Ehecatl, &c. ; and every day of the period of thirteen days, by a 
numerical order, from one to thirteen. " 3S3 

These can be neither called weeks nor months — they were arbi- 
ixaxy divisions, used long before the Christian era, and no doubt long 
before the Americans had any idea of the true length of the solar 
year. This they arrived at with considerable accuracy, but, as we 
have reason to believe, not many centuries before the Spanish con- 
quest. With regard to the origin of the astronomical knowledge of 
American races, there has been much discussion. Humboldt has 
pointed out some striking coincidences in the Mexican modes of com- 
puting time, names of their months, and similar accidents, with those 
of Thibet, China, and other Asiatic nations ; which (were philology 
certainty, and old Jesuit interpretation safe,) would look very much 
as if they had been borrowed, and engrafted on American systems 
at a comparatively recent period. On the other hand, he has laid 
stress upon some of the peculiarities especially distinguishing the 
Mexican calendar, and which cannot be ascribed to foreign origin — 
such as the fact already mentioned, that the Mexicans never counted 
by months or weeks. 

" What is remarkable too [says Humboldt], is, that the calendar of Peru affords indubit- 
able proofs not only of astronomical observations and of a certain degree of astronomical 
knowledge, but also that their origin was independent of that of the Mexicans. If both 
the Mexican and Peruvian calendars were not the result of their own independent obser- 
vations, we must suppose a double importation of astronomical knowledge — one to Peru, 
and another to Mexico — coming from different quarters, and by people possessed of differ- 
ent degrees of knowledge. There is not in Peru any trace of identity of the names of the 
days, or of a resort to the combination of two series. Their months were alternately of 
twenty-nine and thirty days, to which eleven days were added, to complete the year." 

jS'ow, if the Mexican calendar differed, '■Hoto ccelo,'' from that of the 
Peruvian, it follows that their respective origins were distinct ; and 
if neither, as Humboldt indicates, was constructed upon a foreign or 
Asiatic basis, how are any suppositions of antique intercourse between 
the two hemispheres justified by astronomy ? Wby, if the Peruvians 
did not borrow from the Mexicans, (their contemporaries on the same 
continent,) should they not have taught themselves, just as the Mexi- 
cans did their ownselves, systems as unlike each other as they are 
separated by nature, times, and spaces, from every one adopted by 
those types of mankind, whose physical structure is from these Ame- 
ricans utterly diverse ? 

Some of the astronomical observations of the Mexicans were also 
clearly local : the two transits of the sun, for instance, by the zenith 
of Mexico, besides others. 

Assuredly the major portion, then, of the astronomical knowledge 
of the aboriginal Americans was of domestic origin ; and any of the 



296 ABOEIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 

few points of contact with the calendars of the Old World, if not 
accidental, must have taken place at an exceedingly remote period 
of time. In fact, whatever may have come from the Old World was 
engrafted upon a system itself still older than the exotic shoots. 

But, if it still be contended that astronomy was imported, why did 
not the immigrants bring an alphabet or Asiatic system of writing, 
the art of working iron, mills,, wheel-barrows (all, with remembrance 
even of Oriental navigation, unknown in America) ? Or at least the 
seeds of millet, rice, wheat, oats, barley, &c., of their respective bota- 
nical provinces or countries ? Alas ! sustainers of the Unity-doctrme 
will be puzzled to find one fact among American aborigines to sup- 
port it. 

In conclusion, we have but to sum up the facts briefly detailed, 
and these results will be clearly deducible, namely : — 

1. That the continent of America was unknown not only to the 
ancient Egyptians and Chinese, but to the more modern Hebrews, 
Greeks, and Romans. 

2. That at the time of its discovery, this continent was populated 
by millions of people, resembling each other, possessing peculiar 
moral and physical characteristics, and in utter contrast with any 
people of the Old World. 

3. That these races were found surrounded everywhere by animals 
and plants specifically different from those of the Old World, and 
created, as it is conceded, in Amei'ica. 

4. That these races were found speaking several hundred languages, 
which, although often resembling each other in grammatical structure, 
differed in general entirely in their vocabularies, and were all radi- 
cally distinct from the languages of the Old World. 

5. That their monuments, as seen in their architecture, sculpture, 
earth-works, shell-banks, &c., from their extent, dissemination, and 
incalculable numbers, furnish evidence of very high antiquity. 

6. That the state of decomposition in which the skeletons of the 
mounds are found, and, above all, the peculiar anatomical structure 
of the few remaining crania, prove these mound-builders to have been 
both ancient and indigenous to the soil ; because American crania, 
antique as well as modern, are unlike those of any other race of an- 
cient or recent times. 

7. That the aborigines of America possessed no alphabet or truly- 
phonetic system of writing — that they possessed none of the domestic 
animals, nor many of the oldest arts of the Eastern hemisphere ; whilst 
their agricultural plants were indigenous. 

8. That their system of arithmetic was unique — that their astro- 
nomical knowledge, in the main, was indubitably of cis-Atlantic 



ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 297 

origin ; while their calendar was unlike that of any people, ancient or 
modern, of the other hemisphere. 

"Whatever exception may be taken to any of these propositions 
separately, it must be conceded that, when viewed together, they form 
a mass of cumulative testimony, carrjung the aborigines of America 
back to the remotest period of man's existence upon earth. 

The entire scope of argument on these subjects may be presented 
in the vigorous language of Lord Kaimes; expressing ideas entertained 
by himself and the authors in common, although more than seventy- 
nine years interlapse between their respective writings : — 

" The frigidity of the North Americans, men and women, diflFering in that particular from 
all other savages, is to me evidence of a separate race. And I am the more confirmed in 
that opinion, when I find a celebrated writer, whose abilities no person calls in question, 
endeavoring in vain to ascribe that circumstance to moral and physical causes. Si Pergama 
dextra defendi posset. 

"In concluding from the foregoing facts that there are different races of men, I reckon 
upon strenuous opposition ; not only from men biassed against what is new or uncommon, 
but from numberless sedate writers, who hold every distinguishing mark, internal as well 
as external, to be the effect of soil and climate. Against the former, patience is my only 
shield ; but I cannot hope for any converts to a new opinion, without removing the argu- 
ments urged by the latter. 

"Among the endless number of writers who ascribe supreme efficacy to the climate, 
Vitruvius shall take the lead.3S4 . . . 

" Upon summing up the whole particulars mentioned above, would one hesitate a mo- 
ment to adopt the following opinion, were there no counterbalancing evidence : viz., ' That 
God created many pairs of the human race, differing from each other both externally and 
internally; that he fitted these pairs for different climates, and placed each pair in its 
proper climate ; that the peculiarities of the original pairs were preserved entire in their 
descendants — who, having no assistance but their natural talents, were left to gather 
knowledge from experience, and in particular were left (each tribe) to form a language for 
itself; that signs were sufficient for the original pairs, without any language but what 
nature suggests ; and that a language was formed gradually, as a tribe increased in num- 
bers and in different occupations, to make speech necessary ? ' But this opinion, however 
plausible, we are not permitted to adOpt, being taught a different lesson by revelation : viz.. 
That God created but a single pair of the human species. Though we cannot doubt of the 
authority of Moses, yet his account of the creation of man is not a little puzzling, as it 
seems to contradict every one of the facts mentioned above. According to that account, 
different races of men were not formed, nor were men framed originally for different cli- 
mates. All men must have spoken the same language, viz., that of our first parents. And 
what of all seems the most contradictory to that account, is the savage state : Adam, as 
Moses informs us, was endued by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge ; and he 
certainly must have been an excellent preceptor to his children and their progeny, among 
whom he lived many generations. AVhence then the degeneracy of all men unto the savage 
state ? To account for that dismal catastrophe, mankind must have suffered some terrible 
convulsion. 

" That terrible convulsion is revealed to us in the history of the Tower of Babel." ^^ . . . 

Babylon's Tower (it is known to cuneiform students of the present 
day) did not exist before the reign of ISTebuchadnezar ; who built it 
during the seventh century B. c.^^ As the edifice does not concern 
Ethnology, we pass onward. 
38 



298 Morton's inedited mss. 



CHAPTER X. 

Excerpta 

PEOM Morton's inedited manuscripts. 

[Although not in tlie mature shape in which Dr. Morton habitu- 
ally submitted his reflections to the scientific world, and destitute, alas ! 
of his own improvements, a contribution, so valuable to that study 
of Man which owes its present momentum to his genius, must not be 
overlooked in "Types of Mankind." "With their joint acknowledg- 
ments to Mrs. S. Geo. Morton, for the unreserved use of whatever 
autographs their much-honored friend intended for eventual publica- 
tion, the authors annex two fragmentary essays. Overcome by ill- 
ness, the Doctor withdrew from his library on the 6th of May, 1851 ; 
leaving these, among other evidences of an enthusiasm for science 
which death alone could stifle. The authors take the more pleasure 
and pride in embodying such first rough-draughts, fresh as they flowed 
from his mind — not unstudied, but unadorned. Dr. Morton is here 
beheld in his office, writing down with characteristic simplicity, while 
disturbed by professional interruptions, the results of his incessant 
labor and meditation, couched in the language of truth.] 

[MANUSCRIPT A.] 

" On the Size of the Brain in Various Races and Families of Man ; 
with Ethnological Remarks. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. : 
Philadelphia and Edinburgh.'^ 

The importance of the brain as the seat of the faculties of the 
mind, is preeminent in the animal economy. Hence the avidity with 
which its structure and functions have been studied in our time ; for, 
although much remains to be explained, much has certainly been ac- 
complished. "We have reason to believe, not only that the brain is 
the centre of the whole series of mental manifestations, but that its 
several parts are so many organs ; each one of which performs its 
peculiar and distinctive office. But the number, locality, and func- 
tions of these several organs are far from being determined: nor 



ON THE SIZE OF THE BRAIN IN MAN. 299 

should this uncertainty sui-prise us, when we reflect on the slow and 
devious process by which mankind have arrived at some of the sim- 
plest ph^'siological truths, and the difficulties that environ all inquiries 
into the nature of the organic functions. 

In studying ethnology, and especially in comparing the crania of 
the several races, I was struck with the inadequacy of the methods. in 
use for determining the size and weight of the brain. On these 
methods, which are four in number, I submit the following remarks : 

1. The plan most frequently resorted to is that which measures the 
exterior of the head or skull within various corresponding points. 
"We are thus enabled to compare the relative conformation in diiferent 
individuals, and in this manner obtain some idea of the relative size 
of the brain itself. Such measurements possess a great value in cra- 
niolog}', and, we need hardly add, are the only ones that are available, 
in the living man. 

2. The plan of weighing the brain has been extensively practised 
in modern times, and with very instructive results. Haller found the 
encephalon to vary, in adiilt men, from a pound and a half to more 
than five pounds ; and the "Wenzels state the average of their experi- 
ments to range from about three pounds five ounces to three pounds 
ten ounces.* 

The experiments of the late Dr. John Sims, of London, which, from 
their number and accuracy, deserve great attention, place the average 
weight of the recent brain between three pounds eight and three 
pounds ten ounces, or nearly the same weight as that obtained by the 
Wenzels. Of 253 brains weighed by Dr. Sims, 191 were adults from 
twenty years old to seventy, and upwards ; and of the whole series, 
the lowest weighed two pounds, and the highest an ounce less than 
four pounds. f 

Prof. Tiedemann, of Heidelberg, a learned and accomplished ana- 
tomist, has pursued the same mode of investigation. After giving 
the weight of fifty-two European brains, he adds that 

" The weight of the brain in an adult European varies between three pounds two ounces 
and four pounds six ounces Troy. The brain of men who have distinguished themselves 
by their great talents are often very large. The brain of the celebrated Cuvier weighed 
four pounds, eleven ounces, four drachms, thirty grains, Troy ; and that of the distin- 
guished surgeon, Dupuytren, weighed four pounds ten ounces Troy. The brain of men en- 
dowed with but feeble intellectual powers, is, on the contrary, often very small, particularly 
in congenital idiotismus. The female brain is lighter than that of the male. It varies be- 
tween two pounds eight ounces and three pounds eleven ounces. I never found a female 
brnin that weighed four pounds. The female brain weighs, on an average, from four to 
eight ounces less than that of the male ; and this difference is already perceptible in a 
new-born child." % 

* Medico-Chirurg. Trans., six. p. 351. | Idem, p. 259. 

% Trans, of the Royal Soc. of London. 



300 Morton's inedited mss. 

Sir W. Harailton adds, that in the male about one brain in seven 
is found above four pounds Troy ; in the female hardly one in an 
hundred. 

These results are highly instructive, and furnish the average weight 
of the cerebral organs at the time of death ; but whoever will examine 
th§ valuable tables of Dr. Sims, will observe that various circum- 
stances may affect the weight of the brain, without, at the same time, 
modifying its size ; viz. : extreme sanguineous congestion ; fluids 
contained in the ventricles; interstitial effusion; extravasation of 
blood, and softening and condensation of structure. These morbid 
changes sometimes take place rapidly, while the absolute hulk of the 
brain remains unaltered. Again, the plan of weighing the encephalon 
must always be a very restricted one ; and is not likely ever to be 
practised on an extensive scale, except in the Caucasian and Wegro. 

3. Another, but indirect, mode of ascertaining the weight of the 
brain, has been practised by Sir William Hamilton, who " examined 
about 300 human skulls, of determined sex, the capacity of which, 
by a method he devised, was taken in sand, and the original weight 
thus recovered."* 

Respecting the process employed in these experiments I am not 
informed ; and I agree with Dr. Sims, that the weight of the brain 
cannot be determined by ascertaining the capacity of the cranium, by 
any method, however accurate in itself. 

More recently. Prof. Tiedemann has performed an elaborate series 
of experiments to determine the comparative weight of the brain in 
the different human races. 

" For this purpose," he observes, "I filled the skull through the foramen magnum with 
millet-seed, taking care to close the foramina and fissures, so as to prevent the escape of 
the seed, and at the same time striking the cranium with the palm of the hand, in order to 
pack its contents more closely. 1 then weighed the skull thus filled, and subtracted from 
it the weight of the empty one, and I thus determined the capacity of the cranium from 
the weight of the seed it was capable of containing." f 

The results obtained by Prof Tiedemann, like those of Sir William 
Hamilton, possess a great value in researches of this kind ; yet, un- 
fortunately, they are not absolute, either as respects the size or weight 
of the brain ; for it is evident that the second of these objects could 
only be obtained by employing a medium of the same density as the 
brain; and as to capacity ^ no method had, at that time (1837), been 
devised for obtaining it in cubic inches. 

4. Seeing, therefore, that the several processes just described are 
not absolute, but only comparative in their results, without affording 

* Essays and Heads of Lectures : by Dr. A. Monro, xxxix. 
f Das Hein des Negers, &c. p. 21. 



ON THE SIZE OF THE BRAIN IN MAN. 301 

either the true weight or true bulk of the brain, I soHcited my friend, 
Mr. John S. Phillips, to devise some more satisfactory method of ob- 
taining the desired object ; and this has been entirely successful in. 
the following manner. 

A tin cylinder Avas made, about two inches and three-fourths in 
diameter, and two feet two inches in height, standing on a foot, and 
banded with swelled hoops about two inches apart, and firmly sol- 
dered to prevent accidental flattening. A glass tube, hermetically 
sealed at one end, was cut ofi" so as to hold exact!}- five cubic inches 
of water by weight, at 60° Fahrenheit. A float of light wood, well 
varnished, two and one-fourth inches in diameter, with a slender rod 
of the same material fixed in its centre, was next dropped into the 
tin cylinder. Then five cubic inches of water, measured in the glass 
tube, were poui-ed into the cylinder, and the point at which the rod 
on the float stood above the top of the cjdinder, was marked by the 
edge of a file laid across its top. And, in like manner, the successive 
gradations on the float-rod, indicating five cubic inches each, were 
obtained by pouring five cubic inches from the glass tube gradatim, 
and marking each rise on the float-rod. The gradations thus ascer- 
tained were transferred to a mahogany rod, fitted with a flat foot, and 
these were again subdivided by means of compasses to mark the cubic 
inches and parts.* 

In order to measure the internal capacity of a cranium, the larger 
foramina must be first stopped with cotton, and the cavity then filled 
with leaden shot one-eighth of an inch in diameter, poured into the 
foramen magnum. This process should be efiected to repletion ; and 
for this purpose i't is necessary to shake the skull repeatedly, and, at 
the same time to press down the shot with the finger, or with the end 
of the funnel, until the cavity can receive no more. The shot are 
next to be transferred to the tin cylinder, which should also be well 
shaken. The mahogany rod being then dropped into the tin cylinder, 
with its foot resting on the shot, the capacity of the cranium will be' 
indicated by the number observed on the same plane with the top of 
the tube. 

I thus obtain the absolute capacity of the cranium, or hulk of the hrain 
in cubic inches ; nor can I avoid expressing my satisfaction at the 
singular accuracy of this method ; inasmuch as a skull of 100 cubic 
inches capacity, if measured any number of times with reasonable 
care, will not vary a single cubic inch. 

On first using this apparatus, I employed, in place of shot, white- 
pepper seed, which possessed the advantage of a spheroidical form 

* Crania Americana, 1839, p. 253. 



302 Morton's inedited mss. 

and general uniformity in the size of the grains. But it was soon 
manifest that the utmost care could not prevent considerable variation 
in several successive measurements, sometimes amounting to three 
or four cubic inches. Under these circumstances, but not until all 
the internal capacity measurements of the Crania Americana had been 
made in this way, I saw the necessity of devising some other medium 
with which to fill the cranium ; and after a fall trial of the shot, have 
permanently adopted it, with the satisfactory results above stated.* 
These remarks will explain the difference between the measurements 
published in the Crania Americana and those obtained from the same 
skulls by the revised method. f 

In an investigation of this nature, the question arises — At what 
age does the brain attain full development ? On this point, there is 
great diversity of opinion. Professor Sommering supposes this period 
to be as early as the third year. Sir "William Hamilton expresses 
himself in the following terms : " In man, the encephalon reaches its 
full size about seven years of ag6. This," he adds, " was never before 
proved." The latter remark leads us to infer that this able and labo- 
rious investigator regarded his proposition as an incontestable fact. 
Professor Tiedemann assumes the eighth year as the period of the 
brain's maximum growth. 

Dr. Sims, on the other hand, inferred from an extended series of 
experiments on the brain from a year old to upwards of seventy, 
that " the average weight goes on increasing from one year to twenty ; 
between twenty and thirty there is a slight increase in the average ; 
afterwards it increases, and arrives at the maximum between forty 
and fifty. After fifty, to old age, the brain gradually decreases in 
weight." These observations nearly correspond with those of Dr. 
Gall, but ai'e liable to various objections. 

Dr. John Eeid has also investigated this question on a large scale 
and with great care. After weighing 253 brains of both sexes and 
x)f various ages, he arrives at the conclusion that the encephalon 
arrives at its maximum size sooner than the other organs of the body ; 
that its relative size, when compared with the other organs, and to 
the entire body, is much greater in the child than in the adult; and 
that although the average weight of the male brain is absolutely 
heavier than that of the female, yet the average female brain, relative 
to the whole body, is somewhat heavier than the average male brain. 
Finally, he observes that his experiments do not afford any support 
to the proposition that the encephalon attains its maximum weight 
at or near the age of seven years. On this latter point, which is of 

* Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences of Philad. for April, 1841. 
t See my Catalogue of Skulls, 3d ed. 1849. 



ON THE SIZE OF THE BRAIN IN MAN. 303 

great importance in the present inquiry, I shall offer a few remarks. 
— The most obvious use of the sutures of the cranium is to subsen^e 
the process of growth, which they do by osseous depositions at their 
margins. Hence one of these sutures is equivalent to the interrupted 
structure that exists between the shaft and epiphysis of a long bone 
in the growing state. The shaft grows in length chiefly by accretions 
at its extremities ; and the epiphysis, like the cranial suture, disap- 
pears when the perfect development is accomplished. Hence we may 
infer that the skull ceases to expand whenever the sutures become 
consolidated with the proximate bones. In other words, the growth 
of the brain, whether in viviparous or in oviparous animals, is con- 
sentaneous with that of the skull, and neither can be developed with- 
out the presence of free sutures.* 

From these considerations, and from many comparisons, I cannot 
admit that the brain has attained its physical maturity at the age of 
seven or eight years ; neither is there satisfactory evidence to prove 
that it continues to grow after adult age. It may possibly increase 
and decrease in size and weight after that period, without altering 
the internal capacity of the cranium, which last measurement will 
always indicate the maximum size the encephalon had attained at 
(the) period of its greatest development; for in those instances in 
which this organ has been observed in a contracted or shrunken 
state, in very old persons, the cranial cavity has remained to all ap- 
pearance unaltered. I 

'We know that at, and often before, the age of sixteen years the 
sutures are already so firmly anchylosed as not to be separated with- 
out great difficulty, or even without fracture ; whence we may reason- 
ably infer that the encephalon has nearly, if not entii'ely, attained its 

» I have in my possession the skull of a mulatto boy who died at the age of eighteen 
years. In this instance, the sagittal suture is entirely wanting ; in consequence, the lateral 
expansion of the cranium has ceased in infancy, or at whatever period the suture became 
consolidated. Hence also the diameter between the parietal protuberances is less than 4.5 
inches, instead of 5, which last is the Negro average. The squamous sutures, however, 
are fully open, whence the skull has continued to expand in the upward direction, until 
it has reached the average vertical diameter of the Negro, or 5.5 inches. The coronal 
suture is also wanting, excepting some traces at its lateral termini ; and the result of this 

last deficiency is seen in the very inadequate of the forehead, which is low and narrow, 

but elongated below through the agency of the various cranio-facial sutures. The lamdoidal 
suture is perfect, thus permitting posterior elongation ; and the growth in this direction, 

together with the full vertical diameter, has enabled the brain to attain the bulk of 

cubic inches, or about less than the Negro average. I believe that the absence or 

partial development of the sutures may be a cause of idiocy by checking the growth of the 
brain, and thereby impairing or destroying its functions. See Proceedings of the Academy, 
for August, 1841. 

I i\Ir. George Combe, System of Phrenology, p. 83, is of the opinion that when the brain 
contracts, the inner table of the skull follows it, while the outer remains stationary. 



304 Morton's inedited mss 

growth ; and I have therefore commenced my expeiiiuents with this 
period of life. I am aware that it cannot be as safely assumed for 
the nations who inhabit the frigid and temperate zones, as for some 
inter-tropical races — the Hindoos, Arab-Egyptians, and E'egroes, for 
example ; for these people are proverbially known to reach the adult 
age, both physically and morally, long before the inhabitants of more 
northern climates. But, if the average period of the full development 
of the brain could be ascertained in all the races, it would, perhaps, 
not greatly vary from the age of sixteen years. 

It is evident that this age cannot be always positively determined 
in the dried skull; yet by a careful comparison of the teeth and 
sutures, in connection with the general development of the cranial 
structure, I have had little difficulty in keeping within the prescribed 
limit. 

In classing these skulls into the two sexes, I have been in part 
governed by positive data ; but in the greater number this question 
has been proximately determined by merely comparing the develop- 
ment and conformation of the cranial structure. 

I have excluded from the Table the crania of idiots, dwarfs, and 
those of persons whose heads have been enlarged or otherwise modi- 
fied by any obvious morbid condition. So, also, no note has been 
taken of individuals who blend dissimilar races, as the mulatto, for 
example — the ofiispring of the Caucasian and the IN'egro. Those 
instances, however, which present a mixture of two divisions of the 
same great race, are admitted into the Table. Such is the modern 
Fellah of the Valley of the Mle, in whom the intrusive Arab is 
engrafted on the Old Egyptian. 

The measurements comprised in this Memoir have been derived, 
without exception, from skulls in my own collection, in order that 
their accuracy may at any time be tested by myself or by others. I 
have also great satisfaction in stating, that all these measurements 
have been made with my own hands. I at one time .employed a 
person to assist me ; but having detected some errors in his numbers, 
I have been at the pains to revise them all, and can now therefore 
vouch for the accuracy of these multitudinous data. 

My collection at this time embraces [*] human crania, among which, 
however, the different races are very unequally represented. ITor has 
it been possible, for reasons already mentioned, to subject the entire 
series to the adopted measurement. Again, some of these are too 
much broken for this purpose ; while many others are embalmed 
heads, which cannot be measured, on account of the presence of 
bitumen or of desiccated tissues. ***** 

[* In May, 1851, about 837 skulls {MS. addenda to Catalogue of 1849). Since augmented 
by one or two dozen. — G. R. G.] 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 305 

[MANUSCRIPT B.] 
(Origin of the Human Species.) 

Before proceeding to an analysis of these materials, I purpose to 
make a very few remarks on the origin of the Human Species as a 
zoological question, and one inseparably associated with classification 
in Ethnology. 

After twenty years of observation and reflection, during which 
period I have always approached this subject with diffidence and 
caution ; after investigating for myself the remarkable diversities of 
opinion to which it has given rise, and after weighing the difficulties 
that beset it on every side, I can find no satisfactory explanation of 
the diverse phenomena that characterize physical Man, excepting in 
the doctrine of an original plurality of races. 

The commonly received opinion teaches, that all mankind have 
been derived from a primeval pair ; and that the differences now 
observable among the several races, result from the operation of two 
principal causes : 

1. The influence of climate, locality, civilization, and other physical 
and moral agents, acting through long periods of time. The mani- 
fest inadequacy of this hypothesis, led the late learned and lamented 
Dr. Priehard to offer the following ingenious explanation. 

2. The diversities among mankind are mainly attributable to the 
rise of accidental varieties, which, from their isolated position and 
exclusive intermarriage, have rendered their pecuhar traits permanent 
among themselves, or, in other words, indelible among succeeding 
generations of the same stock. 

The preceding propositions, more or less modified and blended 
together, are by many ethnologists regarded as adequate to the expla- 
nation of all the phenomena of diversity observable in Man. 

If, however, we were to be guided in this inquiry solely by the 
evidence derived from N^ature, whether directly, in the study of man 
himself, or collaterally by comparison with the other divisions of the 
zoological series, our conclusions might be altogether different : we 
would be led to infer that our species had its origin not in one, but 
in many creations; that these were widely distributed into those 
localities upon the earth's surface as were best adapted to their pecu- 
liar wants and physical constitutions ; and that, in the lapse of time, 
these races, diverging from their primitive centres, met and amalga- 
mated, and have thus given rise to those intermediate links of organ- 
ization which now connect the extremes together.* 

* The doctrine of a plurality of original creations for the human family, is by no means 

39 



306 Morton's inedited mss. 

In accordance with this view, what are at present termed the five 
races would be more appropriately called groups. Each of these 
groups is again divisible into a smaller or greater number of primary 
races, each of which has itself expanded from a primordial nucleus or 
centre. To illustrate this proposition, we may suppose that there 
were several- centres for the American groups of races, of which the 
highest in the scale are the Toltecan nations — the lowest, the Fue- 
gians. E'or does this view conflict with the general principle, that 
all these nations and tribes have had, as I have elsewhere expressed 
it, a common origin ; for by this term is only meant an indigenous 
relation to the country they inhabit, and that collective identity of 
physical traits, mental and moral endowments, language, &c., which 
characterise all the American races.* 

The same remarks are applicable to all the other human races ; but 
in the present infant state of ethnological science, the designation of 
these primitive centres would be a task of equal delicacy and difficulty. 

It would not be admissible in this place, to inquire into the respec- 
tive merits of these propositions ; and we shall dismiss them for the 
present with a few brief remarks. 

If all the varieties of mankind were derived from a single aboriginal 
type, we ought to find the approximation to this type more and more 
apparent as we retrace the labyrinth of time, and approach the primeval 
epochs of histoiy. But what is the result ? We examine the vener- 
able monuments of Egypt, and we see the Caucasian and the I^egro 

new ; for it was believed and expounded by a learned Rabbi of the Apostolic age, in a com- 
mentary (the Targum) on the Pentateuch. Rev. J. Pye Smith, Relation between the Holy 
Scriptures and Geology, p. 393. 

I have invariably, when treating of this subject, avowed my belief in the aboriginal diver- 
sity of mankind, independently of the progressive action of any physical or accidental causes. 
The words of the Hebrew Targum are precisely to the point: "God created Man red, 
white, and black." 

I now venture to give a fuller and somewhat modified explanation of their origin. See 
Crania Americana, p. 3; Crania ^gyptiaca, p. 37; Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal 
Race of America, p. 36 ; and Hybridity of Animals considered in reference to the question of the 
Unity of the Human Species, in Amer. Journal of Science and Arts, 1847. 

* Niebuhr expresses this idea admirably when he remarks, that it is "false reasoning" 
to say, " that nations of a common stock must have had a common origin, from which they 
were genealogically deduced." History of Rome, I., p. 37. In other words, people of a 
common stock may have had several or many origins. Such appears to be the fact not only 
with man, but with all the inferior animals. We are nowhere told the latter were created 
in pairs. "Male and female created He them" — and the same words are used in refer- 
ence to the whole zoological series. 

Prof. Bailey of West Point, one of the most successful microscopists of the present day, 
has shown, that the mud taken from some of the deep-sea soundings on the coast of the 
United States contains, in every cubic inch, hundreds of millions of living calcareous Poly- 
thalmia. Will any one pretend that these animals were created in pairs, or had their 
origin in Mesopotamia ? 



ON THE OEIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 307 

depicted, side by side, master and slave, twenty-two centuries before 
Christ ; while inscriptions establish the same ethnological distinctions 
eight hundred years earlier in time. [^''] Abundant confirmation 
of the same general principle is also found on the numberless vases 
from the tombs of Etruria ; the antique sculptures of India ; the pic- 
torial delineations of the earliest Chinese annals ; the time-honored 
ruins of ISTineveh, and from the undated tablets of Peru, Yucatan, and 
Mexico. In all these localities, so far removed by space from each 
other, and by time from us, the distinctive characteristics of the 
human races are so accurately depicted as to enable us, for the most 
part, to distinguish them at a glance. 

We earnestly' maintain that the preceding views are not irrecon- 
cileable with the Sacred Text, nor inconsistent with Creative "Wisdom 
as displayed in the other kingdoms of Nature. On the contrary, they 
are calculated to extend our knowledge and exalt our conceptions of 
Omnipotence. By the simultaneous creation of a plurality of original 
stocks, the population of the Earth became not an accidental result, 
but a matter of certainty. Many and distant regions which, in accord- 
ance with the doctrine of a single origin, would have remained for 
thousands of years unpeopled and unknown, received at once their 
allotted inhabitants ; and these, instead of being left to struggle with 
the vicissitudes of chance, were from the beginning adapted to those 
varied circumstances of climate and locality which yet mark their 
respective positions upon the earth.* 

I. THE CAUCASIAN GROUP. 

The Teutonic Race. — I use this appellation in the comprehensive 
sense in which it has been employed by Professor Adelung ; for the 
great divisions established by this distinguished scholar, though based 
exclusively on philological data, are fully sustained by comparisons 
in physical ethnology. Of the thi'ee great divisions, the Scandinavian 
lies chiefly to the north of the Baltic sea ; the Suevic and Cimbric 
on the south. 

1. The Suevic nations embrace the Prussians on one hand, the 
TjTolese on the other ; while between these lie the Austrians, S\viss, 
Bavarians, Alsatians, and the inhabitants of the Upper and Middle 

* See Rev. J. Pye Smith : Relation between the Holy Scriptures and Geology, 3d. ed. 
pp. 398-400. Also, Hon. and Rev. William Herbert : Amyrillidacece, p. 338. 

" Les livres Juifs n'entendent pas ^tablir que leur premier homme ait 6t<3 le pere du 
genre humain, mais seulement celui de leur espece privilegie. II ne pent cons^quemment y 
avoir aucune impiety i reconnaitre parmi nous plusieurs espfeces qui, chaqune, auront eu 
leur Adam et leur berceau particulier." Bory de St. Vincent: U Homme, I., p. 66. 



308 moeton's inedited mss. 

E,liine. These nations once extended into the north-eastern section . 
of Europe, whence they were driven by the Sclavonic tribes. 

2. The CiMBKic nations occupy western Germany, and among 
many subordinate families, embrace the Saxons, Frisians, Holland- 
ers, &c. 

3. The Scandinavian race is regarded by Adelung as a mixture of 
Suevic and Cimbric tribes. It includes the Danes, Swedes, Goths, 
and Icelanders ; for although it is a disputed question, whether the 
Goths came from Scandinavia, or from the northern shores of the 
Baltic sea, the evidence preponderates in favor of the former opinion. 
The Vandals, however, appear to have been strictly a Suevic people. 

Of these great divisions I possess but twenty-three skulls, of which 
twenty-one are used in the Table. Of this number, all but one have 
been obtained from hospitals and institutions for paupers, whence we 
may infer that they pertain to the least cultivated portion of their 
race. The proportion of males to females is twelve to nine. 

The exception alluded to above is the skull of a Dutch gentleman 
of noble family, who was born in Utrecht, received a good education, 
was of convivial habits, and died at an early age, in the island of 
Java. I particularize this cranium, because it is by far the largest in 
my whole series ; for it measures 114 cubic inches of internal capa- 
city. Contrasted with this is a female Swedish head, kindly sent 
me, with several others, by Professor Retzius of Stockholm, which 
sinks to sixty-five cubic inches. Between these extremes the mean 
or average is ninety. 

The Anglo-Saxons. — The next division of the Teutonic race is 
the Anglo-Saxon ; that remarkable people who have made their way 
with the sword, but marked their track with civilization. At an 
early period of the Christian era, Angli and Saxones, two powerful 
tribes, occupied the country between the Cimbrian peninsula, (now 
called Jutland,) and along the western shore of the Elbe to the termi- 
nation of this river in the Baltic sea. These people commenced their 
piratical incursions to the coast of Britain in the fourth century, and 
were masters of the island as early as A. D. 449. They found it chiefly 
inhabited by the native Britons, who were Celts ; but these latter 
people had been for nearly 400 years under the dominion of the Eo- 
mans, who had largely colonized the country ; and so complete was 
this subjugation, that the Latin language was the colloquial speech 
of all Britain at the fall of the Roman empire, excepting among the 
Picts of the coast of Scotland.* From the period of the Anglo-Saxon 
invasion, the population became a blended mixture of the Celtic, Pe- 

* Cethnm : Etruria Celtica, I. 4. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 309 

lasgic, and Teutonic races, among which, the latter soon took the 
preponderance, and gave its language to the British Islands. The 
K'orman conquest added another ph^'sical element of the Teutonic 
stock. 

This fusion of three families into one, varying in degree in different 
sections of these islands, has given rise to a physiognomy varying in 
several respects from the Teutonic caste ; while the cranium itself is 
less spheroidal, and more decidedly oval, than is characteristic of that 
people. 

I have not hitherto exerted myself to obtain crania of the Anglo- 
Saxon race, except in the instance of individuals who have been sig- 
nalized by their crimes ; and this number is too small to be of much 
importance in a generalization like the present. Yet, since these 
skulls have been procured without any reference to their size, it is 
remai'kable that five give an average of 96 cubic inches for the bulk 
of the brain ; the smallest head measuring 91, and the largest 105 
cubic inches. It is necessary, however, to observe, that these are all 
male crania ; but, on the other hand, they pertained to the lowest 
class of society, and three of them died on the gallows for the crime 
of murder. 

The Anglo-Americans conform, in all their characteristics, to the 
parent stock. They possess, in common with their English ancestors, 
a more elongated head than the unmixed Germans. The few crania 
in my possession have, without exception, been derived from the 
lowest and least cultivated portion of the community — malefactors, 
paupers, and lunatics. The largest brain has been ninety-seven cubic 
inches ; the smallest, eighty-two ; and the mean of ninety accords 
witli that of the collective Teutonic race. The sexes of these seven 
skulls are, four male and three female. 

Two or three circumstances connected with the ethnology of the 
Anglo-American race, seem to call for a passing notice on this 
occasion. 

Mr. Haldemann has observed that when, in the last century, the 
color of the American Indian was supposed to be owing to climate, 
it was boldly insisted that the descendants of Europeans in this 
country had already made some progress in a change of color. Since 
that time an hundi'ed years have elapsed ; yet, I presume that no sen- 
sible person will maintain that they have brought with them any con- 
firmation of the postulate in question. 

I Dr. Prichard has been informed that the heads of Europeans in the 
'"West Indies approach those of the aboriginal Indian in form, inde- 
pendently of intermixture. On this point I feel qualified to express 
an opinion. I passed three months in the West Indies, and visited 



310 Morton's inedited mss. 

eiglit of the islands, when slavery was everywhere in vogue (1834) ; 
and I can unhesitatingly declare that I saw nothing to confirm this 
assertion, which I regard as wholly idle and gratuitous. The only 
difference that occurred to me was, that the better class of English 
women had become paler, or whiter, and thinner, on account of the 
great and constant heat of the climate, and consequent neglect of 
exercise. 

The observations of Dr. Pinkard, an intelligent English author,* 
correspond entirely with my own. He relates that he saw in the Island 
of Barbadoes (where I myself passed six weeks), an English family 
that had lived there through at least six generations ; " and yet," he 
adds, " one would suppose them to have been born in Europe, so fine 
was the skin, so clear the complexion, and so well formed the fea- 
tures." Similar remarks have been made respecting the Mexican 
Spaniards, and the colonists of South America generally. 

Although but skulls are included in the preceding Teutonic 

series, yet, when we take into consideration their variety and authen- 
ticity, and the fact that they have been collected without regard to 
size, I have no hesitation in assuming ninety cubic inches for the 
average of the brain in the Germanic family of nations ; and I am 
further convinced that this standard is the highest among the races 
of men. 

We should reasonably look for a preponderating brain m a race 
that is not more remarkable for its conquests and its colonies, than 
for the extent of its civilization ; a race that has peopled IsTorth Ame- 
rica, reduced all India to vassalage, and is fast spreading itself over 
Polynesia, Southern Africa and Australia ; a race that is destined to 
plough the field of Palestine, and reap the harvests of the J^ile. 

The Sclavonic Race. — ^It is remarked by Dr. Prichard, that our 
acquaintance with the Germanic nations dates back three centuries 
before Christ; but the history of the Slavonic tribes begins nine cen- 
turies later. They are obviously the descendants of the ancient Sar- 
matians, and, among many smaller nations, at present embrace the 
Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Bohemians, and Moravians. 

I much regret that my cranial series possesses but a single example 
derived from this race, — the skull of a woman of Olmutz sent me by 

Prof Retzius, and which measures only cubic inches. I record \ 

this deficiency in my collection, in the hope that some person inte- 
rested in pursuits of this nature may be induced to provide me with 
materials for making the requisite comparisons. My impression is, 
that the Sclavonic brain will prove much less voluminous than that 
of the Teutonic race. 

* Quoted by Rudolphi : Anthropologic, p. 153. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 311 

The Fixxisn Eace. — Among these people I consider the true type 
to be preserved in the Western Finns — the aboriginal inhabitants of 
Scandinavia, the predecessors of the Teutonic nations; for the Estho- 
nians, the Tchudic tribes of Middle Russia antl Permia, and, above 
all, the Ugrians of Siberia, have lived so long in contact with the 
Mongolian races, that they often present a very mixed physical cha- 
racter.* We should, therefore, be cautious in grouping these com- 
munities into a supposed cognate race, merely from analogies of 
language, which, however important as aids in ethnology, are often 
no better than blind guides. f 

I am the more particular in making these remarks, because the 
Madjars of Hungary have been classed, not only with the Finns, but 
even with the Bashkirs and Votiaks of Siberia, upon no other grounds 
than those just mentioned. J But mai'k a single admitted fact : the 
Tchudish tribe of Metzegers speaks the Turkish language, and, for 
this reason, has been by some writers actually classed with the Tartar 
races, with whom they were supposed to be affiliated ! And, since 
the stronger often gives its language to the weaker race, is it not 
most probable that the Bashkirs, Votiaks, and other tribes have de- 
rived their language, by adoption, from the contiguous Tchudic 
population ? 

Again, the present Madjars of Hungary entered that country in the 
middle of the nijith century, not to take possession of an uninhabited 
region, but to mingle with a numerous existing population ; whence 
their characteristics, both of mind and body, must have undergone a 
remarkable change, and become highl}^ improved. 

History indicates the cause of these changes when it tells us, that 
when the Madjars arrived in Hungary they at once formed political 
alliances with the German princes, in order to check or expel "the 
common enemies of both nations, the Sclavonian races." It is to be 
inferred, as a matter of course, under these circumstances, that the 
intrusive Madjars formed social connexions, not only with the Sclavo- 
nians, whom they reduced to subjection, in the heart of Pannonia, 
but also with the surrounding German communities ; and, in this 

* For evidence of this kind in relation to the inliabitants of north-western Asia, even in 
very ancient times, see Herodotus, Melpomene, cap. cviii., and Dr. Wiseman's Lectures, pp. 
103, 105. Pallas further informs us that the Nogais, who are decided Mongolians, are fast 
losing their natural traits by intermarriage with the Russians. — Trav. in Russia, p. 425. 

f A single example, now before our eyes, will illustrate this proposition. " Two hundred 
years since, the Irish language prevailed over the whole province of Leinster. English was 
spoken only in the cities and great towns. At the present moment not one person in a 
thousand, even of the lowest rank of the natives of that district, understand Irish." — 
Bttham: Etruria Celtica, i. 31. Here, then, ate 2,000,000 of Celts, who, if judged solely 
by their spoken language, would be classed with the Anglo-Saxon race. 

J Prichard : Researches, &c. iii. 326, 380. 



312 Morton's inedited mss. 

manner, the blending of dissimilar stocks has produced the modified 
race so favorably known in the modern Madjar, 

For the only skull I possess of this race I am indebted to Prof. 
Retzius, of Stockholm. It is tbat of a woman from the parish of 
Kerni, in Finland. It has all the characteristics of an unmixed Euro- 
pean head, and measures eighty-six cubic inches of internal capacity. 

The Pelasgic Race. — Every one knows that the Pelasgic tribes 
were the aboriginal inhabitants of Greece ; that they, in the progress 
of time, and for unknown reasons, changed their name to Hellenes, 
and were thus the ancestors of the G-reeks. 

The Pelasgic occupation of Greece ascends into "the night of 
time." They may be regarded as the indigenous possessors, the 
autoctliones of the soil. Indeed there is reason to believe that' there 
was a civilization in Pelasgia long before that which history attributes 
to the Hellenic race, though generally attiibuted to the progenitors 
of that people ; for a priest of Sais assured Solon (b. c. 400) that the 
Saitic writings accounted for an antecedent Grecian epoch of 8000 
years ; and that Greece had moreover possessed a great and beautiful 
city yet 1000 years earlier in time.* 

Statements of this kind, which were once rejected on account of 
their seeming extravagance, now claim a respectful notice when 
viewed in connexion with the new lights of chronology. We are, 
indeed, compelled to acknowledge a great antiquity for a race that 
could produce the divine morality of Hesiod 900 years before Christ. 

I do not use the term Pelasgic with ethnological precision, but in 
this designation place the Greeks and Romans, and their descendants 
in various parts of Europe — Greece and Italy, and, in more isolated 
examples, in Spain, France, and Britain. In the same category I 
place the Persians, Armenians, Circassians, Georgians, and many 
other kindred tribes, together with the Grseco-Egyptians. 

Of four adult Circassian crania brought me by Mr. Gliddon, two 
are male and two female. The former we may suppose, from appear- 
ances, to have been associated with a full share of manly beauty, and 
measure ninety and ninety-four cubic inches of internal capacity ; the 
female heads measure seventy-nine and eighty ; whence we obtain 
eighty-six cubic inches as the mean of all. One of these skulls, that 
of a woman who had passed the prime of life, is remarkable for the 
harmony of its proportions, and especially for the admirable conforma- 
tion of the nasal bones. 

I possess, through the kindness of Mr. Gliddon, two female Parsee 
skulls, which, though small, present a beautiful form. One measures 
eighty-nine cubic inches, the other only seventy-five. 

* See the Timseus of Plato. Taylor's Trans, ii. p. 466. The accurate Niebuhr remarks 
that, " in very remote times the Peloponnesus was not Grecian." 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 313 

It is a Mghly interesting fact, that wlienever the ruling caste is re- 
presented in the statues and bas-reliefs of ancient Persia, the physiog- 
nomy always conforms to the Pelasgic type. A remarkable example 
is seen in the head of the first Darius (b. c. 500), sculptured on the 
Tablet of Behistun, and copied by Major Rawlinson. \_Supra, Fig. 
44]. Of the same character are the antique heads of Persepolis, 
Teheran and Chapoor. But we no sooner enter Assyria than the 
type is wholly changed for those in which the Semitic features are 
dominant, as seen at ISTineveh, Khorsabad, and other places. 

The arts have become the handmaid of ethnology; and it may be 
regarded as an axiom in this science, that the older the sculptures and 
paintings, the more perfect and distinctive are the cranial types they 
represent. Again, there is no evidence to prove that any one of the 
ancient races, simply as such, is older than another. 

Of four adult Armenian skulls, three pertain to men ; and the ave- 
rage size of the brain is but eighty -three cubic inches. I have felt 
some hesitancy in admitting these, skulls in this place, for two rea- 
sons : 1st, because their characteristics incline almost as much to the 
Arab type as to the Pelasgic ; and, 2dly, because the term Armenian 
is not always used in a strictly national sense in the East, but is ap- 
plied to a class of merchants, whose ethnological affinities must be 
often very mixed and uncertain. But, inasmuch as these crania are 
inserted in my original Table, I Mall not now displace them. 

Greeh and Qraeco-Egyptian Heads. — Mr. Combe describes several 
ancient Greek skulls he had seen, as of large size, with a full deve- 
lopment of the coronal and frontal regions. The head, in classic 
sculpture, is often small in comparison with the whole figure ; whence 
the remark that a woman proportioned like the Venus de Medicis 
would necessarily be a fool. The same disparity has been noticed by 
"Winkelmann in the Farnese Hercules ; but in the Apollo Belvidere, 
[infra, Fig. 339] the perfect type of manly beauty, the head is faultless. 

Whether this smallness of head was a reality among the Greeks, or 
only a conventional rule of art, has been a disputed question ; but we 
may safely adopt the latter proposition. There can be no doubt, how- 
ever, that the ancient Pelasgic was smaller than the modern Teutonic 
brain ; and the proofs, which are derived, not from Greece itself, but 
from Egypt, are contained in the following section : 

Of 129 embalmed heads in my collection, 22 present Pelasgic cha- 
racters, and of these 18 are capable of measurement. Some of them 
present the most' beautiful Caucasian proportions, while others merge 
by degrees into the Egyptian type ; and I am free to admit that, in 
various instances, I have been at a loss in my attempts to classify 
these two great divisions of the Miotic series. Hence it is that nine 
40 



314 Morton's inedited mss. 

skulls, which, in my original analysis were placed with, the Pelasgic 
group, I have, on a further and more elaborate comparison, transferred 
to the Egyptian series. 

The Greeks were numerous in Egypt even before the Persian in- 
, vasion, b. c, 525, and their number greatly increased after the con- 
quest by Alexander the G-reat, nearly 200 years later (b. c, 332). 
"When the Romans, in turn, took possession of the country thirty 
years before our era, the Greeks had already enjoyed uninterrupted 
communication with it for five centuries. Their colonies were 300 
years old ; and it is, therefore, by no means surprising that the Eg}^p- 
tian-Greek population, w^hich chiefly inhabited Lower Egypt, should 
be largely represented in the catacombs of Memphis. They are fewer 
in proportion in Theban sepulchres ; and yet fewer as we ascend the 
Nile ; and are hardly seen in the cemeteries of the rural districts. 
. The peaceful occupation of the Delta by the Greeks, for a long period 
of time, must necessarily have caused an interminable mixture of the 
two races, and fully accounts ioy that blended type of cranial con- 
formation so common in the catacombs. 

It is further remarkable that these Graeco-Egyptian heads., which I 
have separated from the other Nilotic crania by their conformation 
only, and consequently without any regard to size, present an average 
of eighty-seven cubic inches for the size of the brain ; or, no less than 
seven cubic inches above that of the pure Egyptian race, and but 
three inches less than the average I have assumed for the Teutonic 
nations. Yet, no one of this series is of preponderating size ; for 
the largest measures but ninety-seven cubic inches, while the smallest 
descends to seventy-four.* 

Again, if we take the mean of the whole twenty-eight crania em- 
braced in the present division, we find it to be eighty-six cubic 
inches. 

The Celtic Race. — The Celts who, with the cognate Gauls, at one 

* Dr. J. C. Warren, of Boston, possesses two finely preserved Soman crania, from the 
ashes of Pompeii. It is many years since I saw them, but they appeared to be highly cha- 
racteristic of this division of the Pelasgic race. The difference between the Roman and 
Greek heads is familiar to all observers, but it has not been satisfactorily explained. It 
may have arisen from alliances between the intrusive Pelasgic and some neighboring, but 
dissimilar tribe, in Italy. One of the first acts of the Romans was to seize the Sabine 
women, in order to people their infant colony. These Sabines, however, are said also to 
have been of Pelasgic origin ; but that the rural population of Italy, at that period, em- 
braced a large proportion of Celts, may be inferred from history and confirmed by the Etrus- 
can vases ; for wherever these relics, now so numerous, picture the sylvan deities, whether 
as fauns or satyrs, they are represented with marked Celtic features ; while the higher and 
ruling caste, represented on the same vessels, has a perfect Grecian physiognomy. See 
Sir William Hamilton's Etruscan Vases, passim. The true Roman profile, however, is not 
unfrequent on the antique bas-reliefs of Persia. Flandin : Voyage en Perse, pi. 33, 48. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 315 

period, extended their tribes from Asia Minor to the British Islands, 
are now chiefly confined, as an unmixed people, to the west and south- 
west of Ireland, whence have been derived the six crania embraced 
in the Table. These range between ninety-seven as a maximum and 
seventy-eight as a minimum of the size of the brain ; and the mean, 
which is eighty-seven cubic inches, will probal)ly prove to be above 
that of the entire race, and not exceed eighty-five. 

France, Spain, and parts of Britain, partake largely of Celtic blood, 
but so variously blended with the Teutonic and Pelasgic branches of 
the Caucasian group as to form a singularly mixed population. If a 
series of crania could be obtained from the old Provincial divisions 
of France, they would constitute a study of extreme interest; for 
those of the northern section ought to conform in a marked degree 
to the German type, from their long intercourse (since a. d. 420) with 
the Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths, and other Teutonic tribes. Those 
in the south would present a greater infusion of the Eoman physiog- 
nomy, with some Greek traits ; while the intermediate communities 
would retain a marked preponderance of their primitive Celtic char- 
acteristics. For Caesar restricts the true Continental Celts between 
the Garonne on the south and the Seine on the north : for although 
the genuine Gauls were a Celtic people, many German tribes bore 
the same collective name among the Romans, in the same way that 
all the nations of the far Korth were designated Scythians. 

Europe was successively invaded by the Celtic, Teutonic, and Scla- 
vonic races. The Celtic migration is of extreme antiquitj^, yet there 
can be no question that they displaced preexisting tribes. Among 
the latter may be mentioned the Iberians of Spain, who are yet repre- 
sented by a fragment of their race — the Basques or Euskaldunes of 
Biscay. 

The Indostanic Family. — 'So part of the world presents a greater 
diversity of human races than the country which bears the collective 
name of India. Exotic nations have repeatedly conquered that un- 
fortunate region, and to a certain degree amalgamated with its primi- 
tive inhabitants. In other instances, the original Hindoos remain 
unmixed; and beside these, again, the mountainous districts still 
contain what may be called fragments of tribes which have taken 
refuge there, in remote times, in order to escape the sword or the 
yoke of strangers. 

That peninsular India was originally peopled, at least in part, by 
races of very dai"k and even black complexion, is beyond a question. 
These people are stigmatised as Barbarians by their conquerors, the 
Ayras — a fair race, with Sanscrit speech, whose primal seats were in 
eastern Persia. They now occupy the country between the Himalaya 



316 Morton's inedited mss. 

mountains on the north, the Vindya on the south, and between the 
Indian ocean and the Bay of Bengal.* In this region, called Ayra- 
Varta, or India Proper, live those once-powerful tribes which it has 
taken the English more than half a century to subdue. The occu- 
pancy of India by these Persian tribes dates, according to M. Guigniaut. 
from the year 3101 before Christ, when also it is supposed the divi- 
sion of castes was instituted. [ ^^ ] 

Of thirty-two adult Indostanic skulls in my collection, eight only 
can be identified with tribes of the Ayra or conquering race ; nor 
even in this small number is there unequivocal proof of the afiinity in 
question. The largest head in the series, that of a Brahmin who was 
executed, in Calcutta, for murder, measures ninety-one cubic inches 
for the size of the brain — the smallest head, seventy-nine. Two 
others pertain to Thuggs, remarkable for an elongated form and 
lateral flatness. The mean of these Ayra heads is eighty-six cubic 
inches. 

Contrasted with this people, and occupying the country adjacent to 
the Bay of Bengal, are the Bengalees — small of stature, feeble in 
constitution, and timid in disposition. They are obviously an abori- 
ginal race, upon whom a foreign language has been imposed ; and 
are far inferior, both mentally and physically, to the true Ayras. 
Weak and servile themselves, they are surrounded by warrior castes; 
and perhaps the most remarkable feature of their character is the 
absence of will, and implicit obedience to those who govern them. 

Of these child-like people, my collection embraces twenty-four adult 
crania, of which the largest measures ninety cubic inches ; the small- 
est, sixty-seven ; and the mean of all is but seventy-eight. 

All the Caucasian families of which we have spoken, belong to that 
vast chain of nations called Indo-European, in consequence of their 
having one common tongue, the Sanscrit, as the basis of their varied 
languages. This is also the Japetic race, and it extends from India 
proper in one direction to Iceland in the other. 

The Semitic Family. — This group includes the Chaldeans, Assy- 
rians, Syrians, and Lydians of antiquity, together with the Arabians 
and Hebrews. 

The immense number of Jews in Egypt, even after the Exode (b. c. 
1528), and especially during the Greek dominion of the Lagid8e,f 
would lead us to search for the embalmed bodies of this people in the 
catacombs ; and hence it was no surprise to me to identify, with con- 
siderable certainty, seven Semitico-Egyptian heads, in all of which 

* See President Salisbury's Discourse on Sanscrit and Arabic Literature : New Haven, 
1843. The Ayra race derive their name from Iran, Persia. 
■j- Josephus, B. XII. Chap. 2. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 317 

the Hebrew physiognomy is more or less apparent, and in some of 
them unquestionable. This identity is further confirmed by the fact, 
that the Jews in Egj-pt adopted the custom of embalming at a veiy 
early period of time (Genesis 1. 26). And again, the two nations appear 
to have fraternized in a remarkable manner ; for Adad married the 
sister of Pharaoh's wife, and one of Solomon's wives was the daughter 
of an Egyptian king, who is supposed to have been Osorkon. [^^^] To 
these facts we may add the marriage of Joseph, at a far earlier period 
of history, with a daughter of the priest of Heliopolis. Eor these rea- 
sons, I repeat, the Hebrew nation should be largely represented in 
the catacombs. 

Five of my embalmed Semitic heads are susceptible of measure- 
ment, and give the low average of eighty-two cubic inches — the 
largest measuring eighty-eight; the smallest, sixty-nine.* In these 
crania, and also in others of existing Semitic tribes, I have looked in 
vain for the pit described by Mulder as situated on the outer wall of 
the orbit at the attachment of the temporal muscles ; and conse- 
quently there is no trace of the corresponding elevation, also described 
by him, within the orbitar cavity. 

I have had but little success in procuring the crania of the modern 
Semitic tribes ; and for the three that I possess I am indebted to Mr. 
Gliddon. Of these, two are Baramka or Barmecide Arabs ; the third, 
a Bedouin. The largest measures ninety-eight cubic inches ; the small- 
est, eighty-four ; and the mean is eighty-nine ; but if we take the 
average of these eight Semitic heads, ancient and modern, it will be 
eighty -five inches. 

I also received fi'om Mr. Gliddon three additional skulls, from 
Cairo, which he was assured were those of Jews ; [^*] but their form 
has induced me to class them, perhaps erroneously, with the Fellahs 
ofEgyptt 

The Nilotic Race. — In this designation I include the ancient 
Egyptians of the pure stock, and the modern Fellahs. 

For the extensive series of Egyptian skulls in my possession, I am 
indebted to the kindness of Mr. Gliddon, Mr. A. C. Harris of Alex- 
andria, in Egypt, Dr. Charles Pickering, and Mr. "William A. Glid- 
don. Of these 129 embalmed heads, 83 present the Egyptian confor- 
mation ; and of the latter number, 55 are capable of being measured. 

I may here repeat a previous remark, that some of these crania 
present both Pelasgic and Egyptian lineaments, and thus form a 
transition between the two races ; but I have classed them in one 
group or the other, according to the preponderance of national char- 

* Crania iEgyptiaca, pp. 41 and 46, and the accompanying plates. 
f Catalogue of skulls, Nos. 771, 772, 773. 



318 Morton's inedited mss. 

acters. In the great majority of instances, however, the Egyptian 
conformation is detected at a glance. 

The Egyptian skull is unlike that of any other with which I am 
acquainted. This opinion, which I long since announced,* has been 
fully confirmed by subsequent comparisons, and especially by the 
receipt of seventeen verj- ancient and most characteristic crania from 
tombs opened in 1842, at the base of the Great Pyramid, by Dr. 
Lepsius.f 

It may be observed of these crania (for the rest of the series has 
been elaborately described in the Crania Egyptiaca), eleven at least 
are of the unmixed type, and present the long, oval form, with a 
slightly receding forehead, straight or gently aquiline nose, and a some- 
what retracted chin. The M'^hole cranial structure is thin, delicate, 
and symmetrical, and remarkable for its small size. The face is nar- 
row, and projects more than in the European, whence the facial 
angle is two degrees less, or 78°. ISTeither in these skulls, nor in any 
others of the Egyptian series, can I detect those peculiarities of struc- 
ture pointed out by the venerable Blumenbach, in his Decades Cranio- 
rum; and the external meatus of the ear, whatever may have been 
the form or size of the cartilaginous portion, is precisely where we 
find it in all the other races of men. The hair, whenever any of it 
remains, is long, curling, and of the finest texture. 

On comparing these crania with Taanj Juc-similes of monumental 
effigies most kindly sent me by Pi'of Lepsius and M. Prisse d'Avesnes, 
I am compelled, by a mass of irresistible evidence, to modify the 
opinion expressed in the Crania JEgyptiaca — viz. : that the Egyp- 
tians were an Asiatic people. Seven years of additional investigation, 
together with greatly increased materials, have convinced me that 
they were neither Asiatics nor Europeans, but aboriginal and indi- 
genous inhabitants of the Valley of the Nile or some contiguous 
region : J peculiar in their physiognomy, isolated in their institutions, 
and forming one of the primordial centres of the human family. 

Egypt was the parent of art, science, and civilization. Of these 
she gave much to Asia, and received some moditj'ing influences in 
return ; but nothing more. Her population, pure and peculiar in the 
early epochs of time, derived by degrees an element from Europe and 
Asia, and this was increased in the lapse of years, until the Delta 
became a Greek colony, with an interspersed multitude of Jews. 

Effigies and portraits of Egyptian sovereigns and citizens are yet 

* Crania ^gyptiaca, 1844. 

f Proceedings of the Academy [of Nat. Sciences,] for October, 1844. 
J This opinion, with some modifications, has been entertained by several learned Egypt- 
ologists — Champollion, Heeren, Lenormant, &c. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 319 

preserved in monuments that date back 5000 years,* and they con- 
form, in all their characteristic lineaments, with the heads from the 
tombs of Gizeh and other Nilotic sepulchres. 

Of the fifty-five Egyptian heads measured in the Table, it will be seen 
that the largest measures but ninety-six cubic inches^ of internal capa- 
city, the smallest sixtj'-eight ; and the mean of them all is but eighty. 
This result was announced in the Crania ^gyptiaca, and has been 
confirmed by the numerous additional measurements made since that 
work was published. Yet, on computing, by themselves, the fifteen 
crania from the ancient tombs of Gizeh, I find them to present an 
average of eighty-four cubic inches. The persons whose bodies had 
reposed in these splendid mausolea, were no doubt of the highest 
and most cultivated class of Eg^^ptian citizens ; f and this fact de- 
serves to be considered in connexion with the present inquiry. To 
this we may add, that the most deficient part of the Egyptian 
skull is the coronal region, which is extremely low, while the poste- 
rior chamber is remarkably full and prominent. 

The Fellahs. — The Arab-Egyptians of the present day constitute a 
population of more than 2,500,000 ; and that they are the lineal de- 
scendants of the ancient rural Egyptians, is proved by the form of 
the skull, the mental and moral character of the people, and their 
existing institutions, among which phallic worship is, even yet, con- 
spicuous. Clot-Bey has drawn a graphic moral parallel between these 
two extremes of a single race, by showing that both were sober, ava- 
ricious, insolent, self-opinioned, satirical, and licentious. Contrasted 
with these defects in the old Egyptians^ were the many household 
virtues, and that genius for the arts which has been a proverb in all 
ages. 

"When the Saracenic Ai'abs conquered Egypt in the seventh century 
of our era, an unlimited fusion of races was a direct and obvious con- 

* Lepsius : Chronologie der JEgypter, p. 196. Dr. Lepsius dates the age of Menes, the 
first Egyptian king, 3893 before Christ, or 5743 years from the present time ; and yet, in 
that remote time, Egypt was already possessed of her arts, institutions, and hieroglyphic 
language. The researches of the learned Chevalier Bunsen furnish conclusions nearly the 
same as those of Lepsius. Of the great antiquity of the Human Species there can be no 
question. In the words of Dr. Prichard, it may have been chiliads of years. 

The ancient Egyptians appear to have. had no doubts on this subject ; for a priest of Sais, 
addressing Solon, spoke of "the multitude and variety of the destructions of the Human 
race which formerly have been, and again will be ; the greatest of these, indeed, arising 
from fire and water ; but the lesser from ten thousand other contingencies." — Timccus of 
Plato : Taylor's Trans, ii. 466. 

•j- Dr. Lepsius did notjdesire to retain these crania, because they bore no collateral evi- 
dence of their epoch or national lineage. The bones were in great measure already de- 
nuded by time ; and the appliances of mummification (which, in the primitive ages, con- 
sisted of little more than desiccating the body,) had long since disappeared. As heretofore 
observed, I judge these relics solely by their intrinsic characters. ^ 



320 Morton's inedited mss. 

sequence ; but M. Clot-Bey lias judiciously remarked, tliat the Arabs, 
nevertheless, present but a feeble element in the physical character of 
the great mass of people : — 

" D'ou il r^sulte que I'Egyptien actuel tient beaucoup plus, par ses formes, par son carac- 
tfere, et par ses moeurs, des anciens Egyptians que des veritables Arabs, dont on ne trouve 
le type pur qu'en Arable."* 

The skull of the Fellah is strikingly like that of the ancient Egyp- 
tian. It is long, narrow, somewhat flattened on the sides, and very 
prominent in the occiput. The coronal region is low, the forehead 
moderately receding, the nasal bones long and nearly straight, the 
cheek-bones small, the maxillary region slightly prognathous, and the 
whole cranial structure thin and delicate. But, notwithstanding 
these resemblances between the Fellah and Egyptian skulls, the latter 
possess what may be called an osteological expression, peculiar to them- 
selves, and not seen in the Fellah. 

The Fellahs, however, do not appear to be the only descendants of 
the monumental Egyptians ; for they exist also in N^ubia, and west- 
ward, in isolated communities, in the heart of Africa. Of such origin 
I regard the Red Bakkari, so well described by Pallme. [^^^] So, also, 
the proper Libyans, the Tuaricks, Kabyles, and Siwahs, who, on the 
testimony of Dr. Oudney, and the more recent observations of Dr. 
Furnari, possess at least the physical traits of the Egyptian race : — 

"Chez quelques unes des nombreuses [peuplades] qui habitent I'immense plaine du Sa- 
hara, chez les Touaricks, et chez quelques tribus limitrophes de I'Egypte, les yeux ecartSs I'un 
de I'autre, sont long, coupes en amandes, a moiti^ ferm^s, et relevds aux angles ext^rieurs." 

There are other reasons for supposing that the Libyan and Miotic 
nations had a cognate source, though their social and political sepa- 
ration may date with the earliest epochs of time. 

A few words respecting the Oopts. Almost every investigation into 
the lineage of these people results in considering them a mixed pro- 
geny of ancient Egyptians, Berabera, !N"egroes, Arabs, and Europeans ; 
and these characteristics are so variously blended, as to make the 
Copts one of the most motley and paradoxical communities in- the 
world. The ITegro traits are visible, in greater or less degree, in a 
large proportion of this people, and are distinctly seen in the three 
skulls in my possession. The two adult heads, which, on account of 
their hybrid character, are excluded from the Table, measure respect- 
ively eighty-five and seventy-seven cubic inches for the size of the 
brain, and consequently give the low average of eighty-one. 

From the preceding observations it will appear that the Fellahs are 
the rural or agricultural Egyptians, blended with the intrusive Ara- 
bian stock ; but the Copts, on the other hand, represent the deseend- 

* Aper9u Gen^'rale sur I'Egypte, i. p. 160. 



ON THE ORIGIN" OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 321 

ants of the old urban population, whose blood, in the lapse of ages, 
ha? beconae mixed with that of all the exotic racea which have domi- 
ciliated themselves in the cities of Egypt. The mercenary licentious- 
ness of the Copts is proverbial even at the present day. 

I shall conclude these remarks on this part of the inquiry by 
observing, that no mean has been taken of the Caucasian races 
collectively, because of the very great preponderance of Hindoo, 
Egyptian, and Fellah skulls over those of the Germanic, Pelasgic and 
Celtic families. JSTor could any just collective comparison be instituted 
between the Caucasian and I^egro groups in such a Table as we have 
presented, unless the small-brained people of the latter division 
(Hottentots, Bushmen and Australians) were proportionate in number 
to the Hindoos, Egyptians, and Fellahs of the other group. Such a 
comparison, were it practicable, would probably reduce the Caucasian 
average to about eighty-seven cubic inches, and the ITegro to seventy- 
eight at most, perhaps even to seventy-five ; and thus confirmatively 
establish the difference of at least nine cubic inches between the 
mean of the two races. 



II. THE MONGOLIAN GROUP. 

The learned Klaproth, in his Tableau de I'Asie, has shown that 
before the year 1000 of our era, the Mongols w^ere inconsiderable 
tribes in the northwest of Asia, and hence have eiToneouslj^ had their 
name given to the most multitudinous of the five great divisions of 
the human family ; but from an unwillingness to interfere with the 
generally adopted nomenclature of ethnology, I have used the word 
Mongolian in the comprehensive sense of BufFon and Blumenbach. 
It embraces nations of dissimilar features, among whom, however, 
there is a common link of resemblance that justifies the classification 
for generic purposes. Hence we group together the Chinese, the 
Kamtschatkans, and the Kalmucks. 

I possess but eight Mongolian crania, and of these seven are Chi- 
nese — too small a number from which to deduce a satisfactory result. 
The largest of them measures ninety-one cubic inches, the smallest 
seventy ; and they give an average of eighty-two. They are all de- 
rived from the lowest class of people ; and it is not improbable that 
an average drawn, at least in part, from the higher castes, would 
approximate much more nearly to the Caucasian mean, perhaps to 
eighty-five cubic inches. 

By the kindness of Prof Eetzius of Stockholm, I possess a single 
skull of a Laplander — a man of about forty years of age — whose 
brain measures no less than ninety-four cubic inches. The character- 
41 



322 Morton's inedited mss. 

istics are obviously Mongolian, to which race the Lappes unquestion- 
ably belong. Dr. Prichai'd has produced philological evidence. in 
proof of an opinion maintained by himself and some other learned 
men, that these people are Finns, who have acquired Mongolian fea- 
tures from a long residence in the extreme north of Europe. Yet, it 
must be remembered that, in former ages they lived much further 
south, in Sweden, and side by side with the proper Finns ; whence 
has, no doubt, been derived any visible blending of the characters of 
the two races, and some affinities of language which are known and 
admitted by all. 

This is a vital question in ethnology ; and, although we have 
already made some remarks upon it, it may be allowable in this 
place to inquire how it happens that the people of Iceland, who are 
of the unmixed Teutonic race, have for 600 years inhabited their 
Polar regioii, as far north, indeed, as Lapland itself, without approxi- 
mating in the smallest degree to the Mongolian type, or losing an iota 
of their primitive Caucasian features. '*' 

A recent traveller,! equally remarkable for talent and enterprise, 
has briefly embodied the facts of this question in a manner sufficient 
to decide it in any unprejudiced mind. He declares that the Finns 
and Laplanders "have scarcely a single trait in common. The 
general physiognomy of the one is totally unlike that of the other ; 
and no one who has ever seen the two could mistake a Finlander for 
a Laplander." The very diseases to which they are subject are diffe- 
rent ; and he quotes the learned Prof Retzius of Stockholm for the 
fact, that the intestinal parasitic worms of the one race are different 
from those of the other. Finally, they differ almost as widely in their 
mental and moral attributes. 

But, to show how little mere philology can be depended on in this 
and other instances, in deciding the affiliation of races, we may adduce 
the researches of the learned* Counsellor Haartman. This eminent 
philologist has shown that the Carelians, who, from analogy of lan- 
guage, have hitherto been grouped with the proper Finnish race, 
belong to a totally different family, which invaded the region of the 
Lake Ladoga, and gave their name to the conquered country. This 
race, he adds, had a language of its own, which was lost in the course 



* Desmoulins : Ilist. Nat. des Races Humaines, p. 165. Were it not for the evidence of 
positive history, some future ethnologist might gravely insist that, because the Negroes of 
St. Domingo speak the French language, they are Frenchmen, to -whom a tropical sun, 
altered aliments, and change of habits, have imparted the black skin, projecting face, and 
woolly hair of the African. 

I A Winter in Lapland and Sweden: by Arthur de Capell Brooks, M. A., F. R. S. P. : 
London, 1827, p. 53G-37. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 323 

of time, " and has been superseded by the Finnic, from the over- 
powering influence of the neighboring tribes."* Such evidence 
needs no commentary. 



III. THE MALAY GROUP. 

Besides the true Malays, the Malay race is composed of people of 
dissimilar stock ; whence the opinion of M. Lesson, that those of the 
Indian Archipelago are a mixture of Indo-Caucasians and Mongols. 
That this amalgamation exists to a certain extent, there is no question ; 
and in other instances they are variously blended with the indigenous 
or Oceanic JSTegro. Hence the origin of the Papuas of 'New Zealand, 
who are the littoral inhabitants of that continent. 

Independently, however, of these mixed breeds, two great families 
are conspicuous — the Malays proper and the Polynesians — and to 
these pertain the twenty-three heads embraced in the Table. 

The true Malays have a rounded cranium, with a remarkable ver- 
tical diameter and ponderous structure. The face is flat, the cheek- 
bones square and prominent, the ossa nasi long and more or less flat- 
tened, and the whole maxillary structure strong and salient. The 
twenty skulls in my possession have been collected with ethnological 
precision, and so much resemble each other, as to remind us of the 
remark of M. Crawford — that the true Malays are alike among them- 
selves, but unlike among all other nations. 

The largest of this series of skulls measures ninety-seven cubic 
inches, the smallest sixty-eight ; and they give a mean of eighty-six : 
a large brain for a roving and uncultivated people, who possess, how- 
ever, the elements of civilization and refinement. 

Of the Polynesian Family I possess but three crania that can be 
measured, and they give a mean of eighty-three cubic inches. An 
extended series would probably show a larger average ; but the brain 
of the Polynesian, if measured from skulls obtained to the eastward 
of [N'ew Zealand and the Marquesas islands, will prove smaller than 
that of the true Malay. 

* Trans, of the Royal Society of Stockholm, for 1847. Egypt affords a remarkable example 
of the mutability of language ; and Niebuhr [Hist, of Rome, i. p. 37) considers it proved 
that the Pelasgi, all the earliest inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, and many Arcadian and 
Attic nations, possessed originally a different language from the Greeks, and obtained the 
Hellenic tongue by adoption. He adds, that those Epirotes whom Thucydides calls Bar- 
barians, " changed their language, without conquest or colonization, into Greelc." Diodorus 
and Cicero mention the same fact with respect to the Siculi, "although the Greek colonies 
in Sicily had only extended to a very few towns in the interior." — Kiebuhr, loco citat. 



324 moeton's inedited mss. 



IV. THE AMERICAN GROUP. 

I have hitlierto arranged the numberless indigenous tribes of ISTorth 
and South America into two great families : one of which, the Tolte- 
can, embraces the demi-civilized communities of Mexico, Bogota, and 
Peru ; while the other division includes all the Barbarous tribes. 
This classification is manifestly arbitrary, but every attempt at sub- 
division has proved yet more so. Much time and care will be requi- 
site for this end, which must be based on the observations of D'Or- 
bigny for South America, and those of Mr. Gallatin for the i^orthern 
[division of the] continent. 

These subdivisions, after all, must be for the most part geographi- 
cal ; for the physical character of the American races, from Cape Horn 
to Canada, is essentially the same. There is no small variety of com- 
plexion and stature ; but the general form of the skull, the contour 
and expression of the face, and the color and texture of the hair, 
together with the mental and moral characteristics, all point to a 
common standard, which isolates these people from the rest of man- 
kind. The same remark is applicable to their social institutions and 
their archaeological remains ; for Humboldt has shown that the latter 
are marked by the same principles of art, from Mexico to Peru ;* 
and Mr. Gallatin has decided, beyond controversy, that while their 
multitudinous tongues are connected by obvious links, they are at 
the same time radically different from the Asiatic or any other 
languages. 

Mr. Gallatin finds this analogy among the American languages to 
extend to the Eskimaux — and he accordingly separates them from 
the Mongolian race, and regards them as a section of the great Ame- 
rican family. This view may possibly be sustained by future inqui- 
ries ; but the mere fact that the Eskimaux and the proximate Indian 
tribes speak dialects of one language, is of itself no proof that they 
belong to the same race. Thus, we may reasonably suppose that the 
Asiatic nomades, having arrived on this continent at various and dis- 
tant periods, and in small parties, would naturally, if not unavoid- 
ably, adopt more or less of the language of the people among whom 
they settled, until their own dialect was finally merged in that of the 
Chippewyan and other Indians who bound them bn the south. 

When, on the other hand, famine, caprice, or a redundant popula- 
tion, has forced some of these people back again, across Behring's 
Strait, to Asia, they have carried with them the mixed dialect of the 
Eskimaux ; whence it happens that the latter tribes and the Tchutch- 



* Monuments, II. p. 5. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 325 

chi possess some linguistic elements iti common : but here the ana- 
logy ceases abrupt!}', and is traced no farther.* 

My collection embraces 410 skulls of 64 different nations and tribes 
of Indians, in which the two great divisions of this race are»i'epre- 
seuted in nearly equal proportions, as the following details will show. 

The Toltecan Family. — Of 213 skulls of Mexicans and Peruvians, 
201 pertain to the latter people, whose remains have been selected 
with great care by the late Dr. Burrough, Dr. Ruschenberger, and Dr. 
Oakford. To the latter gentleman, I am under especial obligations 
for his kindness in personally visiting, on my behalf, the venerable 
sepulchres of Pisco, Pachacamac, and Arica. These cemeteries, at 
least the last two, are believed not to have been used since the Span- 
ish conquest ; and they certainly contain the remains of multitudes 
of Peruvians of very remote, as well as of more recent times. 

Every one who has paid attention to the subject is aware, that the 
Pei'uvian skull is of a rounded form, with a flattened and nearly ver- 
tical occiput. It is also marked by an elevated vertex, great inter- 
pai'ietal diameter, ponderous structure, salient nose, and a broad, 
prognathous maxillary region. This is the type of cranial conforma- 
tion, to which all the tribes, from Cape Horn to Canada, more or less 
approximate. I admit that there are exceptions to this rule, some of 
which I long ago pointed out, in the Crania Americana, and others 
have recently been noticed among the Brazilian tribes by Prof. Retzius. 

This rounded form of the head, so characteristic of the American 
nations, is in some instances unintentionally exaggerated by the sim- 
ple use of the cradle-board, in common use among the Indians. * * * 
But on the other hand, whole tribes, from time immemorial, have 
been in the practice of moulding the head into artificial forms of sin- 
gular variety and most distorted proportions. These were made the 
subject of the following experiment. * * * 

[The]' indomitable savages who yet inhabit the base of the Andes, 
on the eastern boundary of Peru, will no doubt prove to have a far 
larger brain than their feeble neighbors whose remains we have exa- 
mined, from the graves of Pachacamac, Pisco, and Arica. 

If we take the collective races of America, civilized and savage, we 
find, as in the Table, that the average size of the brain, as measured 
in the whole series of 338 skulls, is but 79 cubic inches. 

In connexion with this subject, it may not be irrelevant to observe 
that the human cranial bones, discovered by Dr. Lund, in the cavern 
near the Lagoa do Sumidouro, in Brazil, and seemingly of a strictly 
fossil character, conform in all respects to the aboriginal American 

* See my Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Eace of America, 
p. 27. 



326 mokton's inedited mss. 

conformatiou ;* thus forming a strikiug example of the permanence, 
Ave might say, immutabihty of the primordial type of organization, 
when this has not been modified by admixture with intrusive and 
dissin^lar races. 

I have no doubt that Man Avill yet be found in the fossil state as 
low down as the Eocene deposits, and that he walked the earth with 
the Megalonyx and Paleotherium. His not having been hitherto 
discovered in the older stratified rocks is no proof that he will not be 
hereafter found in them. Ten years ago, the Monkey-tribes were 
unknown and denied in the fossil state ; bu.t they have since been 
identified in the Himalaya mountains, Brazil, and England.f 

[End of Morton's MSS.} 

* Memoire de la Soc. Roy. des Antiquaires du Nord, 1845-47, p. 73. See also Dr. Meigs's 
highly interesting communication on the Human Bones found at Santos, in Brazil, in Trans, 
of the Amer. Philos. Soc. for 1830 ; and Lt. Strain's Letter to me, in Proceedings of the 
Academy for 1844. 

f Proofs of the vast antiquity of the earth, and of man's long sojourn upon it, multiply 
every day. The Hebrew chronology is a human computation from the Book of Genesis, 
and ■while it falls far short of the time requisite for the works of Man, is infinitely con- 
tracted when considered in reference to the creations of God. The Egyptian monuments, 
as we have seen, date far beyond the period allotted to the Deluge of Noah (which was evi- 
dently a partial phenomenon) ; and, on the other hand, the irresistible evidence of Geolo- 
gical Science realizes the sentiment of Plato — that Past time is an eternity. 

"These views," observes Sir Charles Lyell, "have been adopted by all geologists, 
whether their minds have been formed by the literature of France, or of Italy, or Scandi- 
navia, or England — all have arrived at the same conclusion respecting the great antiquity 
of the globe, and that too in opposition to their earlier prepossessions, and to the popular 
belief of their age." 

All human calculations of time are futile in Geological and Ethnological inquiries. Epochs 
of vast duration are fully established by the nature of the organic remains of plants and 
animals that characterize the different formations; while the very intervals that separate 
these formations are evidences of other periods hardly less astonishing. In fact, Geological 
epochs present some analogy to Astronomical distances : the latter have been computed ; 
the former are beyond calculation — and the mind is almost as incapable of realizing the 
one as the other. It cannot grapple with numbers which approximate to infinitude. 

It is stated by Prof Nichol, of Edinburgh, that "light travels at the rate of 192,000 
miles in a second of time, and that it performs its journey from the Sun to the Earth, a 
distance of 95,000,000 of miles, in about eight minutes. And yet, by Rosse's great tele- 
scope, we are informed that there are stars and systems so distant, that the ray of light 
which impinges on the eye of the observer, and enables him to detect it, issued from that 
oi'b 60,000 years back." Westminster Review, 1846. 

"In the beginning; God created the Heavens and the Earth" — a sublime exordium, that 
points to an aboriginal creation, antedating the works of the Seven Days. Science has 
raised the veil of that ancient world, with all its numberless forms of primeval organization ; 
but these are not noticed in the text, neither man, nor the inferior animals. When, how- 
ever, we find the fossil remains of the latter so varied and so multitudinous, it is not incon- 
sistent with true philosophy to anticipate the discovery of human remains among the 
ruins of that primal creation. In fact, I consider geology to have already decided this 
question in the affirmative. 



GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. 327 

[Unavailable, owing to its unfinished condition, tlie Table mentioned 
in the foregoing Memoirs is necessarily omitted. We cannot abstain, 
notwithstanding, from recalling the reader's attention — first, to the 
unqualified emphasis with which Dr. Morton's posthumous language 
insists upon an aboriginal plurality of races ; and secondly, to the clear 
presentiments (engendered by his extensive researches in Comparative 
Anatomy) that our revered President of the Academy of ITatural 
Sciences avows respecting the eventual discovery of 3Ian in a fossil 
state. 

Palseontological investigation had not fallen within the specialities 
of either author of this volume ; and, in consequence, embarrassment 
was long felt by both, whether to mould what materials they pos- 
sessed, concerning fossilized humanity, into a Chapter, or to relinquish 
a task in itself so indispensable to the nature of their work, no less 
than to the right understanding of Man's position in Creative history. 
The authors' hesitancy ceased when an accomplished friend, familiar 
with geological and other scientific literature, volunteered a digest 
of the most recent discoveries : nor will the general reader fail to be 
surprised, as well as edified, through the perusal of Dr. Usher's 
paper ; which, with many acknowledgments on the paii; of J. C. N. 
and G. R. G., is embodied in the ensuing pages.] 



CHAPTER XI. 

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN 

ORIGINS. 

[CONTEIBUTED BY WiLLIAM USHEE, M. D., OF MOBILE.] 

Every discovery in modern science tends to enlarge our ideas of 
the Universe, and to prove that the date of its creation is as far distant 
in the past, as the probable consummation of its destiny is remote in 
the future. Sir William Herschel has shown that there are stars in 
the heavens so distant, that the light by which they are visible to us 
has been myriads of years in its passage to the earth ; and the won- 
derful powers of Lord Rosse's telescope have not, even yet, penetrated 
to the circumference of the starry sphere. It is the gloiy of astronomy 
to have demonstrated that the planetary bodies may retain their pre- 



328 GEOLOGY AND PAL/EONTOLOGY, 



sent movements undisturbed through a coming eternity; while che- 
mistry illustrates the pei-petual antagonism of the two great depart- 
ments of organieal nature on our globe, by which the vital properties 
of the atmosphere have been preserved for ages, as they may continue 
forever, unimpaired ; and, finally, geology informs us that the earth 
has been, from the beginning, the theatre of constant and progressive 
changes, having for their object the fitting it for the support of the 
various races of beings which, in regular succession, have been its 
inhabitants. 

The first great change in the condition of the earth was the con- 
densation of its surface to a solid state, and the contraction of the 
newly-formed crust duiing the process of cooling ; by which the Plu- 
tonic rocks of our system, the granite, porphyry and basalt, were 
formed in unstratified and crystallized masses. These underlie all 
the other rocks, and are sometimes forced up through them by the 
irresistible power of central heat. Their great eminences were separated 
by valleys filled with seas, (through the condensation of the circum- 
ambient vapors), along whose bottoms the stratified rocks were formed 
by the deposition of various mineral matters resulting from the dis- 
integration of the primitive formations. The metamorphic rocks 
were thus formed; and, after becoming solidified by the heat of the cooh 
ing mass below them, were finally upheaved by the central force, and 
composed immense masses in diiferent parts of the globe. Most of the 
considerable mountain ranges belong to this system. They rest upon 
a basement of granite, and have been thrown by the upheaving forces 
into positions inclining at all angles to the horizon. The upturned 
edges of these primary strata in many places show a thickness of 
fifteen or twenty miles — they were formed entirely from sediment 
produced by the disintegration of the hardest rocks, and by the gra- 
dual action of the elements ; while their deposition, consolidation and 
elevation must have required periods of time which the mind shrinks 
from contemplating. 

The Koran declares that the world was created in two days ; and 
" Omar the Learned," for assigning a longer period, was obliged to 
fly from his country, to escape the disgrace of recanting his opinions. 
Happily, we live now under a more enlightened dispensation. 

In these rocks we find no traces of organic remains to show that 
the earth was yet inhabited by living beings. But the creation of the 
earth consisted of a long succession of events, each occupying a dis- 
tinct geological period, and leaving indelible records of its history in 
the solid crust of the globe. The creation of organized beings exhi- 
bits a similar succession — each race appearing as soon as the earth 
was prepared for its reception, continuing so long as the same state of 



& 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN OKIGINS. 6Z'd 

things existed, and vanisliing when the improvement of the earth had 
rendered it fit for the maintenance of a higher type of Hving creatures. 
All living creatures were exactly adapted through their organization 
to the peculiar localities they were placed in. They perished when the 
conditions necessary to their well-being were changed or ceased to exist. 

In the next series of strata we find the earliest traces of those tribes 
of organized beings which occupied the primeval earth, and have left 
the monuments of their existence in the rocks which form their tombs. 
These primaiy fossiliferous strata are entirely of marine origin, 
having been fonned at the bottom of the ocean; and they contain the 
remains of marine animals only. The tj'pes of these animals are 
easily recognized — they include representatives of all the great de- 
partments of the animal kingdom — but the species and even the 
genera are entirely lost. The animals, however, all belong to the 
lowest divisions of the difierent classes. Thus the radiata are repre- 
sented by zoophytes, crinoidea and polyps — each the lowest in their 
respective classes. Mollusks, in like manner, exhibit only the lower 
t}^es ; articulata are mostly confined to trilobites ; and fishes of the 
lowest forms are the sole representatives of the vert eb rata : there are 
here no reptiles, no birds, and no mammals. 

These primary strata are many thousand feet in thickness, and 
the organic remains imbedded in them, though belonging to a few 
species, show that animal life already existed in immense profusion, 
and extended over wide-spread regions of the globe. They flourished 
for countless generations, and their remains are found reposing in 
earth's earliest sepulchres. 

In the next stage of the earth's history we have the Silurian system. 
Here the forms of life are more varied and abundant — species are 
multiplied ; fishes now make their appearance in numbers and varie- 
ties corresponding with the improved conditions for their existence ; 
and sea-plants are found among the fossils of this era. In the old red 
sandstone, the same orders are continued ; new fishes are still more 
abundant, and all the silurian species have already disappeared. 
These fossils, again, are entirely distinct from the corresponding 
species of the carboniferous era which succeeds them. I^ot a single 
fish found in the old red sandstone has been detected, either in the 
silurian system on the one side or in the carboniferous on the other. 
Throughout all subsequent geological eras similar changes took place, 
and new species replaced the old at every new formation. In propor- 
tion as the earth approached its perfect state, the organic types became 
more complex ; but the types originally created were never destroyed, 
they have been preserved through every succeeding modification and 
improvement, up to their highest manifestation in man. Regarding 
42 



330 

only the great, predominant groups of animals, M. Agassiz lias clas- 
sified the "Ages of Nature" as follows : — 1. The primary or Palaeo- 
zoic age, comprising the whole era preceding the new red sandstone, 
constituted the reign of fishes. 2. The secondary age, up to the 
chalk, constituted the reign of reptiles. 3. The tertiary age was the 
reign of mammals ; and the modern age, embracing the most perfect 
of created beings, is the reign of man.* 

A more minute classification would give us, since the first appear- 
ance of organized beings, not less than ten or twelve great groups of 
animals specifically independent of one another : so many entire 
races have passed away and been successively replaced by others ; thus 
changing repeatedly the whole population of the globe. 

The fossiliferous strata have been estimated to be eight miles in 
thickness. They were formed, like the metamorphic rocks, at the 
bottom of the sea, by sedimentary deposits, and afterwards upheaved 
in their consolidated form by central heat. Such a process, doubtless, 
must have been very slow : e. g. the hydrographic basin of the Tigris 
and Euphrates is 189,000 square miles ; and the alluvial deposit along 
the course of those rivers, in the centre, is about 32,400 square miles 
in extent. The average rate of encroachment on the sea, at their 
mouths on the Persian Gulf, is about a mile in thirty years. During 
its season of flood, the Euphrates transports about one-eightieth of 
its bulk of solid matter ; and the earthy portion carried by the Tigris 
past the city of Bagdad, was ascertained by Mr. Ainsworth to be one- 
hundredth of its bulk, or about 7150 pounds eveiy hour.f But these 
rivers are insignificant compared with the Ganges, which hourly car- 
ries down 700,000 cubic feet of mud ; or the Yellow river, in China, 
which transports 2,000,000 feet of sediment to the sea. Our own 
Mesha-sebe, " the Father of Waters," though purer than either of the 
rivers we have named, has already formed a delta 30,000 square miles 
in extent, and is yearly sweeping to the sea, from his many tributa- 
ries, the enormous amount of 3,702,758,400 cubic feet of solid matter. 
Yet, notwithstanding such immense deposits, it has been estimated 
that, if the sediment from all the rivers in the world were spread 
equally over the floor of the Ocean, it would require 1000 years to 
raise its bottom a single foot ; or about 4,000,000 of years to form a 
mass equal to that of the fossiliferous rocks : and if, instead of merely 
the present extent of the sea, we include the whole surface of the 
globe in such estimate, the time required must be extended to 15,000,000 
of years. J "When we consider that these strata were formed at the 

* Agassiz: Principles of Zoology, p. 189. 

■)• Ainsworth: Assyria, Babylonia and Chaldcea ; Euphrates Expedition, 1838, p. 111. 

J Somerville : Physical Geography. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 331 

Ijottom of tlie sea, and thence npheaved by the operation of natural 
causes ; and tliat in many cases this process has been more than once 
repeated ; we may claim a very respectable antiquity for our planet, 
since such changes must have required a duration wholly incalculable. 

We have seen that every great geological change was accompanied 
by the disappearance of existing species and the introduction of new: 
while the present geographical distribution of plants and animals coin- 
cides with the rise of those strata constituting the surface of the globe. 
All has been successive and progressive ; plants and animals w^ere 
produced in regular order, ascending from simj)le to complex ; one 
law has prevailed from earth's foundations to its superficies ; and 
thus our present species are autoctJionoi, originating on the continents 
or islands where they were first found. Man himself is no exception 
to this law; for the inferior races are everywhere "glebse adseripti." 

Each of these orders of living beings occupied the earth for an ap- 
pointed time, and gave way in turn to higher organizations. Fishes 
ruled over the primeval waters : as land gradually formed itself, they 
made way for the great amphibious reptiles. Just as fishes represent 
the first vertebrata of the sea, so reptiles are their earliest representa- 
tives on land. Reptiles presided over the formation of continents, and 
next came the birds. As huge reptiles of the sea were succeeded by 
the marine mannnalia — the cetaceans — so, on the land, when moun- 
tain chains were thrown up and dry plains formed, leaving extensive 
marshy borders, monstrous wading birds, whicli have left but their 
footmarks behind them, succeeded the reptiles, and were followed in 
their turn by the amphibious mammals. Each epoch of the land, as 
of the sea, (whilst our " earth formed, reformed, and transformed 
itself,") was marked b}^ the appearance of suitable inhabitants, ne- 
cessary to the great plan of creation in preparing the globe for the 
reception of mankind. 

The tertiary formation extends over most of Europe, and comprises 
those famous geological basins whicli are the sites of its principal cities, 
London, Paris, and Vienna ; Avliile, in America, it embraces nearly all 
the level region of the Middle and the Southern States. Its fossils 
comprise a mixture of marine, fresh-water, and land species, occurring 
in such succession as to show extensive alternations of sea aud land; 
and giving reason to beheve that large portions of the present surface 
of the land were covered with immense lakes, like Erie or Ontario. 
The animals of the tertiaiy period, while entirely different from those 
of the secondaiT, were similar to those now existing: marine ani- 
mals no longer predominated in the creation — the higher orders 
of land animals had now appeared. The same advance is visible in 
all the great departments of animated nature. Of the radiates, the 



332 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY 



moUusks, and the articulata, the lower forms have entirely disap- 
peared ; and the tertiary species are frequently almost identical with 
those now living: among vertebrata, the enamelled fishes of the ear- 
lier epochs have been replaced by those with scales like the living 
species; and, in a word, the whole tertiary fauna resembles our 
present. 

Another important change is noticed in the relative distribution of 
animals and plants. In the early history of the earth, the same ani- 
mals were spread widely over the face of the globe ; nearly the whole 
earth was covered with water, and a uniform temperature everywhere 
prevailed : none but marine animals existed, and there was nothing 
to prevent a great uniformity of type. In the tertiary era everything 
had altered — the earth's surface was varied with islands and con- 
tinents, with mountains and valleys, with hills and plains ; the sea, 
gathered into separate basins, was divided by impassable barriers. 
Here, accordingly, we find another great step towards the present 
condition of organized nature on the earth's surface : not only have 
higher orders of animals appeared, but they are confined within nar- 
rower limits. The fossils of the tertiary system, in different regions, 
are as distinct as the present faunae and florae of those countries. 
Each portion of the land, as it rose above the deep, became peopled with 
animals and plants best adapted to its occupancy ; and the waters 
necessarily partaking of the physical change, the marine species which 
swarmed along the shores undervs^ent a corresponding modification. 

The earth was now inhabited by the great mammifers, whose con- 
stitution most nearly resembles that of mankind : where they existed, 
assuredly, man could have existed also. They approximate to humanity 
in their intelligence, their senses, their wants, their passions, their ani- 
mal functions; and when they had "multiplied exceedingly," we may 
suppose that man would not be long in making his appearance. Here 
we meet for the first time with fossil monkeys ; the type whose organiz- 
ation most closely assimilates to the human. It is only within a few 
years that fossil monkeys have been discovered, and their supposed 
absence was formerly cited as a proof of their recent origin. Monkeys, 
in still prevalent systems of creation, are supposed to have been coeval 
with, or at least but little anterior to, man ; the absence of their or- 
ganic remains being considered as satisfactory evidence that both 
men and monkey's were mere creations of yesterday ! Fossil monkej-s, 
nevertheless, have been found in England, France, India, and South 
America. In India, several different species have turned up in ter- 
tiary strata, on the Himalaya mountains. The French fossils, found 
in fresh-water strata of the tertiary era, belong to the gibbon or tail- 
less ape, which stands next, in the scale of organization, to the orangs. 



IN CONNECTION "WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 333 

The American specimen, brought from Brazil by Dr. Lund, is re- 
feiTcd to an extinct genus and species peculiar to that country. And 
the English fossils, belonging to the genus macacus and an extinct 
species, exhumed from the London clay, were associated with cro- 
codiles, turtles, nautili, besides many curious tropical fruits.* 

Only a few fossil quadrumanes have as yet been discovered ; but 
a single one is sufficient to establish their existence. The number of 
animals presei'ved in rocky strata may bear but a small proportion to 
those which have been utterly destroyed. Thus, in the Connecticut 
sandstone, the tracks of more than forty species of birds and quadru- 
peds have been found distinctly marked. Some of these birds must 
have been at least twelve or fifteen feet high ; and yet no other vestige 
of their existence has been discovered. They were the colossal resi- 
dents of that valley for ages ; they have all vanished ; and had it not 
been for the plastic nature of the yielding sand whereon they waded 
along the river's banks, they would not have left even a footprint 
behind them. May there not be other creatures which have left no 
trace whatever of their existence ? f 

In each of the great geological epochas, life was quite as abundant as 
at the present day. All departments of the Animal Kingdom had their 
representatives, and some of them were even more numerous then than 
at present. Those immense tracts formed by zoophytes, and the incom- 
prehensible masses of microscopic shells, would almost seem to favor 
the theory that the whole eai'th is formed of the debris .of organized 
beings. Fossil fishes are far more plentiful than their living repre- 
sentatives ; and more shells have been found in the single basin of 
Paris than now exist in the whole Mediterranean. | The remains of 
the giant reptiles show their exuberance ; and now-extinct species of 
mammals must have at least equalled in numbers, as they far exceed 
in size, their living successors. Perhaps the most striking example 
is seen in the inexhaustible multitude of fossil elephants daily dis- 
covered in Siberia. Their tusks have been an object of traffic in ivory 
for centuries ; and in some places they have existed in such prodigious 
quantities, that the ground is still tainted with the smell of animal 
matter. Their huge skeletons are found from the frontiers of Europe 
through all l^orthern Asia to its extreme eastern point, and from the 
foot of the Altai Mountains to the shores of the Erozen Ocean — a 
surface equal in extent to the whole of Europe. Some islands in the 
Arctic Sea are chiefly composed of their remains, mixed with the 
bones of varicTus other animals of living genera, but of extinct 
species. § 



"& 



•Lyell: Principles. f^I'tcbcock: Geology. J Agassiz. 

§ Lieut. Anjou's Polar Voyage. 



334 GEOLOGY AND PALyEONTOLOGT, 



In whatever way we may account for the series of geological 
changes thus cursorily enumerated, they must have required immense 
periods of time ; and we have Mr. Babbage's authority for saying, 
that even those formations which are nearest to the surface have 
occupied vast periods, probably millions of years.* It is only with 
these latest formations, however, that we shall have any immediate 
concern. 

The Diluvium, or drift, as now called, is almost universal in extent 
(except within the tropics) ; and is marked by deposits of clay and 
sand ; and erratic blocks or boulders of all sizes, from common 
pebbles to masses thousands of tons in weight, occur at all levels up 
to the summits of lofty mountains, where no agency now in operation 
could have placed them. The drift abounds in fossil remains of 
animals ; such as the elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, 
and other large mammalia : genera which, now living only in warm 
climates, must have then existed in England, France, Grermany, and 
other northern countries. These animals were destroyed by the same 
inundations which left the deposits we call drift : yet the works and 
the remains of man have been found among them ! These drift-forma- 
tions are of immense antiquity, being in this country older than the 
basin of the Mississippi ; and may be regarded as the last great transi- 
tion in the earth's geological history. 

All formations of the drift do not belong to one and the same period ; 
nor were they produced by the same causes. According to the 
glacial theory of Prof. Agassiz, the climate of the northern hemi- 
sphere, which had been of tropical warmth, became colder at the 
close of the tertiary era. The polar glaciers advanced towards the 
south, leaving the marks of their passage in the ground and upon 
striated surfaces of rocks and mountains, whilst distributing on every 
side the blocks and masses they had entangled in their course : which 
last, with the finer detritus, were swept far and wide by torrents 
occasioned by the melting of these glaciers. 

At other times, a sudden elevation of mountain-chains from 
beneath the surface of the sea, produced violent inundations of 
surrounding countries, and transported boulders and drift in every 
direction. The Alps furnish illustrations in point. They have been 
heaved up since the deposition of the tertiary strata ; for those strata 
are found capping their summits or lying in their mountain-valleys ; 
while the "drift" is seen scattered in all directions — on the range 
of the Jura, and over the plains of Lombardy. Blocks of granite^ 
10,000 cubic feet in size, have been found in the Jura mountains, 
2000 feet above the Lake of Geneva. The rock in Ilorcb. from which 



* Babbage : Bridgewatcr Treatise. 



IN CONNECTIOX WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 335 

the leader in Israel miraculously drew water, is a mass of syenitic 
granite, six yards square, lying insulated upon a plain near Mount 
Sinai. There are displays of the di'ift in our own countrj^, on a mag- 
nificent scale, but as our object does not require, nor our limits allow, 
more than a mere reference to this as an interesting stage in the 
earth's antiquity, we pass on. 

Last comes the Alluvium ; that is, the formation along the margins 
of rivers and the deltas at their months, and the deposition of those 
supeirficial coverings of soil which have taken place since the earth 
assumed its present configuration of sea and land. Of the antiquity 
of the older formations, fossils have afforded unerring information ; 
each set serving as medals to mark the epoch of their existence. The 
alluvium must be judged by comparison, and all we shall attempt 
is, to show that the earth, in its present condition, has been the habi- 
tation of man for many thousand years longer than people com- 
monly suppose. 

It appears, from recent observations,* that the hydrographic basin 
of the Mle (Avithin the limits of rain), is about 1,550,000 square miles, 
and the whole habitable land of Egypt is formed of the alluvial de- 
posits of the river. The Delta is of a fan-like form, narrow at its 
apex below Cairo, and spreading out as it extends towards the sea, 
until its outer border is about 120 miles in extent. The same im- 
mense deposits are still carried annually to the sea, yet the Delta has 
not perceptibly increased within the limits of history. Tanis, the 
Hebrew Zoan, at a very remote period of Egyptian annals, was built 
upon a plain at some distance from the sea ; and its ruins may still be 
seen, within a few miles of the coast. The lapse of more than 3000 
years, from the time of Ramses II., has not produced any great increase 
in the alluvial plain, nor extended it farther into the Mediterranean. 
Cities which stood, in his day, upon the coast, and were even then 
referred to the gods Osiris and Ilorus, may still be traced at the same 
localities ; and Homer makes Menelaus anchor his fleet at Canopus, 
at the mouth of the Eg}'ptus or JSTile.f In short, we know that in 
the days of the earliest Pharaohs, the Delta, as it now exists, was 
covered with ancient cities, and filled with a dense population, whose 
civilization must have required a period going back far beyond an}- 
date that has yet been assigned to the Deluge of IsToah or even to the 
Creation of the world. 

The average depth of the Gulf of Mexico, between Cape Florida 

* Beke, in GlidJon's Handbook to the Nile, 1840. p. 29; and, Map of the " Basin of the 
Nile." 
f Wilkinson : Manners and Customs, i. p. 5-1 1 ; ii. 1 05-121 : — Gliddon, Chapters, p. 42-3. 



336. GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY 



and the mouth of the Mississippi, is about 500 feet. Borings have 
been made near ISTew Orleans to a depth of 600 feet, without reaching 
the bottom of the alluvial matter ; so that the depth of the delta of 
the Mississippi may be safely taken at 500 feet. The entire alluvial 
plain is 30,000 square miles in extent, and the smallest complement 
of time required for its formation has been estimated at 100,000 years.* 
This calculation merely embraces the deposits made by the river since 
it ran in its present channel ; but such an antiquity dwindles into 
utter insignificance when we consider the geological features of the 
country. The bluffs which bound the valley of the Mississippi rise 
in many places to a height of 250 feet, and consist of loam containing 
shells of various species still inhabiting the country. These shells 
are accompanied with the remains of the mastodon, elephant, and 
tapir, the megalonyx, and other megatheroid animals, together with 
the horse, ox, and other mammalia, mostly of extinct species. These 
bluffs must have belonged to an ancient plain of ages long anterior 
to that through which the Mississippi now flows, and which was inha- 
bited by occupants of land and fresh- water shells agreeing with those 
now existing, and by quadrupeds now mostly extinct, f 

The plain on which the city of New Orleans is built, rises only nine 
feet above the sea ; and excavations are often made far below the 
level of the Gulf of Mexico. In these sections, several successive 
growths of cypress timber have been brought to light. In digging 
the foundations for the gas-works, the Irish spadesmen, finding they 
had to cut through timber instead of soil, gave up the work, and were 
replaced by a corps of Kentucky axe-men, who hewed their way 
downwards through four successive growths of timber — the lowest 
so old that it cut like cheese. Abrasions of the river-banks show 
similar growths of sunken timber ; while stately live-oaks, flourishing 
on the bank directly above them, are living witnesses that the soil 
has not changed its level for ages. Messrs. Dickeson and Brown 
have traced no less than ten distinct cypress forests at different levels 
below the present surface, in parts of Louisiana where the range be- 
tween high and low water is much greater than it is at l^ew Orleans. 
These groups of trees (the live-oaks on the banks, and the successive 
cypress beds beneath,) are arranged vertically above each other, and 
are seen to great advantage in many places in the vicinitj' of ITew 
Orleans. 

Dr. Bennet Bowler J has made an ingenious calculation of the last 
emergence of the site of that city, in which these cypress forests play 



* Lyell's Principles of Geology, Cap. xv. -j- Lyell's Second Visit, C;ip. xxxiv. 

J Bennet DoTvler: Tableaux of New Orleans, 1852. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 337 

an important part. He divides the history of this event into three 
eras : — 1. The era of colossal grasses, trembling prairies, &c., as seen 
in the lagoons, lakes, and sea-coast. 2. The era of the cypress basins. 
3. The era of the present live-oak platform. Existing types, from 
the Balize to the highlands, show that these belts were successively 
developed from the water in the order we have named : the grass 
preceding the cypress, and the cypress being succeeded by the live- 
oak. Supposing an elevation of five inches in a century, (which is 
about the rate recorded for the accumulation of detrital deposits in 
the valley of the Nile, during seventeen centuries, by the nilometer 
mentioned by Strabo,) we shall have 1500 years for the era of aquatic 
plants until the appearance of the first cypress forest ; or, in other 
words, for the elevation of the grass zone to the condition of a cypress 
basin. 

Cypress trees of ten feet in diameter are not uncommon in the 
swamps of Louisiana ; and one of that size was found in the lowest 
bed of the excavation at the gas-works in !N"ew Orleans. Taking ten 
feet to represent the size of one generation of trees, we shall have a 
period of 5700 years as the age of the oldest trees now growing in 
the basin. Messrs. Dickeson and Brown, in examining the cypress 
timber of Louisiana and Mississippi, found that they measured from 
95-to 120 rings of annual growth to an inch : and, according to the 
lower ratio, a tree of ten feet in diameter will yield 5700 rings of 
annual growth. Though many generations of such trees may have 
grown and perished in the present c}^ress region. Dr. Dowler, to 
avoid all ground of cavil, has assumed only two consecutive growths, 
including the one now standing : this gives us, as the age of t"n^o 
generations of cypfess trees, 11,400 years. 

The maximum age of the oldest tree growing on the live-oak plat- 
form is estimated at 1500 years, and only one generation is counted. 
These data yield the following table : — 

"Geological Chronology of the last emergence of the present site of New Orleans. 

Years. 

Era of aquatic plants 1,500 

Era of cypress basin 11,400 

Era of live-oak platform 1,500 

Total period of elevation 14,400" 

Each of these sunken forests must have had a period of rest and 
gradual depression, estimated as equal to 1500 years for the dura- 
tion of the live-oak era, which, of course, occurred but once in the 
series. We shall then certainly be within bounds, if we assume the 
period of such elevation to have been equivalent to the one above 
43 



338 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 

arrived at; and, inasmuch as there were at least ten such changes, we 
reach the following result : — 

Tears. 

"Last emergence, as above 14,400 

Ten elevations and depressions, each equal to the last emergence 144,000 

Total age of the delta 158,400"* 

In the excavation at the gas-works, above referred to, burnt wood 
was found at the depth of sixteen feet ; and, at the same depth, the 
workmen discovered the skeleton of a man. The cranium lay be- 
neath the roots of a cypress tree belonging to the fourth forest level 
below the surface, and was in good preservation. The other bones 
crumbled to pieces on being handled. The type of the cranium 
was, as might have been expected, that of the aboriginal American 
Eacb. 

If we take, then, the present era at 14,400 years, 

And add three subterranean groups, each equal 
to the living (leaving out the fourth, in which 
the skeleton was found), 43,200 

We have a total of 57,600 years. 

From these data it appears that the human race existed in the delta 
of the Mississippi more than 57,000 years ago ; and the ten subterra- 
nean forests, with the one now growing, establish that an exuberant 
flora existed in Louisiana more than 100,000 years earlier: so that, 
150,000 years ago, the Mississippi laved the magnificent cypress 
forests with its turbid waters. f 

In a note addressed to our colleagues, ]!^ott and Gliddon, April 19, 
1853, Dr. Dowler says : — 

" Since I sent you the ' Tableaux,' several important discoveries have been made, illustra- 
tive and confirmatory of its fundamental principles in relation to the antiquity of the human 
race in this delta, as proved by works of art underlying, not only the live-oak platform, but 
also the second range of subterranean cypress stumps, exposed during a recent excavation 
in a cypress basin." 

The cypress trees of Louisiana, and the antiquity claimed for them 
here, naturally remind us of the longevity of other trees in connexion 
with the antiquity of the present era. The baobab of Senegal, as is 
well known, grows to a stupendous size, and is supposed to exceed all 
other trees in longevity. The one measured by Adanson was thirty 
feet in diameter, and estimated to be 5250 years old. Having made 
an incision to a certain depth, he counted 300 rings of annual growth, 
and observed what thickness the tree had gained in that period ; the 
average growth of younger trees of the same species was then ascer- 

* Dowler : Tableaux of New Orleans. f Idem. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 339 

tained, and the calculation made according to the mean rate of in- 
crease. Baron Humboldt considered a cypress in the gardens of 
Chapultepec as yet older ; it had already reached a great age in the 
reign of Montezuma, and is supposed to be now more than 6000 
years old. K we could apply the criterion-scale of Dickesoii and 
Brown, some of these trees might prove to be older still. These 
gentlemen counted 95 to 120 rings of annual growth in the c^^presses 
of Louisiana, and say, moreover, that the ligneous rings in the cypress 
are remarkably distinct, and easily counted. Now the cypress mea- 
sured by Humboldt was 40J feet in diameter. A semi-diameter of 
243 inches, multiplied by 95, the smaller number of rings to an inch, 
would give 24,036 years as the age of one generation of living trees. 
The harder woods are of very slow growth, and some of the huge 
mahoganies of Central America must be extremely old. The cour- 
baril of the Antilles reaches a diameter of twenty feet, and is one of 
the hardest timber ti'ees ; and the ironwood, from the same data, may 
be ranked among the patriarchs of the forest. 

Travellers have often been deterred from attempting to ascertain 
the age of remarkable trees by the apparent hopelessness of the task. 
To fell one of these giants of the woods was evidently impossible, 
nor was it an easy matter even to make such a section as would faci- 
litate the calculation. This difficulty is now, happily, to a great 
extent removed, and scientific travellers can hereafter obtain mea- 
surements of the largest and hardest trees in the places of their 
growth. Mr. Bowman has devised an instrument something like a 
surgeon's trephine, which, by means of a circular saw, cuts out cylin- 
ders of wood from opposite sides of the tree, and thus furnishes the 
most satisfactory results.* 

Having drawn the general reader's attention to a few geological f 
and botanical evidences of the incalculable lapse of time required for 
the existing condition of things upon our globe, let us endeavor to 
raise a corner of the veil which obscures human sight of epochas an- 
terior to ours. Where our alluvial rivers flowed, where our present 
vegetation flourished, where our mammiferous animals abounded, 
science cannot assign, d. priori, a reason why all our difierent species 
of mankiiid should not also have existed coetaneously. Cuvier (says 
Schmerling most truly,) does not contest the existence of man at the 
epoch in which gigantic species peopled the surface of the earth. | 
We content ourselves with lesser quadrupeds : 

Fossil Dogs. — The dog has been the constant companion of man in 

* J. Pye Smith. 

f For the parallel antiquity of the Nile's deposits, cf. Gliddon, Otia jEgyptiaca, p. 61-69. 

J Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles : Liege, 1 833, i. p. 53. 



340 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 

all his migrations to distant regions of the earth, and has suffered from 
the same injustice which ignorance metes to his lord. The wise Ulysses 
has been ruthlessly referred to a consanguineous origin with the Papuan 
and the Hottentot; and the noble animal that died from joy on re- 
cognizing his master (when all Ithaca had forgotten the twenty years' 
wanderer), is left to choose a descent from the savage wolf or the 
abject jackal, and must perforce share its parentage with 

" Mongrel, puppy, whelp, and hound, 
And cur of low degree." 

The monuments of Egypt have also shed new light upon the historical 
antiquity of both men and dogs, showing that the different races of 
each were as distinct 5000 years ago as they are to-day ; and we now 
propose to inquire whether geology does not confer upon dogs a still 
more ancient origin. 

Few questions in the histoiy of fossil animals are more difficult to 
solve than that of dogs ; for the differences between skeletons of the 
dog, the wolf, and the fox, are so trifling as to be almost undistinguish- 
able. Indeed, some perceive no difference between them except in 
point of size. Consequently, when we meet with a fossil of the dog 
species, we are at a loss whither to refer it ; and so strong are vulgar 
prejudices against the antiquity of everything immediately associated 
with man, that it is almost certain to be called a wolf, a fox, a jackal, 
or anything else, sooner than a common dog. 

It does not appear that any canidse have yet been found in the 
oolite, the earliest position of mammal remains ; they are rare in the 
tertiary strata, and are chiefly met with in the caves of the pliocene, 
in the drift, and the alluvium. 

Owen says that fossil bones and teeth extant in caves, and their as- 
sociation with other remains of extinct species of mammalia found in 
the same state, carry back the existence of the canis lupus in Great 
Britain to a period anterior to the deposition of the superficial drift. 
In the famous Kirkdale cave, Dr. Buckland discovered bones of a 
fossil canis associated with those of tigers, bears, elephants, the rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus, and other animals which Cuvier pronounced to 
belong to extinct species. Fossil bones of a species of canis, similarly 
associated with extinct animals, turned up in the cave of Paviland, 
in Glamorganshire ; and the Oreston cavern furnished other examples. 
In all these cases it was difficult to designate the species of canis the 
fossils belonged to, and the Dog was never allowed the benefit of the 
doubt. 

Cuvier, Daubenton and De Blainville inform us, that the shades of 
difference in canine skeletons are so slight, that distinctions are often 
more marked between two individual dogs, or two wolves, than between 



IN CONNECTION TTITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 341 

tlie various species. But, in spite of these difficulties, recoguizahle 
remains of the true dog, canis familiaris, have been frequently ob- 
tained. Dr. Lund discovered fossil dogs larger than those now living, 
in the cave of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; associated, as we have else- 
where stated, with an immense variet}^ of extinct species of animals, 
and in a position whose geological antiquity cannot be doubted. In 
this case the dog was partner with an extinct monkey ; and & similar 
association has been found in a stratum of marl, surmounted by com- 
pact limestone, in the department of Gers, at the foot of the Pyrenees. 
Here the bones of a true dog were found, in company with the re- 
liquife of not less than thirtj^ mammiferous quadrupeds ; including 
three species of rhinoceros, a large anaplotherium, three species of 
deer, a huge edentate, antelopes, and a species of monkey about three 
feet high. This fact is the more interesting, because fossil monkeys 
are almost as rare as fossil men in the fauna of the tertiary era ; and, 
until recently, their existence was quite as strenuouslj^ denied. In 
the catalogue of the casts of Indian fossils, recently presented to the 
Boston Society of ISTatural History by the East India Company, we 
find two crania of canine animals from the Slvalik Hills, but have 
no information as to their species. 

Dr. Schmerling has described several fossils of the true dog, which 
evidently belonged to two distinct varieties, notably diffijring from each 
other in size, as well as from the wolf and fox, whose bones, together 
with those of bears, hyenas, and other animals, reposed in the 
same locality. Cuvier, speaking of the bones of a fossil animal of 
the genus canis, found in the cave of Gaylenreuth, says that tbey 
resemble the dog more than the wolf, and that they are in the same 
condition with those of the hyenas and tigers associated with them : 
"they have the same color, the same consistence, the same envelop, 
and they evidently date from the same epoch.'' Cuvier does not posi- 
tively declare these remains to be those of the dog : he observes the 
caution which he exhibited, in 1824, when asked whether human 
bones had yet been discovered and proved to be coeval with those of 
extinct mammalia — "Pas encore," was his simple reply. 

In the quarries of Montmartre, Cuvier found the lower jaw of a 
species of canis, differing from that of any living species, and which 
we have the right to say belonged to an extinct species of dog. 
M. Marcel de Serres has described two species of dogs from Lunel 
Vieil. One he supposed to resemble the pointer, and the other was 
much smaller. -The caves of Lunel Vieil are situated in a marine- 
tertiary limestone. In some dogs, the frontal elevation of the skull 
exceeds that of the wolf, and this characteristic is useful as a distinc- 
tive mark. The skull of a small variety of dog, with this mark well 



342 GEOLOGY AND 

developed, was obtained from an English bone-cave, and submitted to 
Mr. Clift, who pronounced it to belong to a small bull-dog or large pug. 

Our domestic dog has the last tubercular tooth tvider than that of 
the wolf;. Avhich fact, together with slighter structure of the jaw, shows 
the dog to be less carnivorous. The teeth of the cave-dogs differ 
only in size from those of the common dog, being larger; and it 
appears almost certain that many of the fossil dogs were of a greater 
size than any of the varieties now common among us. This circum- 
stance, together with their general similarity of structure, has doubt- 
less led to their being almost universally designated as Wolves. "We 
read of wolves being constantly found in a completely fossilized state, 
associated with numerous extinct animals, and even with man him- 
self; and considering the ditficulty of distinguishing skeletons of the 
wolf from those of the dog, we have no doubt that many of these 
fossils belonged to man's natural companion — the dog. 

Marcel de Serres observes, in reference to the large size of the 
fossil dogs which came under his observation, that they bear a stronger 
resemblance to the animal such as we may suppose him to have been 
hefore he came under the influence of man, than most of our -domestic 
«anes. Their stature is intermediate between the wolf and the pointer, 
their muzzle is more elongated, and all the parts of the skeleton are 
proportionally stronger. But there is no ground for assuming a 
specific unity among these fossil dogs, any more than among the 
domesticated races. A careful examination of the bones found in 
the caves has shown the existence of different sizes, and probably of 
different species ; and inasmuch as we find, in the same caves, remains of 
animals which have suffered the greatest influence from man, e. g. the 
horse and ox, so we may reasonably infer that these dogs themselves 
have been contemporaneous with man ; especially because no vestiges, 
either of domestic animals or dogs, have ever been found in countries 
uninhabited by mankind since the earliest human tradition. The 
gigantic size of fossil dogs appears less formidable to us than it proba- 
bly did to M. de Serres, since Rawlinson has figured an enormous dog, 
from the sculptures of E"ineveh, as large as the largest of the extinct 
animals, and Vaux assures us that a similar species is still living in 
Thibet. [Jw/ra, Chap. XII.] Moreover, the skeleton of an immense 
dog was recently found in a cave at the Canaries, with remains of the 
extinct Guanches, and thence taken to Paris. Here, however the 
man may have met his death, 

" His faithful dog still bears him company." 

Yery distinct traces exist, then, of at least four types of dogs, in 
fossilized state : the Canary dog, the pointer-, the hound, and the bull- 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 343 

dog, together with a smaller animal, supposed hj Schmerling to have 
been a turnspit. As we know some of these races to be hybrids, the 
list must be still further enlarged ; for there can be no doubt that 
many other fossil canidee appertained to different species of dogs. 
These species enjoy a very respectable antiquity ; sufficient, we think, to 
destroy the claims of the wolf or the jackal to their common pater- 
nity : especially, when to our list of species is added the fossil dog 
discovered by Mr. W. Mantell, in the remote region of ISTew Zealand, 
•associated with the bones of the Dinornis giganteus. We have no 
doubt that Man himself existed contemporaneously with these fossil- 
ized animals, and that both enjoyed an associated antiquity upon 
earth which has not yet been generally conceded, but cannot much 
longer be denied. As the hound, baying in our American woods, 
announces the presence of the hunter, so we may rest assured that a 
palseontological "fidus Achates" noiselessly implies the proximity of 
fossil Man himself. 

JSuman Fossil Remains have now been found so frequently, and in 
circumstances so unequivocal, that the facts can hardly be denied ; 
except by persons who resolutely refuse to believe anything that can 
militate against their own preconceived opinions. Cuvier remarked, 
long since, that notions in vogue (30 j^ears ago) upon this subject would 
require considerable modification ; and Morton left among his pajDers 
a record of his matured views still more emphatically expressed : — 

" There is no good reason for doubting tlie existence of man in tlie fossil state. We have 
already several well-authenticated examples ; and we may hourly look for others, even from 
the upper stratified rocks. Why may we not yet discover them in the tertiary deposits, in 
the cretaceous beds, or even in the oolites ? Contrary to all our preconceived opinions, 
the latter strata have already afforded the remains of several marsupial animals, which 
have sui-prised geologists almost as much as if they had discovered the bones of man 
himself." * 

Human bones, mixed vdth those of lost mammifers, have been 
found in several places, — in England, by Dr. Buckland, in the famous 
cave of "Wokey Hole, at Paviland, and Kirkby. The question, whether 
an equal antiquity should be assigned to such remains \vith that of 
extinct inferior species accompanying them — or, in other words, 
whether man lived at the same time with rhinoceroses, hippopotami, 
hyenas, and bears, whose entire species have disappeared from earth, 
bequeathing but their fossil remains to tell iis that they once existed — 
was one of mighty import ; and Dr. Buckland, Oxonian Professor, 
was loth to admit that these remains, human and animal, belonged 
to beings which had been swept from existence by the same catas- 
trophe. Instances of human fossils had often been reported, but they 

* Morton : Posthumous MSS. 



344 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 

were always treated with contemptuous neglect. A fossil skeleton, 
found in tlie schist-rock at Quebec, when excavating the fortifications, 
excited hut a moment's incredulous attention ; and the well-known 
Guadaloupe skeletons were pronounced recent, in a manner the most 
summary. Human hones are known to have been found in England, 
under circumstances which rendered their fossil condition probable ; but, 
owing to prejudice or ignorance, they were cast aside as worthless, or 
buried with mistaken reverence. In some instances, they were used, 
with the limestone in which they were imbedded, to mend highways ;• 
and at all times were disposed of without examination, or apparent 
knowledge of their scientific importance. There is an instance, 
recorded by Col. Hamilton Smith, which, whether true or not, will 
serve to show a culpable indifierence on this subject. A completely 
fossilized human body was discovered at Gibraltar, in 1748. The fact 
is related in a manuscript note, inserted in a copy of a dissertation on 
the Antiquity of the Earth, by the Rev. James Douglas, read at the 
Royal Society, in 1785. In substance, it relates that, while the writer 
himself was at Gibraltar, some miners, employed to blow up rocks for 
the purpose of raising batteries about fifty feet above the level of the 
sea, discovered the appearance of a human body ; which they blew up, 
because the officer to whom they sent notice of the fact did not think 
it worth the trouble of examining ! One human pelvis found near 
]!^atchez, by Dr. Dickeson, is an undoubted fossil ; yet we are told 
that ferruginous oxides act upon an os innominatum difierently than 
upon bones of extinct genera lying in the same stratum, lest natural 
incidents might give to man, in the valley of the Mississippi, an anti- 
quity altogether incompatible with received ideas : and Sir Charles 
Lyell accordingly suggests a speedy solution of the difficulty, by 
saying that a fossilized pelvis may have fallen from an old Indian 
grave near the summit of the cliff. Attempts have been made to 
throw doubt upon every discovery of human fossils in the same 
manner; and the greatest ingenuity is exhibited in adapting adequate 
solutions to the ever-varying dilemmas. In the case of the fossils 
brought from Brazil, a human skull was taken out of a sandstone 
rock, now overgrown with lofty trees. Sir Charles Lyell again had 
recourse to his favorite Indian burying-ground ; although this time 
it had to be sunk beneath the level of the sea, and become again 
upheaved to its present position. But, supposing all this to be true, 
what an antiquity must we assign to this Indian skull, when we re- 
member the ancient trees above its grave, and reflect upon the fact 
that bones of numerous fossil quadrupeds, and, among others, of a 
horse (both found in the alluvial formation), must be of a more recent 
origin than the human remains ! 



IN CONNECTION "n^ITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 345 

Human fossil remains have been most commonly found in caves 
connected with the diluvium, usually known as ossuaries or hone- 
caverns. These caves occur, for the most part, in the calcareous strata, 
as the large caves generally do, and they have been, in all the in- 
stances we shall cite, naturallj' closed until their recent discovery. The 
floors are covered with what appears to be a bed of diluvial clay, over 
which a crust of stalagmite has formed since the clay bed was depo- 
sited ; and it is under this double covering of lime and clay that the 
bony remains of animals are discovered. As the famous Ivirkdale 
cavern may serve as a general t^'pe of caves of this description, we 
will here give a brief sketch of it : — 

The Kirkdale cave is situated on the older portion of the oolite for- 
mation — in the coral-rag and Oxford clay — on the declivity of a 
valley. It extends, as an irregular narrow passage, 250 feet into the 
hill, expanding here and there into small chambers, but hardly enough 
anywhere to allow of a man's standing upright. The sides and floor 
were found covered with a deposite of stalagmite, beneath which there 
was a bed from two to three feet thick of sandy, micaceous loam, 
the lower part of which, in particular, contained an innumerable 
quantity of bones, Avith which the floor was completely strewn. The 
animals to w^hich they belonged were the hyena, bear, tiger, lion, 
elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, three species of deer, 
water-rat, and mouse — appertaining wholly to extinct species. The 
most plentiful were hyenas, of which several hundreds were found, 
and the animals must have been one-half larger than any living spe- 
cies. The bears belonged to the cavernous species, which, accord- 
ing to Cuvier, was of the size of a large horse. The elephants were 
Siberian mammoths ; and of stags, the largest equalled the moose in 
size. From all the facts observed, Dr. Buckland concluded, that 
the Kirkdale cave had been for a long series of years a den inhabited 
by hyenas,* who had dragged into its recesses other animal bodies 
whose remains are there commingled with their own, at a period 
antecedent to that submersion which produced the diluvium ; because 
the bones are covered by a bed of this formation. Finally raised 
from the waters, but with no direct communication with the open 
air, it remained undisturbed for a long series of ages, during which 
the clay flooring received a new calcareous covering from the drop- 
pings of the roof. Such is a general description of the bone-caves : 
but it does not apply to all of those which contained human fossils, as 
we shall presently see. 

Apart from the geological formation they are found in, the only 

* Buckland : Reliquiae Diluvianae. 

44 



346 

nietliod of judging of the age of bones is, by the proportions of ani- 
mal and mineral matters which they retain. "Where animal matter 
is present, the bone is hard without being brittle, and does not adhere 
to the tongue ; when nothing but earthy matter remains, the bone is 
both brittle and adhesive. K we wish to be more particular in our 
examination, we treat the bone in question with dilute muriatic acid: 
the fossil bone, dissolving with effervescence, is reduced to a spongy 
flocculent mass : whereas the recent bone undergoes a quiet digestion, 
and after the removal of all the earthy matter, the gelatine still retains 
the form of the entire bone in a fibrous, flexible, elastic, and trans- 
lucent state. If both solutions be treated with sulphuric acid, we 
obtain the same insoluble sulphate of lime from each. 

Col. Hamilton Smith mentions several instances, occurring in Eng- 
land, where human bones were found kneaded up in the same 
osseous breccia, or calcareous paste, with those of extinct animals, 
wherein the most rigid chemical examination could detect no difterence 
between them. In 1833, the Eev. Mr. M'Enery collected, from the 
caves of Torquay, human bones and flint knives amongst a great 
variety of extinct genera — all from under a crust of stalagmite, re- 
posing upon which was the head of a wolf. Caves have been opened 
at Oreston, near Plymouth, in the Plymouth Hoe, and at Yealm 
Bridge, in all of Avhich human bones Avere found, mixed with fossil 
animal remains. Mr. Bellamy subjected a piece of human bone, from 
the cave at Yealm Bridge, to treatment by muriatic acid, ascertaining 
that its animal matter had almost entirely disappeared; while the 
metatarsal bone of a hyena, from the same cave, still retained such 
an abundance of animal matter that, after separation of the earthy 
parts, this bone preserved its complete form, was quite translucent, 
and had all the appearance of a recent specimen. ^ Pieces of human 
bone, from a sub-Appenine cavern in Tuscany, (probably not less 
than twenty-five or thirty centuries old, and which had all the appear- 
ance of being completely fossilized and even converted into chalk,) 
when subjected to the searching powers of such muriatic-acid test, 
revealed their recent origin. And human bones from the Brixham 
cavern, in England, were in like manner pronounced recent, though 
it was evident that they had been gnawed 'bj hyenas or other beasts 
of prey. Not far from the cave whence these were taken, the thoroughly 
fossilized head of a deer was picked up. This test Avas also fairly tried 
in the case (to be presently cited) of sundry human fossils found in the 
Jura. MM. Ballard and de Serres compared them Avith some bones 
taken from a Gaulish sarcophagus, supposed to have been buried for 
1400 years, but the fossil bones proved to be much the more ancient. 

It ma}^ be granted, that Dr. Buckland was justified in concluding 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 347 

fi'om the instances which came under his observation, that whenever 
human bones were discovered mixed with those of animals, they 
must have been introduced at a later period ; but even Cardinal Wise- 
man admits that there are cases of an entirely different character.* 

The cave of Durfort, in the Jura, has been examined and described 
by MM. Firmas and Marcel de Serres. It is situated in a calcareous 
mountain, about 300 feet above the level of the sea, and is entered 
by a perpendicular shaft, twenty feet deep. You enter the cavern by 
a narroAV passage from this shaft, and there find human bones in a 
true fossil state, and completely incorporated in a calcareous matrix. 
A still more accurate examination, attended with the same results, 
was made, by M. de Serres, of certain bones found in tertiary lime- 
stone at Pondres, in the department of the Herault. Here M. de 
Cristolles discovered human bones and pottery, mixed with the 
remains of the rhinoceros, bear, hyena, and many other animals. 
They Avere imbedded in mud and fragments of the limestone rock of 
the neighborhood ; this accumulation, in some places, being thir- 
teen feet thick. These human fossils were proved, on a careful exa- 
mination, to have parted with their animal matter as completely as 
those bones of hyenas which accompanied them ; and they further- 
more came out triumphantly from a comparison with the osseous 
relics of the long-buried Gaul, as just related. 

A fossil hum.au skeleton is presented in the Museum at Quebec, 
which was dug out of the solid schist-rock on which the citadel stands ; 
and two more skeletons from Guadaloupe are deposited, one in the 
British Museum, and the other in the Eoyal Cabinet at Paris. The 
skeleton in the British Museum is headless ; but its cranium is sup- 
posed to be recovered in the one found in Guadaloupe by M. L'Her- 
minier, and carried by him to Charleston, South Carolina. Dr. 
Moultrie, who has described this very interesting relic, says that it 
possesses all the characteristics which mark the American race in 
generai.f The rock in which these skeletons were found is described 
as being harder, under the chisel, than the finest statuary marble. 

Dr. Schmerling has examined a large number of localities in France 
and Liege, particularly the " caverue d'Engihoul;" where bones of 
man occurred, together with those of animals of extinct species : the 
human fossils being found, in all respects, under the same circum- 
stances of age and position as the animal remains. J ISTear these relics, 
works of art were sometimes disclosed ; such as fragments of ancient 
urns, and vases of clay, teeth of dogs and foxes pierced with holes 

'" I-ectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion, by Nicholas Wise- 
n:n'. D. D. London, 1849. 
I Morton : Physical Type of American Indians. X Recherches, I. pp. 59-G6. 



348 GEOLOGY AND PALiEONTOLOGT, 

and doubtless worn as amulets. Tiederaann exhumed, in caverns of 
Belgium, human bones, mixed with those of bears, elephants, hyenas, 
horses, wild boars, and ruminants. These human relics were pre- 
cisely like those they Avere associated with, in respect to the changes 
either had undergone in color, hardness, degree of decomposition, and 
other marks of fossilization. In the caves of France and Belgium, 
we often find, in the deepest and most inaccessible places, far remote 
from any communication with the surface, human bones buried in 
the clayey deposit, and cemented fast to the sides and walls. On 
every side, we may see crania imbedded in clay, and often accompa- 
nied by the teeth or bones of hyenas. In breccias containing the 
bones of rodents and the teeth of horses and rhinoceroses, we also 
meet with human fossils. 

There are many other cases on record, of human remains being 
found associated Avith animal fossils, both in England and on the Con- 
tinent. As well at Kitely as at Brixham, such associations have been 
noticed; and there can be little doubt that human fossils exist in 
caverns and formations beneath the present level of the sea: e.g. at 
PWmouth and other places, where remains of elephants have been 
washed up by the surf. 

In the caverns of Bize, in France, human bones and shreds of pot- 
tery turned up in the red clay, mixed with remains of extinct ani- 
mals ; and on the Rhine, they have been found in connection with 
skulls of gigantic bisons, uri, and other extinct species. The cave 
of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, is situated in a perpendicular rock, its 
mouth being upwards of 300 feet above the level of the river. Those 
of Zahnloch and Kiihloch are similarly elevated ; and the latter is 
supposed to have contained the vestiges of at least 2500 cavern-bears ; 
while the cave of Copfingen, in the Suabian Alps, is not less than 
2500 feet above the sea. These caves contained collections of human 
and of animal remains ; while their elevation places them above the 
reach of any partial inundations. Ossuaries in the vale of Kostritz, 
Upper Saxony, are more interesting, because they have been more 
carefully studied. They are situated in the gypsum quarries ; and 
the undulating country about them is too elevated to permit of their 
deposits having been influenced, in the least, by those inundations 
which are made to ansAver for such a multitude of sins. ISo partial 
inundation could possibly have disturbed them since the present geo- 
logical arrangement ; nor were there external openings or indications 
of any kind revealing the existence of an extensive cave within. 
The soil is the usual ossiferous loam, and the stalagmite rests upon it 
as in other caverns. Beneath these deposits, human and animal fos- 
sils have been discoA^ered, at a depth of twenty feet. These deposits 



IN CONNECTION WITB. HUMAN ORIGINS. 349 

were first described by Baron vou Schlotbeim, who concludes his 
accoimt with these remarks : — 

" It is evident tliat the human bones could not have been buried here, nor have fallen 
into fissures during battles in ancient times. They are few, completely isolated, and de- 
tached. Nor could they have been thus mutilated and lodged by any other accidental cause 
in more modern times, inasmuch as they are always found with the other animal remains, 
under the same relations — not constituting connected skeletons, but gathered in various 
groups." 

Besides those of man at different periods of life, from infancy to 
mature age, bones of the rhinoceros, of a great feline, of hyena, horse, 
ox, deer, hare, and rabbit, were found ; to which owl, elephant, elk, 
and reindeer relics have since been added. Specimens of the human 
fos.sils are in possession of the Baron, of the Prince of Reuss, Dr. 
Schotte, and other gentlemen residing near the spot ; and Mr. Fair- 
holme, who visited Saxony expressly to satisfy himself of the facts by 
a careful examination of the locality, brought specimens to England, 
which he presented to the British Museum. It is worthy of being 
noted here, that the above bones were not all entombed in caverns or 
fissures, but that some human fossils were dug out of the clay, at a 
depth of eighteen feet, and eight feet below the remains of a rhi- 
noceros.* Enough has thus been said upon fossil Man disinterred 
accidentally in that Old World which, in natural phenomena, is actiT- 
ally younger than the "I^ew." 

Crossing from Europe to our own continent, we behold, in the 
Academy of Sciences at Philadelphia, a fossilized human fragment, 
surpassingly curious, if of disputed antiquity : — 

" Dr. Dickeson presented another relic of yet greater interest: viz., the fossil Os innomi- 
natum of the human subject, taken from the above-mentioned stratum of blue clay [near 
Natchez, Mississippi], and about two feet below the skeletons of the megalonyx and other 
genera of extinct quadrupeds ; . . . that of a young man of sixteen years of age." f . . . 

" Ten of these interesting relics [of the fossil horsel, consisting of five superior and infe- 
rior molars. Dr. Dickeson relates, were obtained, together with remains of the megalonyx, 
■arms, the os hominis innominatum fossile, &c., in the vicinity of Natchez, Mississippi, from a 
stratum of tenacious blue clay, underlying a diluvial deposit." J 

Aware of the critical objections to this fossil put forward by Lyell, 
we neither affirm nor deny its antiquity by mentioning that Morton, 
and other palaeontologists, did not consider these demurrers conclu- 
sive : nor is much geological erudition requisite to comprehend that, 
under the atmospheric conditions in which a horse and a bear could 
inhale the breath of life, a human mammifer might equally well have 
respired it with them. 

* Hamilton Smith : Natural History of the Human Species. Edinburgh, 1848 ; p. 93-107. 
f Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Philad. ; October, 1846, p. 107. 

J Leidy: On the Fossil Horse of America, op. cil., Sept. 1847, p. 265. Vide, also, Pro- 
ceedings Acad. Nat. Sciences ; Dec. 1847, p. 328. 



350 GEOLOGY AND P ALiEONTOLOGT, 

How comes it that, with the exception of brief notices by Morton, 
the subjoined unequivocal instance of American fossil man has been 
generally overlooked for a quarter of a century ? His fossil bones 
were discovered b}' Capt. J. D. Elliott, IJ. S. IST., and are now in the 
Academy of JS'atural Sciences at Philadelphia : eight fossilized human 
relics, besides 

" A specimen of the rock of which the mound is composed, and in which the skeletons 
are imbedded. It consists of fragments of shells united by a stalactic matter." 

Dr. Meigs philosophically remarked, twenty-six years ago : — 

The present specimens are particularly interesting, inasmuch as they belong to the Ame- 
rican continent, and as adding another link to that chain of testimony concerning the early 
occupation of this soil, of which the remains are so few and unsatisfactory, but of which 
another link, a strong analogue exists in the Island of Guadaloupe, in good measure neg- 
lected or disregarded, on account of its loneliness or want of connection with similar 
facts."* 

Here, then, is one "homo Diluvii negator" to be coupled with Dr. 
Dowler's sub-cj^ress Indian, who dwelt on the site of New Orleans 
57,600 years ago. 

The next most important and valuable contribution to this depart- 
ment of knowledge, in every point of view, has been made by the 
distinguished Danish naturalist, Dr. Lund, who has given an interest- 
ing account of the calcareous caves of Brazil, so peculiarly rich in 
animal remains. He discovered human fossils in eight different loca- 
lities, all bearing marks of a geological antiquity. In some instances, 
the human bones were not accompanied by those of animals. In the 
province of Minas Geraes, human skeletons, in a fossil state, were 
found among the remains of forty-four species of extinct animals, 
among which was a fossil horse. This learned traveller discovered 
both the human and the animal reliques under circumstances which 
lead to the irresistible conclusion that all of them were once contera- 
poi-aneous inhabitants of the region in which their several vestiges 
occur. With respect to the race of these fossil men, Dr. Lund found 
that the form of the cranium differed in no respect from the acknow- 
ledged American type ; proper allowance being made for the artificial 
depression of the forehead. The peculiarity in the arrangement of 
the teeth has been noticed elsewhere. 

In a cave on the borders of a lake called Lagoa Santa, Dr. Lund 
again collected multifarious human bones, in the same condition with 
those of numerous extinct species of animals. They belonged to at 
least thirty different individuals, of every age, from creeping infancy 
to tottering decrepitude, and of both sexes ; and were evidently de- 

"■*■ An Account of some Human Bones, found on the Coast of Brazil, near Santas ; latitude 
24° 30'' S., longitude 46° W. By C. D. Meigs, M. D. Read 7th December, 1827 : Trans. 
Amsr. Philo.i. Soc; Philad. 1830, iii. pp. 286-291. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 351 

posited where the bodies lay with the soft parts entire : immense 
blocks of stone with which aSTature had partly covered them, bearing 
unanswerable testimony to the great revolutions which the cave had 
undergone since their introduction into it. 

These bones were thoroughly incorporated with a very hard breccia, 
every one in the fossil state. A single specimen of an extinct 
family of apes, callithrix primcevus, was found among them ; but large 
numbers of rodents, carnivora, and tardigrades, were intermixed pro- 
miscuously with the human fossils. All their geological relations unite 
to show, that they were entombed in their present position at a time 
•long previous to the formation of that lake on whose borders the 
cavern is situated ; thereby leaving no doubt of the coexistence, in 
life, of the whole of the beings thus associated in death. These facts 
establish not only that South America was inhabited by an ancient 
people, long before the discovery of the ISTew Continent, or that the 
population of this part of the world must have preceded all historical 
notice of their existence : they demonstrate that aboriginal man in 
America antedates the Mississippi alluvia, because his bones are fos- 
silized ; and that he can even boast of a geological antiquity, because 
numerous species of animals have been blotted from creation since 
American humanity's first appearance. The form of these crania, 
moreover, proves that the general type of races inhabiting America 
at that inconceivably-remote era was the same which prevailed at the 
period of the Columbian discovery : and this consideration may spare . 
science the trouble of any further speculation on the modus through 
which the Xew "World became peopled by immigration from the Old ; 
for, after carrying backwards the existence of a people monumentally 
into the very night of time, when we find that they have also pre- 
served the same Type back to a more remote, even to a geological, 
period, there can be-no necessity for going abroad to seek their origin. 

Thus much information, upon /ossiZ man in America, was common 
property of the authors of this volume and the writer, until March, 
18.53 : and such, in substance, were the consequent ethnological de- 
ductions in which they coincided. However convinced themselves, 
in regard to the real fossiliferous antiquity of the os innominatum 
unearthed by Dr. Dickeson from the blufl's near !N"atchez, they were 
aware of the conditions obnoxious to its special acceptance as evi- 
dence in court ; and would, therefore, have cheerfully resigned, to 
their fellow-continentals of South America, the honor of cxhibitino: 
the oldest human remains upon the oldest continent, but for an un- 
anticipated event, which enables Xorth America to claim (in human 
palpeontology at least) a republican equality. 

Prof. Agassiz, duiing March and April, favored Mobile with a 



352 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 

Course of Lectures ; the sixth of which (concisely, but admirably, 
reported in our " Daily Tribunie "*) bore directly upon the themes 
discussed in Types of Mankind. The subjects of the present work 
were passed in daily review, while the Professor sojourned amongst 
us. We need not recapitulate the obvious advantages its readers in 
consequence derive. Its authors and the writer consider the follow- 
ing abstract to be, in all senses of the word, a memorandum : — 

I " Respecting the fossil remains of the human body I possess, from Florida, I can only 
state, that the identity with human bones is beyond all question ; the parts preserved being 
the jaws with perfect teeth, a.ud portions of a foot. They were discovered by my friend, Count 
F. de Pourtales, in a bluff upon the shores of Lake Monroe, in Florida. The mass in which 
they were found is a conglomerate of rotten coral-reef limestone and shells, mostly ampul- 
larias of the same species now found in the St. John river, which drains lake Monroe. The 
question of their age is more difiBcult to answer. To understand it fully, it must be remem- 
bered that the whole peninsula of Florida has been formed by the successive growth of coral 
reefs, added concentrically from north to south to those first formed, and the accumulation 
between them of decomposed corals and fragments of shells ; the corals prevailing in some 
parts, as in the everglades ; and in others, the shells, as about St. Augustine and Cape 
Sable. In all these deposits, we find remains of the animals now living along the coasts of 
Florida, sometimes buried in limestone as hard and compact as the rocks of the Jurassic 
formation. I have masses of this coral rock, containing parts of the skeleton of a large 
sea-turtle, which might be mistaken for turtle-limestone of Soleure, from the Upper Jura. 
Upon this marine-limestone formation and its inequalities, fresh-water lakes have been 
collected ; inhabited by animals the species of which are now still in existence, as are also, 
along the shores, the marine animals, remains of which may be found in the coral forma- 
tion. To this lacustrine formation belongs the conglomerate containing the human bones 
mentioned above ; and it is more than I can do, to establish, with precision, the date of its 
deposition. This, however, is certain, that Upper Florida, as far south as the headwaters 
of the St. John, constituted already a prominent peninsula before Lake Okeechobee was 
formed ; and that the whole of the southern extremity of Florida, with the everglades, has 
been added to that part of the continent since the basin has been in existence, in which the 
conglomerate with human bones has been accumulating. The question, then, to settle, (in 
order to determine the probable age of this anthropolithic conglomerate,) is, the rate of 
increase of the peninsula of Florida in its southward progress : remembering that the 
southernmost extremity of Florida extends for more than thrcQ degrees of latitude south 
of the fresh-water system of the northern part of the peninsula. If we assume that rate 
of growth to be one foot in a century, fromadepthof seventy-five feet, and that every succes- 
sive reef has added ten miles of extent to the peninsula, (which assumption is doubling the 
rate of increase furnished by the evidence we now have of the additions forming upon the 
reef and keys south of the mainland,) it would require 135,000 years to form the southern 
half of the peninsula. f Now, assuming further — which would be granting by far too much — 
that the surface of the northern half of the peninsula, already formed, continued for nine- 
tenths of that time a desert waste, upon which the fresh waters began to accumulate before 
the fossiliferous conglomerate could be formed, (though we have no right to assume 
that it stood so for any great length of time) there would still remain 10,000 years, 
during which, it should be admitted, that the mainland was inhabited by man and the land 

* " The Lecture of Agassiz ; " Mobile Daily Tribune, April 14, 1853. 

•j- " Say 100,000 years, since which time at least the marine animals, now living along the 
coast of Florida, have been in existence ; for their remains are found in the coral limestone 
of the everglades, as well as in that of the keys, and upon the reef now growing up outside 
of them." 



IN CONNECTION" WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 353 

and fresh-water animals, vestiges of \Thich have been buried in tbe deposits formed by the 
fresh waters covering parts of its surface. So much for the probable age of our conglome- 
rate. ... L. Agassiz." '^ 

Man, absolutely fossilized, exists therefore in I^orth America. 

We have shown that the alluvion of our river beds and deltas pos- 
sesses an antiquity, which would permit of the existence of man upon 
the earth at a much more remote period than has been commonly 
assigned to him. We have given instances of his exhumation also in 
the fossil state. The human fossils of Brazil and Florida carry back 
the aboriginal population of this continent far beyond any necessitj^ 
of hunting for American man's foreign origin through Asiatic immi- 
gration : and the body of one Indian beneath the cypress forests at 
!N"ew Orleans is certainly more ancient than the lost " tribes of Israel," 
to whom the American type has been rather fancifully attributed. 

Man's vast antiquity can now be proved, moreover, by his works as 
well as by his fossil remains. Authentic relics of human art have 
been, at last, found in the diluvian drift. This drift, with its beds of 
rolled stones, the detritus of older rocks, its masses of sand and 
gravel, and the traces of its passage over mountain and plain in 
almost every region of the earth, is vulgarly regarded as furnish- 
ing irrefragable evidence of the ISToachian deluge ; as, ?ndeed, 
every remarkable geological appearance was supposed to prove the 
universality of that visitation. The numerous bones of the elephant, 
the rhinoceros, and other extinct species of quadrupeds, occurring in this 
deposit, were commonly denominated " antediluvian remains," and 
assumed to be unquestionable vestiges of the " world before the flood !" 
Among zuch remains, in deposits clearly belonging to the diluvial 
epoch, traces of human industry are revealed, of an indisputable 
character. For these revelations from an earlier world we are chiefly 
indebted to the zeal and liberality of M. Boucher de Perthes, who 
has given us an extraordinary work on the primitive industry of 
man.* In 1835, M. Ravin t published a description of a '■'■Pirogue 
Gauloise" found under the turf at Estreboeuf on the Somme ; and in 
the same year M. Picard described an ornament made of the teeth of 
the wild boar, and some very ancient axe-sheaths, &c., disclosed in a 
similar situation near Picquigny. These researches, interrupted by 
the death of M. Picard, were subsequently resumed by M. Boucher 
de PertTies ; who pursued them until 1849, when he published the 
result of his truly arduous labors. 

M. de Perthes 'caused numerous excavations to be made in the Celtic 

* Antiquit^s Celtiques et Ant^diluviennes : Memoire sur I'lndustrie primitive, et les arts 
h. leur origine : par M. Boucher de Perthes — Paris, 1849. 
\ M^moires de la Society d'Emulation d'Abbeville — 1835. 

45 



364 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 

burial-places, and in dilnvian beds, over tbe departments of the Somme 
and Seine ; besides examining all subterranean localities brought to 
light by the works of civil and military engineers, during a period of 
ten years. He did not succeed in finding fossil human remains in 
the diluvian deposits, but he has produced what he considers their 
equivalent : because, among relics of elephants and mastodons, and 
even below these fossils, at a depth where no archaeologist had ever 
suspected traces of man, he discovered weapons, utensils, figures, 
signs, and symbols, which must have been the work of a surpassingly- 
ancient people. 

Besides his researches in the diluvian beds, he opened many mounds 
and burial-places, Gaulish, Celtic, and of unknown origin, some of 
them evidently of extreme antiquity: and he describes successive 
beds of bones and ashes, separated from each other by strata of turf 
and tufa, with no less than five difierent stages of cinerary urns, 
belonging to distinct generations, of which the oldest were deposited 
helow the woody or diluvian turf. The coarse structure of these 
vases, (made by hand and dried in the sun,) and the rude utensils of 
bone, or roughly-carved stone, by which they were surrounded, to- 
gether with their position, announce their appertaining, if not to the 
earliest' ages of the world, at least to a far more remote antiquity than 
has usually been assigned to such ceramic remains. 

" In the yarious excavations made in the course of these inquiries, we become acquainted 
with successive periods of civilization, which correspond with the written history of the 
country. Thus, after passing through the first stratum of the soil, we come to relics of the 
middle ages ; and then meet, in regular order, with traces of the Koman, the Gallic, the 
Celtic, and the diluvian epochs. It is always in the neighborhood of lakes and rivers that 
we find vestiges of the most numerous and ancient people. If their banks were not the 
earliest seats of human habitations, they were probably the most constant, and when once 
settled were seldom afterwards deserted. This was owing to water, the first necessary of 
life, and surest pledge of fertility ; and to the abundance of fish and game, so indispensable 
to a hunting people. We may add, that all ancient people had a superstitious reverence 
for great waters, and made them the favorite resorts of their gods. On the banks of their 
rivers they deposited the ashes of chiefs and relatives, and there they desired to be buried 
themselves. The possession of these banks was, therefore, an object of general ambition, 
and became the continual subject of war and conquest. This explains the accumulation of 
relics which sometimes covers them, and which, on the banks of the Somme and the Seine, 
conducts us from the middle ages, through the Roman and the Gaulish soils, back to the 
Ckjltic period." * 

"We have nothing to do now with the comparatively-modern historj 
of the Gauls ; the excellent works of MM., de Caumont and Thierry 
maybe consulted on that subject: our business is with the Celtic soil, 
the cradle of the people, the earth trodden by the primordial popula- 
tion of Gaul. 

* Ibid. — Antiquit^s Celtiques. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 355 

" Here we naturally inquire, Tvho were these mysterious Celts, these primitive inhabit- 
ants of Gaul ? AVe are told that this part of Europe is of modern origin, or at least of 
recent population. Its annals scarcely reiich to twenty centuries, and even its traditions 
do not exceed 2500 years. The various people who have occupied it, the Galls, the Celts, 
the Belgians, the Veneti, Ligurians, Iberians, Cymbrians, and Scythians, have left no ves- 
tige to which we can assign that date. The traces of those nomadic tribes who ravaged 
Gaul scarcely precede the Christian era by a few centuries. Was Gaul then a desert before 
this period? Was its sun less genial, or its soil less fertile? Were not its hills as pleasant, 
and its plains and valleys as ready for the harvest? Or, if men had not yet learned to 
plough and sow, were not its rivers filled with fish, and its forests with game ? And, if the 
land abounded with everything calculated to attract and support a population, why should 
it not have been inhabited ? The absence of great ruins would indicate that Gaul, at this 
period, and even much later, had not attained a high degree of civilization, nor been the 
seat of powerful kingdoms ; but why should it not have had its towns and villages ? or, 
rather, why should it not, like the steppes of Russia, the prairies and virgin forests of Ame- 
rica, and the fertile plains of Africa, have been overrun from time immemorial by tribes 
of men, savages perhaps, but, nevertheless, united in families if not in nations ? " 

Those circles of upright stones, of which Stonehenge is the most 
familiar example, are admitted to be of great antiquity, but no one 
can tell how far back that antiquity may extend. They are found 
throughout Europe, from ISTorway to the Mediterranean ; and they 
must have been erected by a numerous people, (being faithful ex- 
ponents of a general sentiment,) since we find them in so many coun- 
tries. They are commonly called Celtic or Druidical, but it would be 
hard to say on what authority ; or, in what circumstances and for 
what pui"pose those mysterious Druids erected them. Having neither 
date nor inscription, they must be older than written language; 
for people who can write never leave their own names and ex- 
ploits uncelebrated. The ancients were as ignorant on this subject 
as ourselves ; and, at the period of the Roman invasion, the origin 
of those monuments was already shrouded in obscurity. ISTeither 
Roman historians nor Christian chroniclers have been able to throw 
an}^ light upon their unknown founders. Even tradition is silent. 
Political or religious monuments, they were probably the first temples, 
the first altars, or the first trophies vowed to the gods, to victory, and 
to the memory of warriors ; for among all people the ravages of war 
were deified before the benefits of peace : man has always venerated 
the sla^'er of man. The people who erected them are entirely for- 
gotten ; and they must have been separated from the living genera- 
tions by an extreme antiquity, as well as by some great and over- 
whelming social revolution, probably involving the entire destruction 
of their nation. Being unable, then, to attribute these monuments 
either to the Romans or the Gauls, sciolists have ignorantly termed 
them Celtic or Druidic ; not because they were raised originally by 
Druids, but because they had been used in the Druidical worship, 
though erected for other uses, or dedicated to other divinities. In like 



356 



GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 



manner did the temples of Paganism afterwards serve for tlie solemni- 
ties of Christianity. 

Yf e have cited the example of these Celtic temples as a standard 
of comparison ; for, if their antiquity is so extreme as to be entirely 
lost out of our sight, what date shall we assign to human works found 
at a considerable distance below their foundations ? In the same soil 
upon which these druidical monuments stand, but many feet beneath 
their base, numbers of those stone wedges, commonly called Celtic 
axes, have been discovered ; and these, with other similar instruments, 
only varying in the finish of their workmanship, according to the 
depth at which they are found, have been collected at different levels, 
even as low down as the diluvian drift. 

The annexed cut represents a section of an alluvial formation at 

Fig. 203. 
Alluvial Deposites at Poktelette, showing the Arrangement of the Soil and the Sepultures. 




2-00... 



3-00.. 



3-00. 



1 




1 
1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

II 




^ 


li 






1 1 






...IIL 



.IV. 



...V. 




..VL 
..VIL 

..vin. 



Indicates the level of the actual ■waters of the Somme, whose depth is 
three metres. 
I. Alluvial formation. 
II. Vegetable soil — covering transported earth or rubble. 

III. Calcareous tufa — porous, and containing compact masses. 

IV. Muddy sand — blue, and very fine. 

V. Turf — containing Celtic antiquities; indicated by = . 
VI. Muddy sand. 
VII. Detrital diluvium — rolled silex, &c. 
Vm. White chalk. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 



357 



Portelette, on the Somme, where some beautiful specimens of Celtic 
axes were obtained. At a depth of nine feet, a large quantity of 
bones was found ; and one foot lowei", a piece of deer's horn, bearing 
marks of human workmanship. At twenty feet from the surface, 
and five feet below the bed of the river, three axes, highly finished, 
and perfectly preserved, turned up in a bed of turf. Some axe-cases 
of staff's horn w^ere also discovered in the same bed. Near these 
objects was a coarse vase of black pottery, ver}^ much broken, and 
surrounded with a black mass of decomposed pottery — there were 
also large quantities of wrought bones, human and animal. The entire 
bones were those of the boar, urns, bull, dog, and horse ; but none 
of man. In another locality, in the neighborhood of Portelette, the 
skull of a man was found. Here was evidently a Celtic sepulchre. 
The axes were entirely new, bearing no marks of use, and were doubt- 
less votive ofierings. This case is only cited to show that the same 
kind of utensils extend from the comparatively recent Celtic back to 
far remoter diluvian and antediluvian epochas. "We annex sketches 
of the deer's-horn axe-cases (Figs. 204 and 205), because in the more 



FiQ. 204. 



i- ■' ■ 



Fig. 205. 






H 



i; \r 



ilii'iiili!iiiiM.:rn 




Celtic buck-horn " Axe-Cases." * 

ancient excavations none were discovered. Fig. 204 is an axe-case made 
of the horn of a " stag often," and is six inches in length, two inches 



* Boucher, PI. I. 



358 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 



wide at one end, and a little more than one incli wide at tlie other. 
Around the opening intended to receive the stone, a line has been 
drawn by way of ornament. The axe is of grayish silex, polished along 
its whole length, and is three inches long, and one inch and a half 
wide. At the upper end of the case, broken remains of a large 
wild boar's tusk were firmly driven into the horn ; while the axe itself 
was very loose, and seems always to have been so — the looseness 
being increased by its smooth polish. It was evidently intended to 
be thrown, or detached from the case, whenever a blow was struck 
with it. The handle of this axe was twenty inches long, made of 
oak, and in a tolerable state of preservation ; but became reduced one- 
half in drjdng, by crumbling and splitting oflE" in flakes. Carelessly 
worked, it had been hardened at both ends in the fire. This was the 
only wooden handle found — some being of bone, and many others 
entirely decomposed. 

Eig. 205 was an axe-case and axe similar in most respects to Fig. 
204, except its handle of horn. 

A great variety of other instruments, made of deer's horn, oc- 
curred in this and other alluvial excavations ; but as our main con- 
cern is with those of higher antiquity, we must pass them by without 
notice, and proceed to the diluvian vestiges. 

In the gravel-pits of Menchecourt, on the Somme, M. de Perthes 
found a number of stone axes and other works, associated with the 
remains of extinct animals. The character of this formation is marked 
by erratic blocks and the organic remains which it contains : the 
erratic blocks being here represented by boulders of sandstone, and 
by massive flints, which have been visibly rolled and rounded, de- 
spite of their weight. Its organic remains are chiefly those of the 
elephant, the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, bear, hyena, stag, ox, urus, 
and other mammalia, of races either extinct or foreign to the pre- 
sent climate, belonging to the diluvian epoch. In the post-diluvian 
or alluvial formations already spoken of, only living or indigenous 
species are met with ; and the human bones are mixed with scoriae, 
worked metals, pieces of pottery, and other vestiges of the civilization of 
the period to which these buried men belonged. The alluvia, whatever 
be the materials which compose them, are easily recognized through 
the horizontal position of their beds. Such regular stratifications do 
not exist in the Diluvial formations. Here diflerent sands, gravels, 
marls, broken and rolled fiints, everywhere scattered in disturbed 
beds, and repeated at irregular distances, announce the movement 
of a great mass of water and the devastating action of a furious cur- 
rent. Indeed it is scarcely possible to be deceived in the diluvial 
character of these formations, or to confound them with a posterior 



IN CONNECTION TTITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 359 

deposit. Everytliiug aunouuces the diluvial origin of these beds at 
Menchecourt: the total absence of modern relics and of any remains 
of recent animals ; the large lumps of silex ; the scattered boulders ; 
the pure sands (yellow, green, and black), sometimes in distinct layers, 
at other times mixed with the silex whose couches, descending to a great 
depth, rise again immediately to the surface of the soil. Such is the 
character of these formations ; wherein we meet at every step the traces 
of an immense catastrophe, especially in vallej's where the diluvian 
waters had precipitated the ruins accumulated in their course.* 
M. Baillon, speaking of this locality, says : — 

" We begin to find bones at the depth of ten or twelve feet, in the gravel of Menchecourt ; 
but they are more plentiful at eighteen or twenty feet deep. Among them are bones which 
were bruised and broken before they were entombed, and others whose angles have been 
rounded by friction in water ; but neither of these are found as deep as those which remain 
entire. These last are deposited at the bottom of the gravel bed ; they are whole, being 
neither rounded nor broken, and were probably articulated at the time of their deposition. 
I found the whole hind leg of a rhinoceros, the bones of which were still in their proper 
relative position. They must have been connected by ligaments, and even covered with 
muscles, at the time of their destruction. The rest of the skeleton of the same animal lay 
at a small distance. I have remarked that whenever we meet with bones disposed in this 
manner — that is to say, articulated — we also find that the sand has formed a hard agglo- 
meration against one side of them." 

Subjoined is a list of the mammifers discovered by M. Baillon in the 
sands of Menchecourt : namely, elephant, rhinoceros, fossil horse (of 
medium size and more slender form than the living species), felis 
spelea, canis speleus, hyena, bear, stag, and bos bombifrons of Harlan. 
A scale from the neck of a great crocodile was also exhumed from 
gravel of Menchecourt, being only the third instance in which traces 
of that saurian had been found, thus associated, in Europe : once at 
Brentford in England, once in the diluvial beds of the Val d'Arno, 
and once at Menchecourt. f 

"We have said that, among these diluvian remains, (amid bones of 
elephants, rhinoceroses, and crocodiles, under many beds of sand and 
gravel, and at a depth of several feet below the modern soil,) vestiges 
of human industry had been met with ; and we now give a section of 
the locality (Fig. 106) from which flint axes, agglutinated with a mass 
of bones and sand, were procured. These axes were taken from the 
ossiferous beds ; one at four and a half metres, or nearly thirteen feet, 
and the other at nine metres, or about twenty-seven feet, below the 
surface. The character of the soil and of the superposed layers of 
compact sand, free from any appearance of modern detritus, forbids 
a supposition that they could ever have reached such a depth through 
accident since the formation of the bed itself, or by any infiltration from 

• Boucher de Perthes ; p. 217-246. | Cuvier : Ossemens Fossiles. 



S60 



GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 



VII. 



VIII. 



XII. 
XIII. 

XIV. 



Section of the Geavel-Beds at Menchecotjrt.* 
Fig. 206. 



XV 



XVI. 



^^^^^^^P 




Feet. 
.4-00 

..4J 
..4J 



.3-00 







..3-00 



9-00 





* Modern, or r 
Alluvial. \ 



Diluvian, or 
Clysmian of - 
Brongniart. 



I. Superficial vegetable earth — humus. 
II. Lower vegetable — argillaceous. 

III. Brown clay. 

IV. Upper bed of silex — rolled and broken, with lumps 

of white marl and rolled chalk, in amygdaloid 
fragments. 
V. Compact ferruginous clay. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 



361 



a superior level : because, in sucli cases, some trace must have been 
left of their occurrence. No doubt exists that those axes had lain in 
the same position ever since the fossilized bones were there, or that 
they were brought thither by the same causes. 

Many other excavations were examined, as opportunities occurred ; 
and stones bearing unmistakeable evidence of human workmanship 
were discovered so frequently in the drift, as to establish the fact 
beyond all room for question. The occurrence of similar axes in 
sepulchres of the Celtic era, might otherwise support the idea that 
they had found their way by subsidence from upper to lower levels ; 
but the character of the formation, as before remarked, renders such 
contingencies highly improbable, if not impossible; and it seems 
much more likely that old diluvian remains were discovered by a 
more modern people, who adopted these ancient tools in later 
fiinebral ceremonies. But it is not necessary to assume either hypo- 
thesis: the same wants would suggest similar utensils. Forms, vene- 
rated as symbolical of any religious rite or sentiment, are very per- 
manent, especially among a rude people : and, whether we suppose 
the more ancient race to have been entirely destroyed, and suc- 
ceeded by another after a catastrophe, or the same type to have con- 
tinued through that long period which must have elapsed between 
the diluvian and the Celtic epochas, the circumstance that the same 
instruments are found in both positions is not attended with any 
insuperable difficulties. Indeed, Indian axes, discovered by Mr. 
Squier in our Western mounds, are so precisely similar in form and 
material to those we have been describing, that one should not be 
much surprised at seeing them adduced, by some sapient advocate 
of the unity of human races, as decisive proofs of the Celtic origin 
of American Indians. 

The annexed cuts (Figs. 207 and 208) represent different sections 



Clysmien 
Limoneux of < 
Brongniart. 



Cbjsmian, 
delritic. 



Limono-di- 
iritique. 



Clayey and 
sandy. 



Sandy. 



Faniy. 



VI. Marly clay, with broken flints, ■white externally. 
VII. Marly sand, containing bones of mammifers. 
VIII. Beds of rolled chalk, in pisiform fragments, mixed 
with siliceous gravel. 
IX. White clay. 
X. White sand. 
XI. Gray sandy clay. 
XII. Clay and sand, ochry, in veins. 

XIII. Pure gray clay. 

XIV. Ochry vein. 

XV. Alternate beds, slightly oblique, with shells and dilu- 
vian bones. 
XVI. Lower bed of flints, rolled and broken. 



These marks show the position of the flint-axes. 



46 



362 



GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 



of a bank at Abbeville ; * after excavations made by military engi- 
neers, while repairing the fortifications of the place. Here, in a bed 
of gravel some eight feet below the surface, fossil bones of an elephant 
were found ; and, immediately below them, a flint knife ; while at 
a still lower level, stone axes wei-e discovered. 

The existence of human works in Gallic diluvian drift, appears to be 
proven. Similar works have also been found in the alluvium of the 
same localities: and, inasmuch as the best geologists say that each of 
these formations may have occupied myriads of years, it will be inte- 
resting to trace connexions between the two periods. This we shall 
now attempt by an examination of some rude mementos of those 
ancient times entombed in mother earth. In later Celtic sepulchres, 
(besides stone axes, of regular shape and high polish,) numerous uten- 
sils wrought from deers' horns were discovered, of which we have 
given specimens when treating of axes. 



* 1st. Section of Diluvian Beds at the Ramparts of Abbeville. 
Fig. 207. 
Fliut knives 



I< 



IL^ 



B... 



and axes. 













I. Recent. — Thickness 6 feet. 
a. Vegetable mould. 
h. Rubble. 
II. Diluvian formation (clysmien Br.). 

A. First bed— IJ. 

1. Yellow sand — argillo-ferruginous. 

2. Silex, rolled and broken, mixed with 

gravel. 

3. Green sand. 

B. Second bed— dgtritique Br.— 900. 
1111. Masses of silex, rolled and broken, 

mixed with gravel and ferruginous 



sand. Below this mass the silex 
tends to form oblique beds. 
2. The same silex, forming a large band 
in green sand. 
3 3 3. The same silex, forming sinuous veins 
in black sand, colored by carbon from 
the decomposition of lignite. 
4 4. Vein of white sand, containing a 
layer of silex and bands of clay. 
5. Veins of green sand — 16. 
=. Celtic instruments found in the dilu- 
vian mass. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN OEIGINS. 



363 



An instance of the early use of deers' ^lo- 209. 

horn, (mentioned by Dr. Wilson in his 
Memoir on the pre-Celtic races of Scotland, 
read before the British Association for 
1850,) may be here cited. Remains of a 
fossil whale have recently been exhumed 
in Blair Drummond Moss, seven miles 
above Stii-liug bridge, and twenty miles 
from the nearest point of the river Forth 
where by any possibility a whale could 
be naturally stranded. ITevertheless, a 
rude harpoon* of deers' horn, found along 
with the cetaceous mammal, proves that 
this fossilized whale pertains to, and falls 
within, human historical peiiods ; at the 
same time that it points to an era subse- 
quent to man's first colonization of the 
British Isles. 

Sketches of other instruments, made of 
the same material, equally illustrate the 
rude state of Celtic arts. Fig. 209, made 
of an antler and part of the horn attached to the head, was used as 




Celtic hammer, of buck-horn.* 



2nd. Transversa Section - 

• I. Recent. 

a. Vegetable earth. 
6. Transported earth. 
II. Diluvian formation (clysmien Br.). 

A. First bed. 
1 1. Mixture of rolled silex and clay. 

2. Lumps and oblique veins of white 

sand, mixed with gravel and 
silex. 

3. Bed of ferruginous diluvian grit. 

Sand agglutinated by a cement 
of hydrated iron. 

B. Second bed. (Detritique Brong.) 

1. Masses of rolled silex, mixed with 

gravel. 

2. Sinuous band of silex (rolled) in 

black sand. 

3. Mass of silex and gravel, in brown 

ferruginous sand. 
H. Celtic instruments contained in the 
mass of silex, covered with fer- 
ruginous sand ; one set 3J metres 
below the surface, the other at 
5 metres 60 centimetres. 

* Boucher. Tlate III. 



- Abbeville ramparts. 










364 



GEOLOGY AND PAL.3E0NT0L0GT, 




Celtic pickaxe, 
made of buck-horn.* 



Fig. 210. a hammer ; and Fig. 210 is evi- 

dently intended for a pickaxe. 
Many other specimens, equally 
rude in design and execution, 
were found in these alluvial 
deposits ; but, notwithstanding 
the most careful search, no 
traces of worked bones have 
been ever discovered in the diluvial beds ; except 
in two doubtful instances, where fragments of fossil 
deers' horn appeared to show some traces of 
workmanship. 

Among the weapons used by ancient people, 
axes have always been, if not the most common, 
at least the best known. We have spoken of 
those found in the Celtic sepulchres, and will now 
give sketches of a few of them. Figs. 211, 212 
and 213 are Celtic axes. The first is composed of 
silex, the second of jade, and the third of por- 
phyry : they are all of elegant form and perfect 
polish. This is the prevailing form ; though the instruments vary 
in size from eight inches down to two inches and a half in length, 

with a proportionate width. 
An elegant little jasper axe 
(Fig. 214) is of the smaller 
size. 

Serpentine is another 
common material, from its 
beautiful appearance and 
facility of workmanship : 
chalk and even bitumen 
are also frequently found 
moulded into the typical 
form. The subjoined (Figs. 
215, 216, 217) appear to 
have been intended for 
amulets. Fig. 215 is of 
grit, two inches long, con- 
taining a rude representa- 
tion of a human face, and 
pierced so as to be worn 
Celtic axes, adzes, kef as an amulet. Fig. 216 is 



Fig. 211. 




Fig. 212. 




Fig. 213. 



Fig. 214. 




* Boucher, Plate IV. 



t Idem, Plate XIII. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 



365 



Fig. 215. 



Fig. 216. 



Fig. 217. 






Celtic Amulets.* 



of black basalt ; and Fig. 
217, which is more of the 
typical shape, is made of 
white marble^ ornamented 
with small bas-reliefs, and 
pierced with holes for sus- 
pension as an amulet, or 
to facilitate fastening in a 

case. Several other specimens of different sizes, material, and finish, 
but all of the same general form, were found in the Celtic sepulchres, 
which it is unnecessary to our purpose to enumerate or describe. 

Besides the axes, numbers of flints, wrought in the form of knives, 
were found in the Celtic depositories, and instruments of both kinds 
were also discovered in the diluvian deposites ; the only difference 
between the Celtic and diluvian remains lying in the fineness of the 
workmanship, as the form and material Avere in both cases the same. 
Figs. 218, 219, and 220, represent axes from the diluvian deposites ; 
and here it may be as well to remark, once for all, that the word axe 
is merely a conventional term, applied generally to all stones of a 
peculiar typical shape, and is not intended to convey the idea that 
those instruments were ahvays used as weapons or as mechanical 
tools, as we shall take occasion to explain. 

Figs. 221, 222, and 223, are sketches of Celtic knives ; and Figs. 
224, 225, and 226, are corresponding instruments of the diluvian epoch. 



Fig. 219. 



Fia. 222. 



Fig. 218. 






Fig. 220. 






Fig. 223. 



Diluvial hatchets, f 




Celtic knives. J 



* Boucher, PI. XVI. f Boucher, PI. XVII. % Ibid., Pis. XXIV., XXV. 



366 



GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY, 



Fig. 226. 



Fig. 224. 



Fig. 225. 






Diluvial knives.* 

Besides the axes and knives, there were still other specimens of 
wrought silex and sandstone, which appear to have been used as 
symbols or signs connected with the rites of religion. Some of these 
were probably the original forms or models of the Celtic stones, so 
widely known ; viz., cromlechs, dolmens, licJiavens, &c. They certainly 
have the same shapes, and it is not easy to assign any other use or 
origin to them. Generally pyramidal or cubic in form, they are found, 
with little variation, from the oldest diluvian to the Celtic period, 



Fig. 227. 



Fig. 228. 




Fig. 229. 





Druidical Monuments. f 

and even down to near the Roman times. They are represented in 
Figs. 227, 228, 229, and 230. 



* Boucher, PI. XXVII. 



t Ibid., Pis. XXXIII. and XXXIV. 



IN CONNECTION- WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 367 

"We should remember that many of the instruments we call axes were 
probably used only in sacrifices, and some, perhaps, merely as votive 
offerings or amulets ; being too small, and made of materials too fra- 
gile, to have been of any use either as weapons or as tools. Moreover, 
they were fitted so slightly to their cases, that they must have become 
detached whenever a blow was struck, and would thus have been left 
in the wound, or, in case of sacrifice, would have dropped ijito the 
hole of the dolmen made to receive the blood of the victim. This 
superstition still exists among some savage tribes, who, in their human 
sacrifices, always leave the knife in the wound; and may perhaps be 
traced in the practice of Italian bravos, with whom it is a point of 
professional honor to leave the stiletto sticking in the body of the 
murdered man. 

" The triangular axe was probably a form consecrated by custom among those rude 
tribes, like the crescent among the Turks. Being never employed as an instrument of 
death, except in sacrifices; -when the sacrifice was consummated, on funereal occasions, it 
would be deposited near the urn containing the ashes of the chief they wished to honor, or 
under the altar of the god they would propitiate. At any rate, the permanence of so rude 
a state of art during so many ages, or perhaps so many hundreds of ages — from a period 
of unknown antiquity, separated from historic times by one of the great revolutions of the 
earth — and disappearing, not gradually, but suddenly; and either by death or conquest; 
to be succeeded by remains of the Roman era — indicates the existence of a people in a state 
of barbarism from which they would probably never have emerged. Inhabiting a country 
full of lakes and forests, they may have resembled the Indians of North America ; or, to 
select a more ancient example, we may compare them to the nomadic tribes of Asia and 
Africa : the Tartars, Mongols, and Bedouins. The duration of their stationary state defies 
all speculation ; since the most ancient traditions, especially of the pastoral Arabs, repre- 
sent them precisely as we see them to-day, and there is no sensible diflFerence between the 
tent of Jacob and that of a modern Shfeykh." * 

The supposition that these pre-Celtic populations of Europe may 
have resembled our N'orth American Indians is exceedingly just, so 
long as similitudes are restricted merely to social habits, superinduced 
on both continents by the same natural causes ; but that the abori- 
gines of Europe were not, in any case, identical physiologically with 
the trans-Alleghanian mound-builders, has been already exemplified 
[supra, p. 291]. This leads us to the '^Pre-Celtic Annals of Scotland" 
— one of those sterling works, replete with solid instruction, that 
reflects infinite honor on the "native heath," which Dr. Daniel 
"Wilson has recently exchanged for a Canadian home. "Whilst 
heartily welcoming such an accession of science to our continent, we 
lack space to do more than present the learned archasologist's results 
in the concisest form. Caledonia, in ages anterior to any Celtic tra- 
ditions, appears to have been successively occupied by two types of 
man (heretofore unknown to historians), distinct from each other no 

* M. Boucher de Perthes : Antiquitds Celtiques. 



368 



GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, 



less than from their Celtic destroyers ; and this long prior to the 
Roman invasion of Britain. The most ancient of these extinct races, 
viz., the "ICumbe-JcephaU " (or, men with Joai-shaped skulls), flourished 
during the earlier part of the "Primeval or Stone period;" and their 
successors, the '■'■ Brachy-hepTiali" (or, short heads) lived towards the 
latter part. Both became more or less displaced by intrusive Celts, 
during the subsequent ''Archaic or Bronze period ; " while these last 
gradually gave way before the precursors of Saxons, Angli, Scoti, 
IlTorwegians, &c., who usher in the "Teutonic or Iron period." 
Place the Roman invasion of Scotland in the year 80 A. D., and at 
what primordial era did Caledonia's aborigines begin ? — With this 
exordium, let Caledonian archseology speak for itself: — 

" Of the Allopylian colonists of Scandinavia, Professor Nillson assigns to the most ancient 
the short or brachy-kephalic form of cranium, with prominent parietal tubers, and broad 
and flattened occiput. To this aboriginal race, he conceives, succeeds another with a cra- 
nium of a more lengthened oval form, and prominent and narrow occiput. The third race, 
which Scandinavian antiquaries incline to regard as that of the bronze or first metallic 
period, is characterized by a cranium longer than the first and broader than the second, 
and marked by greater prominence at the sides. The last, Professor Nillson considers to 
have been of Celtic origin. To this succeeded the true Scandinavian race, and the first 
workers of the native iron ore.* . . . 

" Fortunately a few skulls from Scottish tu- 
muli and cists are preserved in the Museums 
of the Scottish Antiquaries and of the Edin- 
burgh Phrenological Society. A comparison 
of these with the specimens of crania drawn 
by Dr. Thurnam from examples found in an 
ancient tumular cemetery at Lamel Hill, near 
York, believed to be of the Anglo-Saxon 
period, abundantly proves an essential differ- 
ence of races, f The latter, though belonging 
to the superior or dolicho-kephalic type, are 
small, very poorly developed, low and narrow 
in the forehead, and pyramidal in form. A 
striking feature of one type of crania from the 
Scottish barrows is a square compact form. . . 
"No. 7 [Figs. 231 and 232] was obtained 
from a cist discovered under a large cairn at 
Nether TJrquhart, Fifeshire, in 1835. An ac- 
count of the opening of several cairns and 
tumuli in the same district is given by Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Miller, in his ' Inquiry respect- 
ing the Site of the Battle of Mons Grampius.'J 
Some of them contained urns and burnt bones, 
ornaments of jet and shale, and the like early 
relics, while in others were found implements 
or weapons of iron. It is selected here as 



Fig. 231. 




Fig. 232. 




" No. 7. Nether TJrquhart Cairn." 



* Primitive inhabitants of Scandinavia, by Professor Nillson of Lund. 

t Natural History of Man, p. 193. J Archseol. vol. iv. pp. 43, 44. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 



369 



FiQ. 233. 




Fio. 234. 



another example of the same class of crania. . . . The whole of these, more or less, nearly 
agree with the lengthened oval form described by Professor Nillson as the second race of 
the Scandinavian tumuli. They have mostly a singularly narrow and elongated occiput ; 
and with their comparatively low and narrow forehead, might not inaptly be described by 
the familiar term boat-shaped. It is probable that further investigation will establish this 
as the type of a primitive, if not of the primeval native race. Though they approach in 
form to a superior type, falling under the first or Dolicho-kephalic class of Professor Ket- 
zius's arrangement, their capacity is generally small, and their development, for the most 
part, poor ; so that there is nothing in their cranial characteristics inconsistent with such 
evidence as seems to assign to them the rude arts and extremely limited knowledge of the 
British Stone Period. . . . 

"The skull, of which the measurements are 
given in No. 10 [Figs. 233 and 234], is the 
same here referred to, presented to the Phren- 
ological Jluseum by the Rev. Mr. Liddell. It 
is a very striking example of the British 
Brachy-kephalic type ; square and compact in 
form, broad and short, but well balanced, and 
with a good frontal development. It no doubt 
pertained to some primitive chief, or arch- 
priest, sage, it may be, in council, and brave 
in war. The site of his place of sepulture has 
obviously been chosen for the same reasons 
which led to its selection at a later period for 
the erection of the belfry and beacon-tower 
of the old burgh. It is the most elevated spot 
in the neighborliood, and here his cist had 
been laid, and the memorial mound piled over 
it, which doubtless remained untouched so 
long as his memory was cherished in the tra- 
ditions of his people. . . . 

"Few as these examples are, they will pro- 
bably be found, on further investigation, to 
belong to a race entirely distinct from those 
previously described. They correspond very 
nearly to the Brachy-kephalic crania of the 
supposed primeval race of Scandinavia, de- 
scribed by Professor Nillson as short, with 
prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flat- 
tened occiput. In frontal development, how- 
ever, they are decidedly superior to the previous class of crania, and such evidence as we 
possess seems to point to a very different succession of races to that which Scandinavian 
ethnologists now recognize in the primitive history of the north of Europe. . . . 

" So far as appears from the table of measurements, the following laws would seem to 
be indicated : — In the primitive or elongated dolicho-kephalic type, for which the distinc- 
tive title of kumbe-kephalic is here suggested — the parietal diameter is remarkably small, 
being frequently exceeded by the vertical diameter; in the second or brachy-kephalic class, 
the parietal diameter is the greater of the two ; in the Celtic crania they are nearly equal ; 
and in the medieval or true dolicho-kephalic heads, the parietal diameter is again found 
decidedly in excess ; while the preponderance or deficiency of the longitudinal in its rela- 
tive proportion to the other diameters, furnishes the most characteristic features referred 
to in the classification of the kumbe-kephalic, brachy-kephalic, Celtic, and dolicho-kephalic 
types. Not the least interesting indications which these results afford, both to the ethno- 

47 




'• No. 10. Old Steeple, Montrose." 



370 GEOLOGY AND PALiEONTOLOGT, 

logist and the archceologist, are tlie evidences of native primitive races in Scotland prior to 
tlie intrusion of the Celtos ; and also the probability of these races having succeeded each 
other in a different order from the primitive colonists of Scandinavia. Of the former fact, 
viz., the existence of primitive races prior to the Celtse, I think no doubt can be now enter- 
tained. Of the order of their succession, and their exact share in the changes and pro- 
gressive development of the native arts which the archaeologist detects, we still stand in 
need of further proof. . . . 

" The peculiar characteristic of the primeval Scottish type appears rather to be a narrow 
prolongation of the occiput in the region of the cerebellum, suggesting the term already 
applied to them of boat-shaped, and for which the name of Kumhekephaloi may perhaps be 
conveniently employed to distinguish them from the higher type with which they are other- 
wise apt to be confounded. . . . 

" The peculiarity in the teeth of certain classes of ancient crania above referred to is of 
very general application, and has been observed as common even among British sailors. 
The cause is obvious, resulting from the similarity of food in both cases. The old Briton 
of the Anglo-Roman period, and the Saxon both of England and the Scottish Lothians, bad 
lived to a great extent on barley bread, oaten cakes, parched peas, or the like fare, pro- 
ducing the same results on his teeth as the hard sea-biscuit does on those of the British 
sailor. Such, however, is not generally the case, and in no instance, indeed, to the same 
extent in the skulls found in the earlier British tumuli. In the Scottish examples described 
above, the teeth are mostly very perfect, and their crowns not at all worn down. . . . 

" The inferences to be drawn from such a comparison are of considerable value in the 
indications they afford of the domestic habits and social life of a race, the last survivor of 
which has mouldered underneath his green tumulus, perchance for centuries before the era 
of our earliest authentic chronicles. As a means of comparison this characteristic appear- 
ance of the teeth manifestly furnishes one means of discriminating between an early and a 
still earlier, if not primeval period, and though not in itself conclusive, it may be found of 
considerable value when taken in connexion with the other and still more obvious peculiari- 
ties of the crania of the earliest barrows. We perceive from it, at least, that a very decided 
change took place in the common food of the country, from the period when the native 
Briton of the primeval period pursued the chase with the flint lance and arrow, and the 
spear of deer's horn, to that comparatively recent period when the Saxon marauders began 
to effect settlements and build houses on the scenes where they had ravaged the villages of 
the older British natives. The first class, we may infer, attempted little cultivation of the 
soil. . . . 

" Viewing Archseology as one of the most essential means for the elucidation of primitive 
history, it has been employed here chiefly in an attempt to trace out the annals of our 
country prior to that compar.atively recent medieval period at which the boldest of our his- 
torians have heretofore ventured to begin. The researches of the ethnologist carry us back 
somewhat beyond that epoch, and confirm many of those conclusions, especially in relation 
to the close affinity between the native arts and Celtic races of Scotland and Ireland, at 
which we have arrived by means of archseological evidence. . . . But we have found from 
many independent sources of evidence, that the primeval history of Britain must be sought 
for in the annals of older races than the Celta3, and in the remains of a people of whom we 
have as yet no reason to believe that any philological traces are discoverable, though they 
probably do exist mingled with later dialects, and especially in the topographical nomen- 
clature, adopted and modified, but in all likelihood not entirely superseded by later colo- 
nists. With the earliest intelligible indices of that primeval colonization of the British Isles 
our archseological records begin, mingling their dim historic annals with the last giant 
traces of elder worlds ; and, as an essentially independent element of historical research, 
they terminate at the point where the isolation of Scotland ceases by its being embraced 
into the unity of medieval Christendom."* 

* Wilson: Archseol. and Prehist. Annals of Scotland; Edinb. 1851; pp. 163-187, 695-G. 



IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 371 

Neither in Scotia nor in Scandinavia, then, any more than in Gal- 
lia, are lacking mute, but incontrovertible testimonies to the abori- 
ginal diversity of mankind, as wel] as to human antiquity incalculably 
beyond all written chronicles. Ere long, '■^Crania Britannica, or De- 
lineations of the Skulls of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the British 
Islands, and of the Races immediately succeeding them," will vouch 
for existing evidences of the same unanswerable facts in England, 
The forthcoming work of Doctors Davis and Thurnam promises — 

" Not merely to reproduce the most lively and forcible traits of the primeval Celtic 
hunter or warrior, and his Roman conqueror, succeeded by Saxon or Angle chieftains and 
settlers, and later still by the Vikiugs of Scandinavia ; but also to indicate the peculiarities 
"which marked the different tribes and races who have peopled the diversified regions of the 
British Islands." 

We conclude this imperfect sketch with remarks, truthful as they 
are eloquent, of M. Boucher de Perthes, on the subject of these pre- 
Celtic resuscitations : — 

" My discoveries may appear trifling to some, for they comprise little save crumbling 
bones and rudely sculptured stones. Here are neither medals nor inscriptions, neither bas- 
reliefs nor statues — no vases, elegant in form, and precious in material — nothing but 
bones and rudely polished flints. But to the observer who values the demonstration of a 
truth more than the possession of a jewel, it is not in the finish of a work, nor in its market- 
price, that its value consists. The specimen he considers most beautiful is that which 
affords the greatest help in proving a fact or realizing a prevision ; and the flint which a 
collector would throw aside with contempt, or the bone which has not even the value of a 
bone, rendered precious by the labor it has cost him, is preferred to a Murrhine vase or to 
its weight in gold. 

" The arts, even the most simple, those which seem born with nature, have, like nature 
herself, had their infancy and their vicissitudes ; and industry, properly so called — that 
is, the indispensable arts — has always preceded the ornamental. It is the same with men 
as with animals ; and the first nightingale, before he thought of singing or of sporting, 
sought a branch for his nest and a worm for food : he was a hunter before he became a 
musician. 

" However great the number of ages which shroud the history of a people, there is one 
method of interrogating them, and ascertaining their standing and intelligence. It is by 
their works. If they have left no specimens of art, it is because they have merely appear«Si 
and vanished; or, even if they have continued stationary for any time, they must have 
remained weak and powerless. Experience proves that this total absence of monuments 
only exists among a transplanted people — among races who have been cast upon an 
abnormal soil and under an unfriendly sky, where they lingered out a miserable existence, 
always liable to momentary extinction. But among a people who had a country, and whom 
slavery and vice had not entirely brutalized, we may always find some trace, or at least some 
tradition of art, evanescent perhaps, but still sufScient to recal by a last reflection the physi- 
ognomy of the people, their social position, and the degree of civilization they had attained 
when that art was cultivated. 

" Among these specimens of primitive industry, some belong to the present, and illus- 
trate the material life:'while others clearly refer to the future. Such are the arms and 
amulets which were intended to accompany their owners into the tomb, or even to follow 
them beyond the grave ; for, in all ages, men have longed for an existence after death. In 
these tokens from the tomb — these relics of departed ages — coarse and imperfect as they 
appear to an artistic eye, there is nothing that we should despise or reject : last witnesses 



372 

of the infancy of man and of his first footsteps upon earth, they present us with the only 
remains of nations who reared no columns nor monuments to record their existence. In 
these poor relics lie all their history, all their religion : and from these few rude hieroglyphics 
must we evoke their existence and the revelation of their customs. If we were engaged 
with Egyptians, Greeks, or Romans, people who have furnished us with chefs-d'oemvre 
which still serve as our models, it would be irksome to examine the ancient oak to find 
whether it had fallen before the tempest or the axe, or to argue whether the angle of a 
stone had been smoothed by the hand of man or the action of running water. But when 
the soil we explore has no other signs of intelligent life, and the very existence of a people 
is in question, every vestige becomes history. It is easy to conceive that of all the works 
of man in those ancient deposits, only such instruments of stone should remain. They 
alone were able to resist the action of time and decomposition, and above all of the waters 
which put the whole in motion. All these flints bear marks of mutual concussion and incessant 
friction, which silex alone could have resisted. The time when they were deposited where 
we now find them, was no doubt that of the formation of the bank itself: it must be sepa- 
rated from our epoch by an immense period, perhaps by many revolutions ; and of all the 
monuments known upon earth, these are doubtless the most ancient." 

w. u. 



CHAPTER XII. 

NIMALS, VIEWED IN CONN] 
NATURAL HISTORY OF MANKIND. 

[By J. C. N.] 

The subjects embraced in tbis and tbe succeeding Chapter apper- 
taining more to my individual studies tban tbe rest, tbe reader will 
perceive tbat I generally speak in tbe first person ; at tbe same time 
tbat every recognition is due to my colleague (G-. R. G.) for material 
aid in tbe arcbaeological department. Witbout furtber preface let 
me remark, tbat tbe importance of Hybridity begins to be acknow- 
ledged by all anthropologists ; because, bowever imposing tbe array 
of reasonings, drawn from otber sources, in favor of tbe plurality of 
origin, may seem, yet, so long as unlimited prolificness, inter se, of two 
races of animals, or of mankind, can be received by naturalists as 
evidence of specific affiliation, or, in other words, of common origin, 
every otber argument must be abandoned as illusory. 

We are told that, when two distinct species are brought togetbei', 
they produce, like tbe ass and the mare, an unprolific progeny ; or, 
at most, beget offspring which are prolific for a few generations and 
then run out. It is furtber alleged, tbat each of our own domestic 
animals (such as horses, dogs, cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, poultry, &e.) 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION "WITH MANKIND. 373 

is derived from a single Mcsopotamian pair ; and that the varieties 
of these, springing np spontaneously in diverse climates difler as 
widely as do the races of men. Hence an argument is deduced in 
favor of the common origin of mankind. The grand point at issue 
is here fairly presented : but reasons exist for dissenting from the 
above foregone conclusions. 

In 1842 I published a short essay on Hyhridity, the olyect of which 
was, to show that the White Man and the 'Eagvo were distinct " spe- 
cies ; " illustrating my position by numerous facts from the E'atural 
History of Man and that of the lower animals. The question, at that 
time, had not attracted the attention of Dr. Morton. Many of my 
facts and arguments were new, even to him ; and drew from the great 
anatomist a private letter, leading to the commencement of a friendly 
correspondence, to me, at least, most agreeable and instructive, and 
which endured to the close of his useful career. 

In the essay alluded to, and several which followed it at short inter- 
vals, I maintained these propositions : — 

1. That mulattoes are the shortest-lived of any class of the human race. 

2. That mulattoes are intermediate in intelligence between the blacks and the whites. 

3. That they are less capable of undergoing fatigue and hardship than either the blacks 
or Tvhites. 

4. That the mulatto-women are peculiarly delicate, and subject to a variety of chronic 
diseases. That they are bad breeders, bad nurses, liable to abortions, and that their chil- 
dren generally die young. 

5. That, when mulattoes intermarry, they are less prolific than when crossed on the 
parent stocks. 

6. That, when a Negro man married a white woman, the offspring partook more largely 
of the Negro type than when the reverse connection bad eflfect. 

7. That mulattoes, like Negroes, although unacclimated, enjoy extraordinary exemption 
from yellow-fever when brought to Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, or New Orleans. 

Almost fifty years of residence among the white and black races, 
spread in nearly equal proportions through South Carolina and Ala- 
bama, and twenty-five years' incessant professional intercourse with 
both, have satisfied me of the absolute truth of the preceding deduc- 
tions. My observations, however, during the last few years, in Mobile 
and at K'ew Orleans, where the population differs essentiall}^ from 
that of the Northern Atlantic States, have induced some modification 
of my former opinions ; although still holding to their accuracy so 
far as they apply to the intermixture of the strictly mhite race (i. e. the 
Anglo-Saxon, or Teuton,) ■\\'ith the true Negro. I stated in an article 
printed in "De Bow's Commercial Eeview," that I had latterly seen 
reason to credit'the existence of certain ^^ affinities and repulsions" 
among various races of men, which caused their blood to mingle 
more or less perfectly; and that, in Mobile, Xew Orleans and Pensa- 
cola, I had witnessed many examples of great longevity among 



374 HTBEIDITT OF ANIMALS 



mulattocs ; aucT sundry instances where their intermarriages (contraiy 
to my antecedent experiences in Son.th Carolina) were attended with 
manifest prolificacy. Seeking for the reason of this positive, and, at 
first thought, unaccountahle diiference hetween mulattoes of the At- 
lantic and those of the Gulf States, ohservation led me to a rationale; 
viz., that it arose from the diversity of type in the "Caucasian" races 
of the two sections. In the Atlantic States the population is Teu- 
tonic and Celtic : whereas, in our Gulf cities, there exists a prepon- 
derance of the blood of French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and 
other rfar^-skinned races. The reason is simple to the historian. 
Our States along the Gulf of Mexico were chiefly colonized by emi- 
grants from Southern Europe. Such European colonists belonged to 
types genealogically distinct from those white-skinned "Pilgrim 
Fathers" who landed north of Florida. Thus Spain, when her tra- 
ditions begin, was populated principally by Iberians. France re- 
ceived a considerable infusion of the same blood, now almost pure in 
her Basque provinces. Italy's origins are questions in dispute ; but 
the Italians are a dark-skinned race. Such races, blended in America 
with the imported ISTegro, generally give birth to a hardier, and, 
therefore, more prolific stock than white races, such as Anglo-Saxons, 
produce by intercourse with ITegresses. Herein, it occurred to me, 
might be found a key to solve the enigma. To comprehend the 
present, we must understand the past ; because, in ethnology, there 
is no truer saying than, " Ccelum, non animam, mutant qui trans mare 
currunt." This sketch indicates my conceptions. I proceed to their 
development. 

Bodichon, in his curious work on Algeria, maintains that this Ibe- 
rian, or Basque population, although, of course, not I^egro, is really 
an African, and probably a Berber, family, which migrated across the 
Straits of Gibraltar some 2000 years before the Christian era ; and 
we might, therefore, regard them as what Dr. Morton calls a proxi- 
mate race. 

The Basques are a dark-skinned, black-eyed, black-haired people, 
such as are often encountered in Southern Europe ;. and M. Bodichon, 
himself a Frenchman, and attached as Surgeon to the French army 
during fifteen years in Algeria, holds, that not only is the physical 
resemblance between the Berbers and Basques most striking, but that 
they assimilate in moral traits quite as much ; moreover, that their 
intonations of voice are so similar that one's ear cannot appreciate 
any difference. Singularly enough, too, the Basque tongue, while 
radically distinct from all European and Asiatic languages, is said to 
present certain affinities with the Berber dialects. The latter opinion, 
however, requires confii'mation. 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 375 

Subsequently to my incidental notices, Dr. Morton took up the 
entire question of hybridity, with bis accustomed zeal ; publishing 
his first two articles on it in Sillimans Journal, 1847 ; after which he 
continued a series of papers, in the Charleston Medical Journal, down 
to the time of his death in 1851. I attach little importance to my 
own labors on this subject, beyond that of attracting Dr. Morton to 
its investigation. None more than mj^self can honor him for the 
glorious triumph which his publications on this theme achieved for 
science. ' My object, then, being solely to place the question before 
the public as it actually stands, I shall use not only Dr. Morton's 
ideas, but his language, freely, throughout this chapter ; merely ex- 
tending to the races of men those principles of hybridity which Dr. 
Morton chiefly confined to known intermixture among the lower 
animals. 

Hybridity, heretofore, has generally been treated as if it were a 
unit ; whereas its facts are as susceptible of classification as any other 
series of physiological phenomena. For the terms remote, allied, and 
proximate spec2es, there will be frequent call; and, in consequence, 
the reader is requested to look back {supra, p. 81) in this volume, to 
understand the meanings which, in common with Morton, I attach 
to them. Finding that the definitions customarily given of "species " 
apply as readily to mere varieties as to acknoAvledged species, the 
Doctor proposed the subjoined emendations : — 

" As the result of much observation and reflection, I now submit a definition, -which I 
hope will obviate at least some of the objections to which I have alluded: Species — a 
primordial organic form. It will be justly remarked that a difficulty presents itself, at the 
outset, in determining what forms are primordial ; but independently of various other sources 
of evidence, we may be greatly assisted in the inquiry by those monumental records, both 
of Egypt and Assyria, of which we are now happily possessed of the proximate dates. My 
view may be briefly explained by saying, that if certain existing organic types can be traced 
back into the 'night of time' as dissimilar as we now see them, is it not more reasonable 
to regard them as aboriginal, than to suppose them the mere accidental derivations of an 
isolated patriarchal stem, of which we know nothing ? Hence, for example, I believe the 
dog-family not to have originated from one primitive form, but in many forms. Again, 
what I call a species may be regarded by some naturalists as a. primitive variety ; but, as 
the difl'erence is only in name and no way influences the zoological question, it is unneces- 
sary to notice it further." 392 

Morton himself has suggested the objection which really holds 
against his definition ; and, for mj'self, I should prefer the following : 
Species — a type, or organic form, that is permanent; or which has 
remained unchanged under opposite climatic influences for ages. The 
Arab, the Egyptian, and the ISTegro; the greyhound, the turnspit, 
and the common wild dog — all of which are represented on monu- 
ments of Egypt 4000 years old, precisely as they now exist in human 
and canine nature — may be cited as examples. 



Q 



76 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, 



It is believed that the series of facts herein embodied will establish 
the natural existence of the following degrees of hybridity, viz. : — 

1st. That in which hybrids never reproduce; in other words, where the mixed progeny 

begins and, ends with the first cross. 
2d. That in which the hybrids are incapable of reproducing inter se, but multiply by union 

with the parent stock. 
3d. That in which animals of unquestionably distinct species produce a progeny which is 

prolific inter se. 
4th. That which takes place between closely proximate species — among mankind, for 

example, and among those domestic animals most essential to human wants and 

happiness : here the prolificacy is unlimited. 

There is, moreover, what may be called a mixed form of hybridity, 
that certainly has exerted very great influence in modifying some 
domestic animals ; and which cannot be better expressed than in the 
language of Hamilton Smith : — 

" The advances towards hybrid cases are always made by the domestic species to the 
wild ; and when thus obtained, if kept by itself, and the cross-breed gradually becomes 
sterile, it does not prevent repeated intermixture of one or the other ; and therefore the 
admission of a great proportion of alien blood, which may again be crossed upon by other 
hybrids of another source, whether it be a wolf, pariah, jackal, or dingo." 393 

Mankind, zoologically, must be governed by the same laws which 
regulate animals generally ; and if the above propositions apply to 
other animals, no reason can be adduced in science why the races of 
men should be made an exception. The raere prolificacy, whether 
of human or of animal races, cannot therefore be received per se as 
proof of common origin in respect to either. 

After the lapse of so many centuries, or, to repeat Prichard's lan- 
guage, chiliads of years, since the last Creation, it would be strange 
indeed did not many difficulties surround the question of hybridity : 
but one thing seems certain, viz., that as regards unity or plurality 
of origin, mankind, together with all our domestic animals, stand on 
precisely the same footing. The origin of our horses, dogs, cattle, 
sheep, goats, hogs, &c., no less than that of humanity, is wholly un- 
known ; nor can science yet determine from how many primal crea- 
tive centres, or from how many pairs, each may have originated. Our 
Chapter I., on the Geographical Distribution of AnirnaU, has detailed 
(what is now conceded by naturalists whose authority is decisive), 
that, so far from a supposititious common centre of origin for all 
organized beings on our globe, there are in reality man^/ specific 
centres or zoological provinces, in which the fauna and flora of each 
are exclusively peculiar.'^* The present volume establishes, through 
evidences varied as they are novel, that history finds the different 
races of mankind everywhere under circumstances which lead irre- 
sistibly to the conclusion, that humanity ohejs the same laws which 
preside over the terrestrial distribution of other organized beings. 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 377 

"A principal cause [well observes Jacquinot] of varieties among domestic animals is, the 
blending of dissimilar species among themselves ; and it is this powerful agency which has 
contributed in the largest degree to obscure and entangle the question of the varieties of 
men and of domestic animals." 

Passing over, as non-essential to the point immediately before ns, 
the numerous examples illustrative of hyhridity, in Dr. Morton's Jiist 
and second degrees, we shall throw together a few of the more promi- 
nent instances of his third and fourth, in their direct bearings upon 
the plurality of the human species, in order to exemplify the question 
at issue. 

Equine Hybrids. 

The genus equus (horse) is divided by Cuvier into five species ; viz. : the horse (eguvs 
caballus) ; the dzigguetai {eq. hemonius) ; the ass (eq. asinus) ; the zebra (eg. 'zebra) ; 
the couagga {eq. quaccha) ; the onagga, or dauw (eq. monlanus). 

So far as experiments prove, these all breed freely inter se ; but the degrees of fer- 
tility among their various hybrid offspring, are matters yet to be determined. 

Our common mules, or progeny of the ass and the mare, are the best known hy- 
brids, and they are never prolific with each other ; but there are a few instances recorded 
where mules have produced offspring when crossed on the parent stocks : such acci- 
dents being, as even Herodotus observed,395 more common in hot climates than in cold. 

The Hinny — 

Offspring of the horse and she-ass — is rarely seen in the United States (but, we are 
told, is more frequent in Egypt, and in the Levant ; where some hinnies are said to 
be even handsome) : being a small, refractory, and (for draught) a comparatively useless 
animal, there is no practical object in our breeding them. I have seen one example in 
Mobile, very like a dwarfed, mean horse. The horse's likeness here greatly predomi- 
nated: the head and ears were small, and precisely like its father's ; the legs and feet 
were slender and small, like those of the mother ; and the tail, as in the ass, was lank," 
with little hair. In the common mule, the head, on the contrary, resembles the ass. 
Judging by this example alone, it would seem as if the type of the sire predominated 
in hybrids. Such probable law, according to my observations, applies in some degree 
to the human hybrid. Ex. gr., when the pure white man is crossed on the Negress, / 
the head of their mulatto child ordinarily resembles more the father than the mother; 
but where a Negro man has been coupled with a white woman, in their offspring the 
color, the features, and the hair of the Negro father greatly preponderate. We cannot 
state, from observation, what may be the grade of intellect in the latter hybrid ; but 
in a common mulatto the degree of intelligence is absolutely higher than in the full- 
blooded Negroes. About this deduction no dispute exists among medical practitioners 
in our Southern States, where means of verification are peculiarly abundant. 

Not only do the female ass and the male onagga breed together, but a male offspring 
of this cross, with a mare, produces an animal more docile than either parent, and 
combining the best physical qualities, such as strength, speed, &c. ; whence the an- 
cients preferred the onagga to the ass for the production of mules.396 This opinion, 
Mr. Gliddon says, is still prevalent in Egypt; and is acted upon more particularly in 
Arabia, Persia, &c., where the gour, or wild ass, still roams the desert. Cuvier had 
seen the cross between the ass and the zebra, as well as between the female zebra and 
the horse. 

An important point should be borne in mind, viz. : that the ass is not the proximate, 
or nearest species, of the genus equus, corapax-ed with the horse ; but that place Cuvier 
assigns to the eq. hemonius. Bell and Gray are even disposed to place the ass in a dis- 

48 



378 HTBRIDITY OP ANIMALS, 

tinct genus. If, therefore, it were desired to experimentalize fairly, witli the view of 
producing a prolific hybrid, the true horse should be coupled with the eq. hemonius in a 
proper climate, and under favorable conditions. This experiment, as far as we know, 
not having been properly tried, analogy warrants the suspension of a negative. 

From the unlimited productiveness among the different races of horses, it has been 
boldly inferred that all horses have sprung from a solitary pair, possessing a common 
Mesopotamian origin, and therefore constituting a single species ; but an assumption 
without proof, while valid reasons support the contrary, may be summarily dismissed. 
The elaborate and skilful researches of Hamilton Smith have thrown strong doubts 
over this superannuated idea of equine unity. He separates horses into five primitive 
stocks ; which appear to constitute " distinct though oscillating species, or at least 
races, separated at so remote a period, that they claim to have been divided from the 
earliest times of our present zoology." 39' So true is this, that already two distinct 
species, if not more, of fossil horses exist in geological formations of this Continent, 
independently of the others familiar in European palaeontology. 3^8 

About horses, Morton's later MSS. enable us to quote the following textually ; — 

"After an elaborate and most instructive inquiry into the natural history of the 
horse. Col. Hamilton Smith has arrived at the following conclusions, which we prefer 
to give in his own words : ' That there was a period when equidaa of distinct forms, or 
closely-approximating species, in races widely different, wandered in a wild state in 
separate regions, the residue of an anterior animal distribution, perhaps upon the great 
mountain line of Central Asia, where plateaux or table-lands, exceeding Armenian 
Ararat in elevation, are still occupied by wild horses ; that of these some races still 
extant have been entirely subdued ; such for example as the Tarpans, the Kirguise and 
Pamere woolly white race, and the wild horses of Poland and Prussia ; that from their 
similarity, or antecedent unity, they were constituted so as to be fusible into a common, 
single, specific, but very variable stock, for the purposes of man, under whose fostering 
care a more perfect animal was bred from their mixture, than any of the preceding, 
singly taken. These inferences appear to be supported by the ductility of all the 
secondary characters of wild and domestic horses, which, if they are not admitted to 
constitute in some cases specific differences, where are we to find those that are suffi- 
cient to distinguish a wild from a domestic species ? And with regard to different, 
though oscillating species, why should the conclusions be unsatisfactory in horses, 
when in goats, sheep, wolves, dogs, and other species, we are forced to accede to 
them? '"399 

Some of these races still flourish in a wild state on the table-lands of Central Asia ; 
at the same time that all have united to form, in domestication, very mixed and vari- 
able types. 

A singular fact, which I have never seen noticed, is worthy of mention. The 
thorough-bred race-horse is rarely, if ever, beheld of a cream, or a dun color, or pie- 
bald. My attention, directed to this point for more than twenty years, as yet meets 
with no example ; nor, through inquiry among turf-men, have I been able to hear of a 
single case where the pedigree was well authenticated. Horses of the above colors are 
exceedingly common in the United States ; far more so, as I know from personal ob- 
servation, than in England or France ; and the only solution that occurs to me is, the 
supposition that the early Spanish emigrants may have brought over to America some 
breed of horses, distinct from the Arabian stock of England, or from any of the races 
of France and Belgium. 

" When Caesar invaded Britain he found there a race of indigenous ponies, with 
bushy manes and tails, and of a dun or sooty color, with the black streak on the spine 
which marks the wild races of northern Europe. This variety was known in a wild 
state for centuries after, and in every part of the island. This horse was subsequently 
amalgamated with the Eoman and Saxon breeds, iffhence a great diversity of size and 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 379 

color in our own times. ^™ Tliese native British horses were the ancestors of the ponies 
now called Shetland, Scottish, Galloway, and by various other names." 40i 

Naturalists remark that those animals, such as the ass, the camel, the dromedary, 
llama, &c., upon which the most sensible reasons are based for alleging a community 
of species, do not run into those endless and extreme varieties observable in dogs, 
horses, cattle, sheep, goats, or hogs. 

Bovine Hybrids. 

The ox tribe occupy, among naturalists, a position identical with that of the horse ; 
many of our best authorities contending for plurality of species. The origin of our 
varied domestic races is wholly unknown, and the domestication of cattle antedates the 
earliest Egyptian monuments, together with the writer of Genesis [i. 24, 25, 26,] him- 
self. The bison or American buffalo and our common cattle produce hybrid offspring 
•which is unprolific inter se ; but these hybrids reproduce without limit when coupled 
with the parent stocks ; and this again furnishes another undeniable degree in the his- 
tory of hybridity. 

Caprine and Ovine Hybrids. 

The weight of authority, as victoriously proven by Dr. Morton, decidedly favors 
plurality of species for our domestic goats and sheep. I shall not tax our readers with 
the details of the discussion, which they can find in the Charleston Med. Journal va 
(between his dispassionate science on the one hand, and the captious garrulity displayed 
by dogmatism on the other) : but one of the most note-worthy examples of a prolific 
hybrid anywhere to be found in the range of natural history, must not be passed over; 
viz. : the offspring of goats and sheep when coupled together. The goat and the sheep 
being, not merely distinct species, but distinct genera, the example therefore becomes 
the more precious, whilst its authenticity is irrefragable : sustaining, furthermore, the 
authority of Buffon and Cuvier for the fertility of such hybrids, which are not only 
fertile with the parent stocks, but inter se.ws 

Another instance of hybridity, not less curious, and perfectly 
attested, is that of the deer and ram., quoted by Morton from CarlK". 
Hellenius, published in the Memoirs of the Royal Swedish Academy 
of Stockholm. After going through his experiments in detail, Hel- 
lenius concludes with the following summary : — 

" I have thus, from this pair (female deer — ccrvus capriolus, and the male sheep — ovis 
aries], obtained seven offsprings: viz., 

" Four from the ram and deer — two of each sex. 

" Tico from the deer's first hybrid male offspring, viz., by crossing this latter animal with 
the Finland ewe ; and by crossing this same male with the female offspring of the deer 
and ram. 

" One, a ewe, by pairing the Finland ewe with one of her own progeny, from the first 
hybrid male derived from the deer and ram." 

Hellenius furthermore gives a copious narrative of the form, fleece, 
and mixed habits of these animals, which were alive, healthy, and 
vigorous, when the account was published, and may be so still. 

It is clear, from this unmistakeable testimony of Hellenius, that a 
mixed race of-deer and sheep might be readily produced and perpetu- 
ated by bringing together many pairs ; precisely as is done daily with 
the goats and sheep of Chili alluded to by the well-known naturalist 
and academician, M. Cheveeul. Here we obtain a prolific hybrid 



380 HTBEIDITY OF ANIMALS 



again, from distinet genera ; and, what is singular, the female progeny 
resembles the mother, and the male the father. Another fact to show 
the absurdity of querulous arguments drawn by the misinformed from 
" analogy." 

The old and standard authority of Molina, in his I^atural History 
of Chili, sustains the recent assertion of Chevreul,*"* in the Journal 
des Savans, as to the fact that the inhabitants of Chili, for a long time 
have been in the habit of crossing goats and sheep expressly with the 
view of improving their fleece in a hybrid progeny, whose prolificacy 
knows no limits. 
Camellinb Hybrids. 

Linnaeus, Fischer, Ranzani, H. Smith, Lesson, Dumeril, Desmarest, Desmoulins, 
Quatrefages, Bory, Fleming, Cuvier, and all well-read naturalists of the present gene- 
ration, regard the camel and dromedary as distinct species, and admit their prolificacy 
inter se. Buifon, in whose day Oriental matters were little known, denied that they 
are distinct species, simply on the ground that they are prolific. The Arabian camel 
and dromedary, no less than the camelus bactrianus, are figured on the monuments of 
Nineveh, at least 2500 years ago, precisely as wo see them now. Our Fig. 15 (supra, 
p. 126) exhibits the single-humped species ; and the rest are easily verified in the folio 
plates of Botta and Flandin, and Layard. 

The following is extracted from one of many communications 
obligingly made to the authors by their honored friend Col. AV. "W. 
S. Bliss, IJ. S. A. ; in whose person knowledge the most diversified 
and accomplishments of the highest order were combined with that 
military science and cool bravery which won universal admiration on 
the blood-stained field of Buena Vista. Alas ! his eyes were closed 
by the writer's hands on the 5th of August, 1853. 

" Eversmann, who is known as an investigator of Natural History in Bochara, remarks 
that three different species of camel are found there, all of which copulate together and bring 
forth prolific young. 

" 1. Air is the two-humpe.d bactrian (camelus bactrianus), with long wool. 

" 2. Nar is the one-humped camel, which Eversmann calls camelus dromedarius, but which is 
camelus vulgarus, the common Arabian camel ; for the dromedary is only a particular breed, 
not a particular species. 

" 3. LuK is the name given to a camel with one hump, larger than the above, and having 
quite crisp, short, dark-brown wool. 

" The copulation of camels, says the above-named naturalist and traveller (Eversmann), 
takes place in Bucharei in March and April, and between camels and bactrians, as well as 
the third race : its products are again prolific, self-propagating, foals. We might from 
this, as Buffon and Zimmermann have already done, infer the unity of genus and mere 
varieties of species ; but apart from this, the number of humps at least seems to be no 
essential indication of species ; for, says Eversmann, it cannot be determined beforehand 
whether the progeny of such crossing of races will have one or two humps : they are always 
bastards, and not of a pure species." *05 

SuRiNE Hybrids. 

We dismiss this somewhat obscure theme by merely stating that, according to the 
best naturalists, sustained by Dr. Morton's critical essays, the weight of authority in 
favor of plurality of species predominates here also. So it does again, in respect to 
Feline Hybrids. 



viewed in connection with mankind. 381 

Canine Hybrids. 

ISTo question, perhaps, in natural history has caused more contro- 
versy than that of the origin of domestic dogs. Our highest authori- 
ties have expressed most opposite opinions, and many are the im- 
portant points yet at issue. JSTevertheless, the last three years have 
accomplished much towards settling sundry pugnacious dilettanti, if 
not all scientific disputes. Some writers have derived all our dogs 
from the wolf : thus assigning to ISToah's unaccountable predilections 
in behalf of a tamo lupine pair ("species" unrecorded) the present 
existence of hyenas, jackals, foxes — laughing, or round-backed ; big, 
or little ; white, black, red, gray, or blue — as well as every kind and 
size of dog, from a Muscovite "mufl-dog" to the colossal St. Ber- 
nard; now eaten by Chinamen and Sandwich Islanders; driven by 
Esquimaux ; kicked by Muslim orthodoxy ; whipped in English hunts ; 
fondled by Parisian dames ; abhorred by thieves and vagrants, if loved 
by shepherds, sportsmen, wagoners, and hostlers, besides all other 
honest men with their prattling children, universall}'^ since the Flood. 

Others assert that dogs are animals absolutely not descended from 
the wolf, and also that they comprise many distinct species, created 
in many different zoological regions ; whilst others, again, believe 
that all living dogs proceed from intermixtures of wolf, fox, jackal, 
and hyena — in short, from any eanidse, except from canes. 

As facts now stand, the opinion of Dr. Morton may probably be 
deemed the most correct. His convictions are, that the origin of 
domestic dogs is at least threefold : viz. — 

1st. From several species of lupine and vulpine animals. 

2d. From various species of wild dogs. 

3d. From the blending of these together, with perhaps occasional admixture of 
jackal, under the influence of domestication. 

A subject so replete with scientific interest in its general connections with other 
departments of natural history, and especially on account of its bearings on the physical 
history of man, renders it imperative that facts should here be presented somewhat in 
detail ; and I shall again interweave without reserve the language of Dr. Morton. 

Martin, in his History of the Dog, justly remarked that " the name wolf is a vague 
one, because there are various species of wolves in Europe, Asia, and America ; and 
further, if each of these species has given rise to a breed of dogs in the different coun- 
tries where they are found, then, as all domestic dogs promiscuously breed together, 
the advocate of the non-admixture of species is plunged into a dilemma." 406 

M. de Blainville, speaking of the experiments of Buifon on dogs and wolves, adopts 
the idea of distinct species for these animals; thereby leaving the inference that all 
dogs are not descendants from one primitive stock. The great naturalist tested the 
question as follows : 

1st. He brought together a cur-dog and a she-wolf. The result of this union was a 
litter of four pups — two male, and two female. No difficulty occurred in procuring 
this cross. 

2d. A male and a female of the first generation were coupled ; whence four pups — 
of which two lived to maturity : a male and a female. 



382 HTBKIDITY OF ANIMALS, 



Sd. The second generation being ci'ossed, a third generation of seven pups was the 
consequence. 

4th. A female of the third generation, crossed by her sire, gave birth to four pups, 
of -which one male and one female lived. 

Buffon sent two of such hybrids to M. Le Koi, Inspector of the Park at Versailles. 
Here they bred together, producing three pups. Two were given to the Prince de 
Cond^ — but of these no account remains. The third, retained by M. Le Koi, was 
killed in a boar-hunt. The father of these whelps was then mated with a she-wolf, 
who bore three pups. Here the report closes.*"''' 

" I have seen, in Moscow," says Pallas, " about twenty spurious animals from dogs 
and black wolves (c. lycaon). They are, for the most part, like wolves ; except that 
they carry their tails higher, and have a kind of hoarse barking. They multiply 
among themselves ; and some of the whelps are grayish, rusty, or even of the whitish 
hue of the Arctic wolves." *™ Crosses of this kind have been known from remote anti- 
quity, and are called wolf-dogs (c. pomeranus). One of them is figured on an Etruscan 
medal of the second or third century before Christ. Ovid, describing the pack of 
Acteon, enumerates some thirty dogs, which appear to represent many different breeds ; 
and he is careful to observe that one of them [Nape) sprang from a wolf; while an- 
other [Lycisca) is evidently the dog which Pliny refers to similar mixed bloods. 

"By a, feral dog, is meant a domesticated dog which has run wild. Numberless are the 
instances of this kind, where dogs have become wild and multiplied ; but in no instance, 
save through lupine admixture, have dogs ever been brought to resemble wolves. The 
dog of New Holland, called the dingo, is a reclaimed lupine, or wild dog. It is still 
found abundantly in the wild state in that country. Some naturalists consider the 
dingo to be a distinct species, or an aboriginal dog ; others, a variety of the common 
dog. Australia, it should be remembered, possesses an exclusive /aaraa and ;?ora; and 
the canis dingo would seem to be the aboriginal canine element pertaining to this spe- 
cial zoological province. The dingo, wild or tame, preserves its own physical charac- 
teristics when pure, but breeds freely with other dogs. 

Systems of zoology mostly limit our North American wolves (exclusively of those 
of Mexico and California) to two species — canis lupus and canis latrans. But there is 
little reason to ■ doubt that the grey wolf of Canada and other northern parts of this 
continent, is a different species from any of the Old World. Richardson adopts for it 
the name of C. oecidenialis, and long ago hesitated about its relation to the C. lupus, 
because they differ both in conformation and character. Townsend describes the 
giant wolf as a distinct species, by the name of C. gigas ; and Peale makes the same 
distinction. 

While the dogs indigenous to North America, according to Morton, are derived from 
at least two species of wolves, which he considers, in common with Gray, Agassiz, 
Richardson and others, to be peculiar to our continent, the European race (although 
in some instances largely crossed by another wolf) is for the most part devoid of any 
such lupine mixture. The domestic dogs of Europe, when they assume the feral state, 
cannot be mistaken by naturalists for wolves. Besides, it will be proved further on, 
that the dog, the wolf, the jackal, and the hyena are figured as distinct animals on 
the monuments of Egypt, in company with many different races of dogs, as far back 
as 3500 years before Christ. 

Dr. Morton held the Indian dogs of North America to be derived from at least two 
distinct species of wolves ; that these two species have combined to form a third, or 
hybrid race, and that this last unites again with the European dog. 

Sir John Richardson travelled over more than 20,000 miles of the northern regions 
of America ; traversing 30° of latitude, and upwards of 50° of longitude ; occupied for 
seven years in making observations. To him are we mainly indebted for the following 
facts : — 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 383 

The Esquimaux Dog {0. familiar is, Besm.) 

" The great resembbmce which the domesticated dogs of aboriginal Americans bear 
to the wolves of the same country, was remarked by the earliest settlers from Europe, 
and has induced some naturalists of much obser\'ation to consider them to be merely 
half-tamed wolves. Without entering at all into the question of the origin of the do- 
mestic dog, I may state that the resemblance between the wolves of those Indian na- 
tions who still preserve their ancient mode of life, continues to be very remarkable ; 
and it is nowhere more so than at the very northern extremity of the continent — the 
Esquimaux dogs being not only extremely like the grey wolf of the Arctic Circle in 
form and color, but also nearly equalling them in size."409 

This famed Arctic voyager and naturalist adds, that he saw a family of these wolves, 
when playing together, occasionally carry their tails curved upwards ; which seems to 
be the principal character which Linnoaus supposed to distinguish the dog from the 
wolf. 

Capt. Parry relates that his ofiScers, seeing thirteen wolves in a single pack, mistook 
them for Esquimaux dogs ; so complete was the resemblance. He observed, that when 
the wolf is tamed, the two animals will readily breed together."" 

From these and other facts familiar to naturalists, it would appear that the Esqui- 
maux dog is a reclaimed northern wolf (canis occidentalis). 

"The common American wolf," Richardson observes, "sometimes shows a remark- 
able diversity of color. On the banks of the Mackenzie I saw five young wolves leaping 
and tumbling over each other with all the playfulness of the puppies of the domestic 
dog, and it is not improbable that they were all of one litter. One of them was pied, 
another entirely black, and the rest showed the colors of the common grey wolves." 

So variable, however, are the external characters of the latter animal, both as to 
size and color, that naturalists have endeavored, at different times, to establish no less 
than five species in the northern part of America alone. Two of these, however (C. 
ater and C. mibilus), are generally regarded as mere varieties of the common grey 
wolf. Hence, it would naturally follow, that the domestication of these several varieties 
would develop a corresponding difference between our northern Indian and the more 
Arctic dogs of the Esquimaux ; although both kinds may claim, in part, the same spe- 
cific origin. Speaking of the wolves of our Sashatchewan and Copper-mine rivers, 
Richardson states : — 

" The resemblance between the northern wolves and the domestic dog of the Indians 
is so great, that the size and strength of the wolf seems to be the only difference. I 
have more than once mistaken a band of wolves for the dogs of a party of Indians ; 
and the howl of the animals of both species is prolonged, and so exactly in the same 
key, that even the practised ear of an Indian fails at times to discriminate between 
them. Ill At certain seasons they breed freely with the wolf, while, on other occasions, 
both male and female wolves devour the dogs as they would any other prey." 

The Hare-Indian Dog {0. familiaris lagopus). 

The author just quoted observes, that similitudes between this animal and the 
prairie-wolf (C. latram) are " so great, that on comparing live specimens, I could de- 
tect no diflference in form (except the smallness of the cranium), nor in the fineness 
of the fur, and the arrangement of its spots and color. In fact, it bears the same re- 
lation to the prairie-wolf, that the Esquimaux dog docs to the great grey wolf (C. 
occidentalis)." 412 

Like the cognate wolf, these dogs vary considerably in color, size, and shape ; ow) 
those on the Mackenzie river being so remarkably small, as to have been sometimes 
compared to the Arctic fox. In the Mandan country the dogs are larger; and are like- 
wise assimilated by Say, the Prince de Wied, and other travellers, to the prairie-wolf. 

" During my residence in the Michigan Territory, in the year 1831-32 (wrote Dr. J. 
C. FiSHEK to Dr. Morton), I on several occasions shot the Ojibeway or Indian dogs, by 



384 



HTBKIDITY OF ANIMALS, 



mistake, for the prairie-wolf, and supposed that I knew it well ; but, after the frequent 
mistakes I made, I became very cautious about shooting them, lest I should kill more 
dogs. They were the common dogs of the Ojibeway, Pottawatomie and Ottawa tribes." 

The North American or common Indian Dog [Q. familiar is Canadensis). 

" By the above title," says Kichardson, " I wish to designate the kind of dogs which 
is most generally cultivated by the native tribes of Canada and the Hudson Bay coun- 
tries. It is intermediate, in size and form, between the two preceding varieties ; and 
by those who consider the domestic races of dogs to be derived from wild animals, this 
may be termed a cross between the prairie and gray wolves." 

In the Appendix to Capt. Back's Narrative, Dr. Kichardson subsequently observes, 
that " the offspring of the wolf and the Indian dog are prolific, and are prized by the 
voyagers as beasts of draught, being much stronger than the ordinary dog." ^13 " This 
fact is corroborated," writes Morton, " by my friend Dr. John Evans, who has recently 
passed some time in the Mandan country, where the dogs, however, appear to be de- 
rived from the prairie wolf; and he assures me, that frequent and spontaneous inter- 
course between these dogs and the wolf of that country (which is now almost exclu- 
sively the canis accidentalis, or common gray wolf,) is a fact known to every one." 

Again, the canis Mexicanus, or " Tichichi" of the Mexicans, by Humboldt said to be 
very much like this dog of the northern Indians, is also supposed to derive its parent- 
age from a wolf. 

The intermixture of these two species was indeed manifest to the acute perceptions 
of Riehardson himself, who remarks, that it " seems to support the opinion of Buffon, 
lately advocated by Desmoulins, that the dog, the wolf, the jackal, and corsac, are, in 
fact, but modifications of the same species ; or, that the races of domestic dogs ought 
to be referred, each in its proper country, to a corresponding indigenous wild species ; 
and that the species thus domesticated have, in the course of their migrations in the 
train of man, produced by their various crosses with each other, with their offspring, 
and with their prototypes, a still fjurther increase of different races, of which about 
fifty or sixty are at present cultivated." 

Such doctrines accord with that adopted by Morton, who concludes his notice of 
wolf-dogs as follows : — " The natural, and to me very unavoidable^ conclusion, is 
simply this, that two species of wolves (acknowledged to be distinct from each other 
by all zoologists) have each been trained into a domestic dog ; that these dogs have re- 
produced not only with each other, but with the parent stocks, and even with the Eu- 
ropean dog, until a widely-extended hybrid race has arisen, in which it is often impos- 
sible to tell a wolf from a dog, or the dogs from each other." 

We extract entire Morton's observations concerning 

Aboriginal American Dogs, from vulinne and other sources. 

"Besides the two indigenous wolf-dogs of the North, of which we have spoken (the 
Hare-Indian and Esquimaux races), and the third or mixed species (the common Indian 
dog), the continent of America possesses a number of other aboriginal forms, which 
terminate only in the inter-tropical regions of South America. One of these was ob- 
served by Columbus, on landing in the Antilles, a. d. 1492. ' These,' says Buffon, 
' had the head and ears very long, and resembled a fox in appearance' They are called 
Aguara dogs in Mexico, and Alcos in Peru. 

•' ' There are many species,' adds Buffon, ' which the natives of Guiana have called 
dogs of the ivoods (chiens des bois), because they are not yet reduced, like our dogs, to a 
state of domestication ; and they are thus rightly named, because they breed together with 
domestic races.' 

" The wild Aguaras, I believe, are classed, by most naturalists, with the fox-tribe ; 
but Hamilton Smith has embraced them in a generic group, called dasicyon, to which, 
he and Martin refer four species. The latter zoologist sums up a series of critical 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION T7ITH MANKIND. 385 

inquiries with the following remarks : — 'It is almost incontestably proved, that the 
aboriginal Aguara tame dogs, and otheTs of the American continent, which, on the dis- 
covery of its diflferent regions, were in subjection to the savage or semi-civilized nations, 
were not only indigenous, but are the descendants of several wild Aguara dogs, exist- 
ing cotcmporary with themselves, in the woods or plains ; and granting that a Euro- 
pean race [as is the case since] had by some chance contributed to their production, 
the case is not altered, but the theory of the blending of species confirmed.' " ^'* 

Dr. Tchudi, one of the most distinguished zoologists of the present day, has paid 
especial attention to the character and history of two domesticated dogs of South 
America, which he regards as distinct species : — 

Canis Ingse [Perro-dog, or Alco). 

The dog to which Tchudi gives this name is the same that the Peruvians possessed 
and worshipped before the arrival of the Spaniards, and is found in the tumuli of those 
people of the oldest epoch. It is so inferior, however, to the exotic breeds, that it is 
rapidly giving way to them, and an unmixed individual is now seldom seen : and they 
present " the undetermined form of the mixture of all the breeds that have been im- 
ported from Europe, and thus assume the shape of cur-dogs, or of a primitive 
species." *i5 

AVe have already seen that the Aguara, or fox-dogs, of North America mingle freely 
with the indigenous dogs of this continent. The following facts are equally curious 
and valuable : - 

Cams Caribceus. 

Desmarest has given this name to the hairless dog, (vhich, as Humboldt remarks, 
was found by Columbus in the Antilles, by Cortes in .lexico, and by Pizarro in Peru. 
Desmarest, if we mistake not, supposes this dog to be descended from the c. cancrivo- 
rus, a native species, which, according to Blainville, belongs to the section of true 
•wolves. But Rengger, who had ample opportunities of deciding this question, regards 
it as an aboriginal wild dog, which the Indians have reduced to domestication ; and he 
adds, in explanation, that it does not readily mix with the European species, and that 
the Indian tribes have, in their respective languages, a particular name for it, but 
none for any domestic animal of exotic derivation. ^i" 

This animal much resembles the Barbary dog {canis JEgyptiacus) ; but there is no 
ground but resemblance for supposing them to be of common origin. 

Here then, once more, we may recognize two aboriginal dogs — one seemingly de- 
rived from the fox-tribe, or at least from fox-like wild dogs ; the other, from an 
unknown source : yet both unite more or less readily with the exotic stocks, producing 
a hybrid race, partly peculiar in appearance, and partly resembling the mongrel races 
of Europe. 

The Rev. Mr. Daniel states that Mr. Tattersall "had a terrier bitch which bred by 
a fox, and the produce again had whelps by dogs. The woodman of the manor of 
Mongewell, in Oxfordshire, had a bitch, his constant attendant, the offspring of a tame 
dog-fox by a shepherd's cur, and she again had puppies by a dog. These are such 
authentic proofs of the continuance of the breed, that the fox may be fairly added to 
the other supposed original stocks of these faithful domestics." *!''' 

Dr. Morton states that his friend Dr. Woodhouse, who had been much in Texas and 
on the frontier, had proven, by a comparison of skulls, skins, &c., tiiat "the Cayolte, 
or jackal, of Texas and Mexico is a perfectly distinct species, to which Dr. W. gives 
the name of canis puslor." They breed readily with European and Indian dogs — this 
fact is notorious. 

The jackal coupled with the domestic dog, produces also a fertile offspring; yet 
they must be conceded to be a distinct species. Hunter recoi-ds an example where the 
hybrid produced six pups ; and one of these again brought five pups when lined by a 

49 



386 

terrier dog. There is no difficulty in producing or keeping up such a mixture ; but 
there is no practical object in perpetuating it. To what extent the blood of the jackal 
■was originally mingled with dogs, and how far it has influenced our present types, can- 
not now be determined, although we should imagine that the trace is lost. 

" It seems rarely to happen that the mule offspring is truly intermediate in charac- 
ter between the two parents. Thus, Hunter mentions that, in his experiments, one 
of the hybrid pups resembled the wolf much more than the rest of the litter ; and we 
are informed by Wiegamann, that of a litter lately obtained at the Royal Menagerie at 
Berlin, from a white pointer and a she-wolf, two of the cubs resembled the common 
wolf-dog ; but the other was like a pointer, with hanging ears." -us 

Facts enough, and authorities enough have ah^eady been given, to 
prove, we think, to any unprejudiced mind, a plurahty of origin for 
the numerous canine species, whose blood has become mingled in our 
domestic dogs. If this point be conceded by scientific men — to whom 
alone we appeal — an immense stride is at once made in the IS'atural 
History of Humanity ; because, zoologically speaking, mankind and 
canidce occupy precisely the same position. Grant that difl:erent spe- 
cies may prodixce oflispring proline inter se, and the dogma of the 
unity of human families can no longer be sustained, either by facts, 
or by analogies derivable from the rest of the animal kingdom. 
Science, we are persuaded, will grant this truth ere long. . 



MONUMENTAL HISTORY OF DOGS. 

"Whatever doubts may still linger in the reader's mind as to the 
diversity of canine species, we feel confident that they must give way 
before the new facts we are now about to present. Like the races of 
men, many races of dogs can be traced back, in their present forms, 
on the monuments of Egypt, from 4000 to 6000 years anterior to our 
day ; and, inasmuch as there is no evidence that dogs did really all 
proceed from one stock, or that their different types, such as grey- 
hounds, mastifiTs, turnspits, &c., can be transformed into each other 
by physical causes ; and, again, considering that all these canine 
types did preserve, side by side in Egypt, their respective forms for 
thousands of years, these animals must be regarded, by every natu- 
ralist, as specifically distinct. 

Substantiating our doctrine with reduced fac-similes of these monu- 
mental dogs, we shall thereby enable the reader to form his own 
conclusions. 

Hieroglyphic for "Dog" — [Oanis Lupaster?). 

The dog was one of the figurative and symbolic forms used by the primordial Egyp- 
tians in their hieroglyphic writings ; and may be traced on the inscriptions of the 
monuments from the earliest to the latest. Two forms were used, whioh seem to have 
been taken from very distinct races ; and these, again, were totally unlike the beau- 
tiful grey-hound which is often seen upon contemporary monuments.*'9 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 



387 



Fig. 235. 




Fig. 236. 



Hieroglyphic writing had attained its full perfection at the IVth dynasty, and we 
possess abundant legends of the thirty-fifth century b. c. ; but the invmlion of writing, 
as every hierologist declares, must inevitably antedate these monuments by many cen- 
turies ; ascending certainly to the time of Menes, b. c. 
3893 ; and, pictorially, to ages anterior. The pure hiero- 
glyphics represent things in their appropriate shapes and 
colors ; which things are all indigenous in Egypt, to the 
exclusion of any element foreign to the Nile. Among 
them is this hieroglyphic (Fig. 235) for " dog," whicTi, like 
every other primitive sign, continued to mean " dog," down 
to the extinction of hieroglyphical writing, about the fifth 
century after c. Thus, one species of the common dog, at 
least, existed in Egypt 1500 years before Usher's deluge; 
to say nothing of the Archbishop's fabulous era for the world's creation. 

This (Fig. 285) is called a, fox-dog by Dr. Morton ; not to be confounded, however, with 
the "fox-hound" of English kennels. It is found in the catacombs embalmed in great 
numbers through various parts of the country ; and appears to have been " the parent 
stock of the modern red wild" (or Fariah) "dog common at Cairo and other towns in 
Lower Egypt." These dogs. Clot Bey ob- 
serves, lead a nomadic life, and are inva- 
riably without individual masters. They 
are also found, semi-wild, on the confines 
of the desert. An interesting account of 
these Nilotic canidae may be consulted in 
Martin's History of the Dog — and he pro- 
perly regards them as a distinct species, 
that, we may add. has come down unal- 
tered from immemorial time. 

A similar — we dare not say the same — 
species prevails throughout Barbary ; and 
the Levant, from Greece and European 
Turkey, through Asia Minor, Syria, Pales- 
tine, Assyria, Persia, into Hindostan. They belong to civic communities, rather than 
to any particular person. If taken young into domestic keeping, when adult they in- 
stinctively abandon the house ; and, if grateful for kindnesses, they will obey no 
master ; but hang around the localities of their birth, neither enticeable into familiarity, 
nor expulsable from the precincts of their earliest associations. They are the scaven- 
gers of oriental cities ; and Muslim charity, whilst shuddering at the unclean touch of 
a dog's nose, recognizes their utility, and protects them by municipal laws as well as 
by alimentary legacies. If love for their human acquaintances be not vociferous, their 
hatred to strangers is intensely so : and it is in the attitude of annoying intruders that 
the annexed wild dog of Persia (Fig. 236) is represented. 

Dr. Pickering, in the letter from Egypt to Morton before cited [mpra, p. 246], after 
viewing these semi-wild dogs with the critical eye of a naturalist, aptly remarks : — 
" By the way, the dogs here 1 find all of one breed, — the same, if my memory serve me, 
with a mummied skull presented by Mr. Gliddon [1840] to the National Institute at 
Washington : — with upright ears, and very much of a jackal, or small wolf, in appear- 
ance, — often, even in color. They bark, however, as I can well attest, like other 
dogs ; — and if this be, as alleged by some, a matter of education, there seems to be 
here no danger of the loss of the art." 

The Grey-hound 

Is a very common animal throughout all Eastern nations, and presents great divergen- 
cies of external form. Several varieties, probably three, are seen on the monuments of 




Persian Wild Dog. 



388 



HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, 



>( 




Grey-liound. 



Fig. 237. Egypt; and the specimen here delineated 

(Fig. 237) is from one of the tombs of the IVth 
dynasty, 3400 years b. ctso This dog is 
cotemporary with the hieroglyphic dog, and 
next to that is the oldest form of grey-hound 
■we possess. There are now extant only the 
monuments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dy- 
nasties in detail, and very few of other dynas- 
ties to the Xlth inclusive ; or we should, in 
all probability, have beheld portrayed many 
other varieties of dogs. Again, it is quite 
by accident that dogs are figured at all in the 
early pyramid days ; because the Egyptian 
artist was not exhibiting a gallery of Natural History in these painted sepulchres, 
but merely introducing, with the likeness of the deceased proprietor, those things the 
latter had loved during his lifetime ; among them the portrait of his favorite grey- 
hound. When arrived at the Xllth dynasty we find a very rich collection, because 
we happen to have stumbled upon the tomb of a great dog-fancier. It is worthy of 
remark, however, that although the Egyptians have accidentally represented almost 
the whole fauna of the Nile on the monuments, yet there were some common animals 
which never appear in sculptures now extant ^ — ^as the wild ass, the wild boar, &c. 
Some dogs have likewise been left out, because there was no object in drawing them. 
Martin [Hist, of the Dog) informs us that a similar variety of grey-hound is very com- 
mon still in Asia and Africa ; and Mr. William A. Gliddon, who has spent years in the 
Indian Archipelago, informs me that a curl-tailed grey-hound of this form is quite 
common among the Dyaks of Borneo, and among the aboriginal inhabitants of the Ma- 
layan peninsula. They make good hunting dogs. Color — dark brown, with black spots. 
The species of grey-hound given in the above sketch is often repeated on the monu- 
ments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties, with precisely the same characters — long, 
erect ears, curled tail, &c. ; only the tail in some specimens is much shorter than in 
others, having evidently been cut. 



Fig. 238.421 



Fig. 239.122 




Wolf. 



Hyeua. 



Fig. 240.423 



For the instruction of orthodox naturalists, who derive all canidce from the Noachian 
pair of wolves, we submit the grandsire (Fig. 238) of the 
said lupine couple, who was alive in Egypt 3400 years b. c; 
together with one of their hyena uncles (Fig. 239) ; and a 
jackal (Fig. 240) — their cousin in perhaps the forty- 
second degree. 

The scarcity of documents from the IVth to the end of 
the Xlth dynasty, compels us to descend to the Xllth — 
Jackal. 2400-2100 years b. c. Here we stand, not merely at a 

point which is several centuries before the birth of Abraham ; but, at a day when, if 




VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 



389 



Fio. 241.*2t 




Fig. 242. »2s 




the deluge occurrea at b. c. 2348, the Egyptians, besides the wolves, hyenas, and 
jackals, in a wild state, possessed many kinds of dogs running about their houses, 
along with the common dog and grey-hound, preceding ; whereas Noah's seamanship, 
several hundred years afterwards, could only rescue one pair of wolves from drowning 
on the summit of Mount Ararat, thousands of feet above the line of perpetual glaciers. 

The subjoined specimen (Fig. 241) of an- 
other species, is from the tomb of Ron, who 
kept his kennel admirably stocked, during 
the Xllth dynasty. This dog is beautifully 
drawn and colored on the monument, and 
is one of the most superb canine relics of 
antiquity. Mr. Gliddon informs me that 
this is not only the common gazelle dog of 
Nubia at the present day, but that their 
ears are still cropped by the natives in the 
same way ; as Prisse's drawing attests.'i26 

We have not been able to find the por- 
trait of an ancient rough hound, alluded to 
by Hamilton Smith ; but here (Fig. 242) is 
the modern rough-haired grey-hound of 
Arabia, probably the same ; and which 
will be interesting to the reader as a con- 
trast to the other grey-hounds : it bears all 
the marks of a distinct species ; but re- 
sembles the Laconian breed. 

Another variety of grey-hound is said by 
Morton to be represented with rougher 
hair, and bushy tail, not unlike the modern Arabian grey-hound. 

A grey-hound exactly like the English grey-hound, with semi-pendent ears, is seen on 
a statue of the Vatican at Rome. 

Martin, whose work is full of instructive matter, says — " Now we have, in Moderu 
Egypt and Arabia, and also in Persia, varieties of grey-hound closely resembling those 
on the ancient remains of art ; and it would appear that two or three varieties exist — 
one smooth, another long-haired, and another smooth but with long-haired ears resem- 
bling those of a spaniel. In Persia, the grey-hound, to judge from specimens we have 
seen, is silk-haired, with a fringed tail. They were of a black color ; but a fine breed, 
we are informed, is of a slate or ash color, as are some of the smooth-haired grey- 
hounds depicted in Egyptian paintings. In Arabia, a large, rough, powerful race 
exists; and about Akaba, according to Laborde, a breed of slender form, fleet, with 
a long tail, very hairy, in the form of a brush, with the ears erect and pointed — 
closely resembling, in fact, many of those figured by the ancient Egyptians. In Rou- 
melia, a spaniel-eared race exists. Col. Sykes, who states that none of the domesti- 
cated dogs of Dukhun are common to Europe, observes that the first in strength and 
size is the Brinjaree dog, somewhat resembling the Persian grey-hound (in the posses- 
sion of the Zoological Society), but more powerful. North of the Caspian, in Tartary 
and Russia, there exists a breed of large, rough grey-hounds. We may here allude to 
the great Albanian dog of former times, and at present extant, which perhaps belongs 
to the grey-hound family." 427 

The grey-hound can thus be distinctly traced back in several forms for 2000, and in 
one for more than 5000 years ; and there is every reason to believe the Egyptian class 
embraced at least two, if not more, distinct species. Unlike all other dogs of the chase, 
they are almost destitute of smell, and pursue game by the eye alone. This deficiency 
of smell is connected with anatomic^il peculiarities, which must not be overlooked ; 
because you cannot, by breeding, give a more powerful organ of scent to a grey-hound, 
without changing the animal into something else than a grey-hound. 



390 



HYBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, 



Fig. 243.«8 



The Hound. 

Like the grey-hound, the hlood, stag, and/oa; hounds, present many forms; and it is 
impossible, at the present day, to say whether they are varieties of one species, or 
■whether they are derived from several primitive species. As far back as history can 
trace hounds, there seems to have been several very distinct animals of this kind. Our 
Egyptian monuments abound in hunting-scenes, in which hounds are represented in 
pursuit of wild animals of various kinds. These scenes are drawn oftentimes with great 
spirit ; and the truthfulness of the delineations cannot be questioned, because they 
are perfectly true to nature at the present day, as will be seen by the subjoined 
drawings. 

This leash of hounds (Fig. 
243) presents two varieties 
of the African blood-hound; 
one with erect, the other with 
drooping ears. They be- 
longed to RoTi's hunting- 
establishment, about the 22d 
century before Christ, at Be- 
ni-Hassan. 

In Rosellini's colored copy 
of the same couple, here re- 
duced in size, the off-dog is 
painted brick-dust ; the near one is a light chestnut, with black patches. 
Another of the same choice breed (Fig. 244), in full gaze. 




Fig. 244.429 



Fig. 245.430 





A fourth (Fig. 245), in the act of 
slaying a gazelle. 

Here is a noble brace (Fig. 246), 
with the antelope they have captured, 
and their groom, returning to the 
kennel. 

This (Fig. 247) is a variety of the 
same hound, pensively awaiting his 
dinner, about 4000 years ago. 

Fig. 247.«2 




VIEWED IN COXNECTION WITH MANKIND. 



391 



Fig. 248.435 



These hounds are a few specimens, selected from the several works of Lepsius, 
Rosellini, and Wilkinson. We could easily add a hundred more, not less characteristic. 
It is truly wonderful to compare these delineations, commencing as far back as the 
Xllth dynasty (twenty-third century b. c), and extending down for 1000 years, with 
the common fox-hound and stag-hound of the present day — still more, with the Afri- 
can blood-hound. 

In the Grand Procession of Thotmes III. (1550 b. c), several of them are associated 
with the people and productions of the interior of Africa. ♦SJ Again, in a later tomb 
at Gourneh, near Thebes, figured by ChampoUion. Dr. Morton says — "If we com- 
pare the oldest of these delineations, viz., those of Beni-Hassan, with the blood-hounds 
of Africa lately living in the Tower Menagerie in London, we cannot deny their iden- 
tity, so complete is the resemblance of form and instinct." ^s* 

" On reading Mr. Birch's ' Observations on the Statistical Table of Karnac' (p. 56), 
I was much pleased to find this hound designated, beyond all question, in a letter of 
Candace, Queen of Ethiopia, to Alexander the Great, in which the former, among other 
presents to the Macedonian king, sends ' ninety dogs which hunt men ' — canes etiam 
in homines efferacissimos nonaginta. And, that nothing may be necessary in explanation, 
the Queen further designates them as ' animals of our country.' " 

The same blood-hounds, therefore, of which tribute was sent from the Upper Nile, in 
the sixteenth century b. c, had preserved their blood pure, down to b. c. 325, just as 
it is found at this day, in the same regions, after 3400 years. 

Turnspit (0. Vertagus.) 

AVilkinson, Blainville, Martin, and all, I believe, are agreed upon the identity of 
this dog. The portrait (Fig. 248), and others 
of the same well-marked character, are faithful 
representatives of the modern turnspit, which 
is still common in Asia and Europe. 

The figure above is from the tomb of Ron, at 
Beni-Hassan, in the twenty-third century before 
Christ. 

To the same ante-Abrahamic age (the Xllth 
dynasty) belongs this slut (Fig. 249), who stands 
under her master's chair, in his tomb at El- 
Bersheh, Middle Egypt. She is another species, 
but we hesitate in ascribing to it a name : al- 
though the common-dog of the Nile approaches 
nearest to the design. 437 

Not only have we various other forms of dogs 
on the monuments of Egypt as far back as the 
Xllth dynasty, which, to our mind, cannot, from 
mere outline drawings, be satisfactorily identi- 
fied with any of our European or American races ; but, as we have shown, there also 
exist, in abundance, representations of wolves, jackals, hyenas, and foxes, each and all 
of which have been supposed to be pro- 
genitors of our domestic dogs — just as Fig. 250.438 
Noah is said, by the same school of 
naturalists, to be the father of Jews, 
Australians, White-men, Mongols, Ne- 
groes, American aborigines, &c. -v i \ 

Wolves. ' y\l \ (\V 

As this animal has, by the majority / / ^s^n\ \li 
of old-school naturalists, been believed M W Ml 

to be the original parent of all dogs, we <a <^^'^ <?/<•?/ 




Fig. 249.436 





392 



HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, 



shall introduce here one specimen (Fig. 250) of a group of four Egyptian wolves, 
figured by Lepsius, from tombs of the IVth dynasty (about 3400 years b. c). These 
Nilotic animals, 'which are different in species from European, are repeatedly seen, 
on sculptures of every epoch, sometimes chased by dogs, at other times caught in 
traps ; in short, accompanied by so many corroborating circumstances as to leave no 
doubt that they were nothing but wild wolves. They are often depicted on the same 
monuments with dogs, ever perfectly contrasted. 

Bull-dogs {0. Molossus.) 

The term molossus has been rather vaguely applied by writers ; but the type of the 
bull-dog is well understood. It is skilfully portrayed on a piece of antique Greek 
sculpture in the Vatican. M. de Blainville (in his Ostiographie, Canis, p. 74), states 
that the form and expression of the head are perfectly characteristic, even to the 
peculiar arrangement of the teeth. This species, too, is yet the common dog of 
Albania. 

Mastiff (C. Laniarius). 

We have nowhere yet met with this dog on the monuments of the Nile, although it 
must have been known to the Egyptians, through their constant intercourse with As- 
syria, in early times. The magnificent original of the sketch here given (Fig. 251) 

was taken from the Birs Nim- 
roud, or Babylon, age of Ne- 
buchadnezzar, *''0 and would do 
honor to a prince of the present 
day. [His duplicate, we might 
almost say, is still alive ; and 
belongs to my excellent friend 
Mrs. Jenkins, at Richmond, Va. 
— G. R. G.] 

Alexander, in his march to the 
Indus, received presents of dogs 
of gigantic stature, which were 
no doubt of the same family as 
the Thibetan mastiffs. To these 
dogs Aristotle applied the name 
of leontomyx ; and they are fig- 
ured on two ancient Greek med- 
als — one of which, that of Se- 
gestus of Sicily, dates in the 
fourth or fifth century b. c. ; the other, which is of Aquileia Severa, Dictator of Crete, 
is about two centuries later.^^i 



Fig. 251.439 




Shepherd's Bog [0. Bomesticus). 



This dog, being (if a Scotch or English "shepherd-dog" be meant) altogether alien 
to the Nile at this day, is not figured on Egyptian monuments ; but is doubtless very 
ancient in Europe. The earliest effigy, also mentioned by Aristotle, is preserved on 
an ancient Etruscan medal of unknown date, but probably as old as our Ninevite 
mastiff. 



These remarks on the different species of dogs, faithfully delineated 
upon ancient monuments, might he veiy easily extended ; hut I have 
set forth enough to estahlish that the natural history of dogs and the 
natural history of mankind stand precisely in the same position. In 
whatever direction an inquirer may turn — wherever written history, 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 393 

monuments, analogies, or organic remains, exist to direct us — in 
every zoological province upon earth, I repeat, a specifically diverse 
fauna is encountered, in which distinct species, as well of mankind 
as of dogs, constitute a part. 

The earliest monuments yet published by Lepsias are those of the 
lYth dynasty ; and from these we here already have borrowed the 
"hieroglyphic" ov fox-dog, the prick-eared ^J-e^/-AoMn(?, the hlood-hound, 
the turnspit, with other species ; together with the wolf, the hyena, 
and the jackal. The Egyptian fox has not fallen under our eye at 
this early epoch, although it is seen on later monuments. IsTotwith- 
etanding that the monuments of the earliest times do not exhibit every 
form of dogs that existed at the subsequent Xllth dynasty, their 
absence is no argument why these multifarious species did not exist 
from the very beginning ; and while all the canine forms just men- 
tioned must ascend even beyond the date of Menes, (which Lepsius 
places at the year 3893 b. c.,) science can perceive no reason to 
doubt that other unrecorded varieties of eanidse are quite as ancient 
as those of which fortuj^ous accident has preserved the pictorial 
register down to this day. 

Concerning fossil dogs, the terrestrial vitality of which antedates 
Egyptian monuments by chiliads of years. Dr. Usher's enumeration 
{supra, Chap. XI.) of the numerous varieties discovered in geolo- 
gical formations, all over the world, precludes the necessity for saying 
more now, than that certain forms of true eanidse are primordial 
organic types; and, hence, utterly independent of alterations pro- 
duced, in later times, by domestication. 

Logical criticism will allow that, if specific differences among dogs 
were the result of climate, all the dogs of each separate country 
should be alike. Such, notoriously, is not the case ; for the reader 
has just beheld several species of dogs, depicted (at various epochs, 
during 4000 years of coeval existence) on the monuments; which 
species are not only now seen in Egypt alive, but are permanent, always 
and everywhere, in other countries of climates the most opposite. 

Indeed, "like begets like," to use dog-fancy terms; and a terrier 
is a terrier, and a dingo a dingo, all the world over, else language has 
no meaning; and wherever climatic action may be hostile to the 
permanency of either type, it does not transform the one into the 
other, nor into any species diverse from each : it kills them both out- 
right, or their offspring within a generation or two. Thus, IsTew- 
foundlands perish within very limited periods after transplantation 
from American snows to African suns. Their short-lived whelps are 
as likely to become kittens as to be changed, by climate, into bull- 
pups. An interesting exception, nevertheless, should be observed: 
50 



394 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, 

viz., where dogs, becoming wild, return to a state of nature, they 
have, in the course of time, resumed very different types ; say, shep- 
herd's dog, Danish dog, grey-hound, terrier, and so on. "In other 
words, they constantly tend to recur to that primitive type which is most 
dominant in their physical constitution ; and it is remarkable, that in 
the Old World this restored type is never the wolf, although it is some- 
times a lupine dog, owing to the cause just mentioned.'" 

"Where opposite types of dogs are bred together, and their hybrid 
progeny becomes again intermingled, all sorts of mongrel, degene- 
rate, or deformed varieties arise ; such as pugs, shocks, spaniels, &c. ; 
which Cuvier calls " the most degenerate productions ;" and they are 
found, by experience, "to possess a short and fleeting existence — the 
common lot of all types of modern origin." Such deformities arise 
in nature everywhere. There is one instance of dwarfish canine mal- 
formation, 4000 years old, in Lepsius's plate "^ of the Xllth dynasty; 
and embalmed monstrosities of other genera were found by Passalacqua. 

Among North American Indian dogs, says Dr. Morton, "the original forms are very 
few, and closely allied ; whence it happens that these grotesque varieties never appear. 
Neither have they any approximation to that marked family we call hounds ; and this fact 
is the more remarkable, since the Indian dogs are employed in the same manner of hunting 
as the hounds of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Yet, this similarity of employment has caused 
no analogy of esterior form. No varieties like those so familiar in Europe, spring up inter se 
among them. They are as homogeneous as wolf-races, from whom they are descended ; 
and Dr. Richardson quotes Theodat to show that the common Indian dog has not materially 
changed during two hundred and twenty years. Again, the same remark applies to the 
indigenous aguara, alco, and techichi dogs of Mexico and South America, which, before their 
admixture with European breeds, conformed to the types or species from which they sprung, 
without branching into the thirty varieties of Buffon, or the sixty of Brown." 

In the words of Jacquinot, whose " Anthropologie" **^ is the ablest 
work on Man yet put forth in the French language, let me close these 
few, out of infinite, analogies in the animal kingdom, which space 
confines to the foregoing paragraphs on dogs. "H est indubitable 
que les varietes du chien appartiennent k plusieurs types primitifs." 

The facts above detailed establish, conclusively, that Hylridity is 
not a "unit;" or, in other words, they prove that diflferent degrees 
of afiinity exist in N"ature, to be taken into account in all inquiries 
into the prolificacy of diverse "species." Equally certain is it, that 
climate and domestication affect animal species differently: some 
of them becoming variously modified in form and color — as horses, 
cattle, goats, sheep, fowls, pigeons, &c. ; while others, to considerable 
extent, resist such physical influences — like the ass, the buffalo, the 
elk, the reindeer, pea-fowls, guinea-fowls, and so forth. 

Now, it is equally singular and true, that these identical species, 
whence ISTatural History deduces very strong reasons for believing 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 395 

them to be derived from many primitive stocks, are those which 
undergo the greatest changes ; vs'hereas, on the contrary, other spe- 
cies, which equally good reasons induce us to regard as simple — that 
is, derived from one primitive stock — are precisely those in which the 
experience of ages chronicles the smallest alteration. This law (if it 
be such) seems to apply not merely to the lower animals, but also to 
mankind. In America, for example, where the autocthonous popu- 
lation has been isolated, very little variety is found among Indian 
tribes ; whereas, in Europe, Asia, and Africa (more particularly in 
and around Egypt and India), we encounter infinite diversities among 
human beings, manifested in every form and by all colors. 

The perplexing anomalies that beset this investigation may be 
illustrated by the following resume, in which I have incorporated 
some very interesting facts, published by Dr. Alexander Harvey in 
the London Monthly Journal of the Medical Sciences .•^** 

Instances are sufficiently common among the lower animals where the offspring exhibit, 
more or less distinctly, in addition to the characters of the male by which they were be- 
gotten, the peculiarities also of a male by which their mother had at some former period 
been impregnated : — or, as it has been otherwise expressed, where the peculiarities of a 
male animal, that had once held fruitful intercourse with a female, are more or less dis- 
tinctly recognized in the offspring of subsequent connections of that female with other 
males. It is interesting to inquire whether this is a general law in animal phj'siology ; and 
if it be, whether, and how far, it is modified in its operation in different animals, and under 
different circumstances : and it is of still more immediate interest to us to inquire whether, 
or not, the fact extends also to the human species. The facts bearing upon this subject 
may be most conveniently noticed — 1st, in relation to the lower animals ; 2d, in relation to 
the human species. 

1. In the Brute Creation. — A young chestnut mare, seven-eighths Arabian, belonging to 
the Earl of Morton, was covered in 1815 by a quagga, which is a species of wild ass from 
Africa, and marked somewhat like a zebra. The mare was covered but once by the zebra ; 
and, after a pregnancy of eleven months and four days, gave birth to a hybrid which had 
distinct marks of the quagga, in the shape of its head, black bars on the legs and shoul- 
ders, &c. In 1817, 1818, and 1821, the same mare, which had become the propertj' of Sir 
Gore Ouseley, was covered by a very fine black Arabian horse, and produced successively 
three foals, all of which bore unequivocal marks of the quagga. A mare belonging to Sir 
Gore Ouseley was covered by a zebra, and gave birth to a striped hybrid. The year fol- 
lowing the same mare was covered by a thorough-bred horse, and the next succeeding year 
by another horse. Both ih& foals thus produced were striped: i.e., partook of the cha- 
racters of the zebra. It is stated by Haller, and also by Becker, that when a mare has 
had a mule by an ass, and afterwards a foal by a horse, the foal exhibits traces of the ass. 
We can ourselves vouch for the truth of similar facts. A vast number of mules are bred 
in the United States, from the ass and the mare ; and we have frequently seen colts from 
horses, out of mares, which had previously had mules ; many of them were distinctly 
marked by the ass. 

In these cases, the mares were covered in the first instance by animals of a different 
species from themsglves. But cases are recorded of mares covered in every instance by 
horses, but by different horses on different occasions, where the offspring partook of the 
characters of the horse by which the impregnation was first effected. Thus, in several 
foals in the royal stud at Hampton Court, got by the horse Acleon, there were unequivocal 
marks of the horse Colonel — the dams of these foals had been bred from by Colonel the 



396 HTBEIDITT OF ANIMALS, 

previous year. Again, a colt, the property of the Earl of SufBeld, got by Laurel, so resem- 
bled another horse, Camel, " that it was whispered, nay even asserted at New Market, 
that he must" have been got by Camel." It was ascertained, however, that the mother of 
the Laurel colt had been covered the previous year by Camel. 

It has often been observed, also, that a well-bred bitch, if she have been impregnated by 
a mongrel dog, will not, although lined subsequently by a pure dog, bear thorough-bred 
puppies in the next two or three litters. The like occurrence has been noticed with the 
sow. A sow of a peculiar black-and-white breed was impregnated by a boar of the wild 
breed, of a deep chestnut color ; the pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar 
in some being very predominant. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same breed 
as her own, some of the produce were observed to be marked with the chestnut color that 
prevailed in the former litter : and, on a subsequent impregnation, the boar being still of 
the same breed as the sow, the litter was also observed to be slightly stained with the 
chestnut color. What adds to the value of the fact now stated is, that, in the course of 
many years' observation, the breed in question was never known afterwards to produce progeny 
having the smallest tinge of chestnut color. We may here remark that it is only in a state of 
domestication that animals produce offspring of various colors. When left entirely to the 
operation of natural causes, they never exhibit this sporting of colors ; they are distin- 
guished by various and often beautiful shades of color ; but then each species is true to its 
own family type, even to a few hairs or small parts of a feather. It is needless to repeat 
examples of these facts — they are familiar to all rearers of animals ; among cattle they 
are of every-day occurrence. There is another fact worthy of notice. It is well known 
to cattle-breeders, that the term of utero-gestation is much influenced by the sire — the 
calves of one bull will be carried longer in utero than those of another. 

2. In the Human Species. — There are equally distinct breeds of the human family as of 
any of the lower animals; and it is affirmed that the human female, when twice married, 
bears occasionally to the second husband children resembling the first both in bodily struc- 
ture and mental powers. Where all the parties are of the same color, this statement is not 
so easy of verification ; but, where a woman has had children by two men of different colors, 
such as a black and a white man, it would be comparatively easy to observe whether the 
offspring of the latter connexion bore any resemblance to the former parent. Count Strze- 
lecki, in his Physical History of Van Diemen's Land, asserts, that, when a native woman 
has had a child by a European male, " she loses the power of conception, on a renewal of in- 
tercourse, with a male of her own race, retaining only that of procreating with the white men." 
" Hundreds of instances (says the Count) of this extraordinary fact are recorded in the 
writer's memoranda, all occurring invariably under the same circumstances, amongst the Hu- 
rons, Seminoles, Red Indians, Yakies (Sinaloa), Mendosa Indians, Auracos, South Sea 
Islanders, and natives of New Zealand, New South Wales, and Van Diemen's Land ; and 
all tending to prove that the sterility of the female, which is relative only to one and not 
to another male, is not accidental, but follows laws as cogent, though as mysterious, as the 
rest of those connected with generation." In this sweeping assertion the Count may have 
been mistaken : a traveller could hardly have had opportunities for ascertaining a fact, 
which it must require years of careful observation to confirm. It is certain that no such 
thing exists between the whites and Negroes, the two races with which we are the most 
familiar; because examples are of frequent occurrence, where a Negress, after having 
had a child by a white man, has had a family by a husband of her own color. 

Instances are cited, where a Negro woman bore mulatto children to a white man, and 
afterwards had by a black man other children, who bore a strong resemblance to the white 
father, both in features and complexion. It is supposed by some, that the influence, exerted 
on the generative system of a female of one race by sexual intercourse with the male of 
another, may be increased by repeated connexions ; and Dr. Laing informs us of the case 
of an English gentleman in the West Indies, who had a large family by a Negro woman, 
and where the children exhibited successively, more and more, the European features and 
complexion. I have living with me a black woman, whose first child was by a white man : 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 397 

she has had six children since, by a black husband, who are perfectly black, and unlike the 
first father ; yet, it is a singular fact that these children, though strongly-marked Negroes, 
bear no family likeness to either father or mother — their physiognomy is as distinct as that 
of any two families of the same race. The children of a second husband may resemble 
the first sufficiently to attract attention, even where there is no striking contrast of color ; 
thus Dr. Harvey cites a case where a lady was twice married, and had issue by both hus- 
bands. One of the children by the second marriage bears an unmislakeable resemblance 
to her mother's first husband : and what makes the likeness more discernible is, that there 
was a marked diflFerence in features and general appearance between the two husbands. 

The chain of facts herein by this time linked together, aside from 
many more of identical force that might easily be added, proves con- 
clusively that prolificacy between two races of animals is no test of 
specific affiliation ; and it therefore follows, as a corollary, that proli- 
ficacy among the difi:ereut races of men carries with it no evidence 
of common origin. On the other hand, if it can be shown that the 
law of hybridity prevails between any two human races, the argu- 
ment in favor of plurality of species would thereby be greatly 
strengthened. 

I think that the genus homo includes many primitive species ; and 
that these species are amenable to the same laws which govern spe- 
cies in many other genera. The species of men are all ijroximate, 
according to the definition already given ; nevertheless, some are per- 
fectly prolific ; while others are imperfectly so — possessing a tendency 
to become extinct when their hybrids are bred together. At the 
beginning of this chapter I referred to my own observations, made 
some years ago, on the crossing of white and black races : and my 
investigations since that time, as well as those of many other anato- 
mists, confirm the views before enunciated. So far as the races of men 
can be traced through osteography, history and monuments, the pre- 
sent volume establishes that they have always been distinct. ISTo 
example is recorded, where one race has been transformed into an- 
other by external causes. Permanence of type must therefore be 
regarded as an infallible test of specific character. M. Jacquinot 
very dexterously remarks that, according to the theory of unity of 
races, a mulatto belongs to a "species" as much as any other human 
being, and that the white and black races would be but " varieties." 

"When two proximate species of mankind, two races bearing a 
general resemblance to each other in type, are bred together — e.g., 
Teutons, Celts, Pelasgians, Iberians, or Jews — they produce ofispriug 
perfectly prolific: although, even here, their peculiarities cannot 
become so entirely fused into a homogeneous mass as to obliterate 
the original types of either. One or the other of these types will 
" crop-out," firom time to time, more or less apparently in their pro- 
geny. When, on the other hand, species the most widely separated, 



398 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, 

sucli as the Anglo-Saxon with the 'Negro, are crossed, a different result 
has course. Their mulatto oflspring, if still prolific, are but partially 
so ; and acquire an inherent tendency to run out, and become eventu- 
ally extinct when kept apart from the parent stocks. This opinion 
is now becoming general among observers in our slave States ; and it 
is very strongly insisted upon by M. Jacquinot. This skilful natu- 
ralist (unread in cis- Atlantic literature) claims the discovery as original 
with himself; although erroneously, because it had long previously 
been advocated by Estwick and Long, the historians of Jamaica ; by 
Dr. Caldwell ; "® by Professors Dickson and Holbrook, of Charleston, 
S. C. ; and by numerous other leading medical men of our Southern 
States. There are some 4,000,000 of ISTegroes in the United States ; 
about whom circumstances, personal and professional, have afibrded 
me ample opportunities for observation. I have found it impossible, 
nevertheless, to collect such statistics as would be satisfactory to others 
on this point ; and the difficulty arises solely from the want of chastity 
among mulatto women, which is so notorious as to be proverbial. 
Although often married to hybrid males of their own color, their 
children are begotten as frequently by white or other men, as by their 
husbands. For many years, in my daily professional visits, I have 
been in the habit of meeting with mulatto women, either free or 
slaves ; and, never omitting an opportunity of inquiry with regard 
to their prolificacy, longevity of ofispring, color of parents, age, &c., 
the conviction has become indelibly fixed in my mind that tlie posi- 
tions laid down in the beginning of this chapter are true. 

Hombron and Jacquinot have asserted on their own authority, as 
well as upon that of others, that this law of infertility holds also with 
the cross of the European on the Hottentot and Australian. 

" Les quelques tribus qui se trouvaient aux environs de Port Jackson, vont chaque jour 
en decroissant, et c'est k peine si Ton cite quelques rares m^tis d'Australien et d'Europ^en. 
Cette absence de m^tis entre deux peuples vivant en contacte sur la meme terre, prouve bien 
incontestablement la difference des espfeces. On con9oit du reste que, si ces m6tis exis- 
taient, ils seraient bien faciles a reconnoitre, et a diff^rencier des espfeces meres. 

"A Hobart Town et sur toute la Tasmanie, il n'y a pas d'avantage de mdtis ; tout ce 
qui reste des indigenes (quarante environ) k 6t€ transports dans.une petite ile du dgtroit de 
Bass."*46 

The official reports published by the British Parliament confirm this 
statement as to Australia. 

French and Spanish writers have maintained that, when the grade 
of quinteroon is arrived at, the Negro type is lost, and that such man 
becomes no longer distinguishable from the pure white. In some of 
the West India Islands this grade of slave by law becomes free. Now, 
it must be remembered that the Spaniards, and a certain proportion 
of the population of France, are themselves already as dark as any 



TIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 399 

quinteroon, or even a quadroon ; and thus it may readily happen 
that very few crosses would merge the dark into the lighter race : but, 
when the Anglo-Saxon and the I^egro are brought together, no such 
result has been perceived, or hinted at, in the United States, where 
the latter amalgamation is going on upon an immense scale. Slaves 
of Southern States, seduced by delusive representations, are constantly 
making attempts to escape to jfree States ; and would succeed without 
difficulty in most cases, were it not for their color : yet they have 
rarely, if ever, become so fair through white lineage as to escape de- 
tection. I am not sure that I ever saw at the South, one of such adult 
mixed-bloods so fair that I could not instantaneously trace the ISTegro 
type in complexion and feature. "When we bear in mind the length 
of time during which the two races have been commingling in the 
United States, how are we to explain this fact ? The only physiolo- 
gical reason that may be assigned is this : the imdattoes, or mixed- 
breeds, die off before the darh stain can be washed out by amalgamation. 
■ ISo other rational explanation can be offered. 

Mr. Lyell speaks of some miilattoes he met with in ISTorth Carolina, 
whom, he says, he could not distinguish from whites ; but, if any such 
examples exist, among the multiform crosses between Anglo-Saxons 
and K'egroes, they must be extraordinarily few ; because my half 
century's residence in our slave States should have brought me in con- 
tact with many instances. However, an Englishman, coming from 
an island where a ITegro is a "rara avis," and running through the 
United States at Mr. Lyell's speed, could not become familiarized with 
these various grades, and therefore his eye might well be deceived. 
The great geologist certainly made many other decidedly erroneous 
observations in his American tour ; quite innocently we all admit. 

M. Gei'dy claims [Traite de Physiologie) that primitive human spe- 
cies have all disappeared through amalgamations; giving a most 
erudite rehearsal of the wars and migrations which have influenced 
races, from the earliest times downwards : but it is a hard matter to 
wash out blood ; and we oppose the fact, that the representatives of 
many original types still live : such as the Greeks (heroic type), the 
Basques, the Jews, the Australians, the Indians, and, above all, the 
Egyptians. 

M. Jacquinot, whose ability and great opportunities for investi- 
gation add much weight to his authority, lays down the following 
conclusions : — 

" 1. A species, or race ■which represents it, is primitive, Tyhen all the individuals that com- 
pose it present the same physical characters, same color of skin, same type of face, same 
conformation, same kind of hair — notwithstanding the varieties of physiognomy of indi- 
viduals, which vary to infinitude in all species. 

" In a species, according to Cuvier, ' the children resemble the father and mother, as 
much as these resemble each other.' 



400 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, 

" 2. It is impossible, no matter how we produce crosses between species or races on the 
globe, to obtain a product which represents exactly one of the primitive types ; that is to 
say, we shall never be able to construct, with all the pieces, a Negro, an American, a Ger- 
man, or a Celt. 

" 3. The species will separate from the primitive type, and will become the more altered 
by crosses with other species, in proportion as the individuals which compose it differ from 
each other, and as the types are more numerous. 

"4. The greater the differences among individuals, the less the species which have pro- 
duced them will be near [voisines) to each other, and vice versa." ^'^'^ 

The laws governing hybridity have as yet been but imperfectly 
studied. Some points of vital interest, connected with the crossing 
of races, have passed by without notice ; for example, the relative 
influence of the male and the female on progeny. The physical 
characteristics of the common mule (offspring of the ass and mare) 
are well known. It partakes of the characters of both parents ; but in 
the form of the head and ears, as well as in disposition, it inherits more 
of the ass than of the horse. The bardeau, or hinny (offspring of 
horse and she-ass) partakes, on the contrary, much more of the pecu- 
liarities of the horse — the head being small, closely resembling the 
horse ; the ears short ; the disposition rather that of the horse ; and 
the voice is not a bray, but the neigh. The mule and hinny are 
almost as much unlike each other as the horse and ass. How far 
this rule may be applicable to other infertile hybrids, I am not pre- 
pared to say. 

Where proximate species are bred together, the above rule, based 
upon equidse, applies with less force ; e.g., the dog and wolf, or differ- 
ent species of dogs. I have seen pups from the cross of the cur-dog 
and wolf, which presented an intermediate type ; but the following 
appears to show that a different breed of dog may produce a diver- 
gent result : — 

" In the recent experiments of Wiegemanu, in Berlin, of the offspring of a pointer and 
she-wolf, two resembled the father, with hanging ears, while the other was like a wolf- 
dog." 4« 

When the grey-hound and fox-hound, the fox-hound and terrier, 
are coupled, their offspring partake rather of the half-and-half type. 

We are unable to declare what shades of difference may arise from 
the manner of crossing canine males and females. A grey-hound pos- 
sesses great speed, has a peculiar shape, and pursues his game by 
sight alone ; being so destitute of smell as to be incapable of trailing 
it. The fox-hound, on the contrary, tracks game almost solely by 
scent, has little speed, but great endurance. 'Now, when fox-hound 
and grey-hound are bred together, their offspring is intermediate in 
form, in speed, in sense of smell, and in every attribute. Such law, 
I believe, holds with regard to all dogs, when thorough-bred. 

Some years ago, I was intimate with a gentleman who owned a 



VIEWED IN" CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 401 

fine pack of fox-liouucls. Wishing to retain the sense of smell, and 
at the same time procure more speed, he commenced by crossing 
them with grey-hounds ; and continued crossing until he obtained 
a stock of but one- eighth grey-hound, which dogs gave him all the 
qualities desired. 

l>!"ow it would appear, from sundry facts already set forth under our 
"Caucasian" type, that even proximate species are not invariably 
governed by the same laws. Some species produce an intermediate 
type, like the dogs just cited; while others possess a tendency to 
reproduce each of the parent stocks. "We may instance the white 
and gray mice, the deer and ram, no less than the fair and the dark- 
skinned races of men. 

During a professional visit (which interrupted these lines) to the 
house of a friend, Mr. Garland Goode, my notice was attracted by 
some curious facts respecting the crossing of races. Among his slaves 
he owns three families, all crosses of white and black blood, as fol- 
lows : — 

1st. A Tvoman, tliree-fourths -white, married to a half-breed mulatto man. She had four 
children ; the two first and the last of which were even more fair than the mother. The 
other presented a dark complexion — that of the father. 

2d. A mulatto woman, half-breed, married to a full-blooded Negro man, not of the jet- 
tiest hue, although black. They had thirteen children ; of which most were even blacker 
than the father, while two exhibited the light complexion of the mother. 

3d. A mulatto man, married to a very black Negress. They had twelve children ; and 
here again the majority of the children were coal-black, whereas two or three were as light 
in complexion as the father. 

"With jrespect to these examples, it is evident that, in the first case, 
white-blood predominated in the parents. In the two latter, the IS'e- 
gro blood was paramount. Thus, in three cases, the law of hybridity 
seems clearly to have been called into action. The children had a 
tendency to run into the tj-pe of the predominant blood : because, in 
the first example, white-blood preponderated in the children ; in the 
two last, black-blood. ISTow, I do not consider this rule to be con- 
stant ; but such examples are common. Mr. Lyell has again, in these 
matters, made statements upon exceptions to rules, and not, assuredly, 
upon the rules themselves. 

Observations are wanting to settle many of the laws that govern 
the mixing of human species. In the United States, the mulattoes 
and other grades are produced by the connection of the white male 
with the Negress; the mulattoes with each other ; and the white male 
with the mulattress. It is so rare, in this country, to see the ofispring 
of a Xegro man and a white woman, that I have never personally 
encountered an example ; but such children are reported to partake 
more of the type of the ISTegro, than when the mode of crossing is 
51 



402 HTBEIDITY OF ANIMALS, 

reversed. I am, laowever, told that the progeny derived from a Negro 
father presents characteristics ditferent from those where the male 
parent of mulattoes is white ; and consequently I suspend decision. 

Our ordinary mulattoes are nearly intermediate between the parent 
stocks ; governed, apparently, very much by laws similar to those we 
have instanced in the grey-hound and fox-hound. They are, how- 
ever, as before stated, less prolific than the parent stock ; which con- 
dition is coupled with an inherent tendency to run out, so much so, 
that mulatto humanity seldom, if ever, reaches, through subsequent 
crossings with white men, that grade of dilution which washes out 
the ISTegro stain. 

While speaking of dogs, we hinted, that the brain and nervous 
system, in animal nature, are so influenced by crossing, as to make 
instincts and senses partake of intermediate characters. The same 
law applies to human white and black races ; for the mulatto, if cer- 
tainly more intelligent than the Negro, is less so than the white man. 
His intelligence, as a general rule, augments in proportion to the 
amount of white-blood in his veins. This is invariably the case in 
the United States. In Hayti, mulattoes governed until exterminated 
by the blacks ; and it is the mulatto element which now dominates, 
and always will govern in Liberia, until this experimental colony be 
annexed by Anglo-Saxons, or annihilated by native Negroes. Com- 
parisons of crania alone substantiate this view, upon anatomical 
grounds; the past ratifies it, upon historical data: future Liberian 
destinies, if deduced from such premises, are not exhilarating. Again, in 
Africa itself, all Negro empires are ruled by the superior Foolah races. 

It may be received, I think, as a fact, that in white races the 
intellect of children is derived much more from the mother than 'the 
father. Popular experience remarks, that great men seldom beget 
great sons ; and it is equally true, that dull women do not often pro- 
duce intelligent children. On the other hand, the mothers of great 
men almost invariably have been distinguished by vigorous natural 
intellects, whether cultivated or not. Now, it is singularly note- 
worthy, in connection with the above phenomena, that this doctrine 
seems to be reversed where black are crossed with white races. The 
intellect of a mulatto, child of a white male and a Negress, is cer 
tainly superior to that of the Negro ; and I have pointed out, when 
speaking of the mule and bardeau, that the form of the head is given 
ly the sire. Space now precludes my doing more than suggest in- 
quiry into a new and interesting point, unfortunately not illumined 
by Morton's penetration. 

Again and again, in previous publications, I have alluded to the 
fallibility of arguments drawn from analogy alone, while insisting 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION "WITH MANKIND. 403 

that no true analogies can be said to exist. Every animal, from man 
to the worm, is governed by special physiological ]aws. Let me 
notice, en passant, the curious fact, that natural giants and dwarfs are 
next to fabulous in the animal kingdom, although frequent enough 
in the human family ; subjoining an extract from one of my earlier 
articles on hybridity : — 

" Catherine de Medicis amused herself and court by collecting, from various quarters, a 
number of male and female dwarfs, and forming marriages amongst them ; but they were 
all unprolific. The same experiment was made by the Electress of Brandenburg, wife of 
Joachim Frederic, and with the same result. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, in his researches, has 
been able to discover but one exception, the famous dwarf Borwilaski, and there are strong 
doubts about the faithfulness of his wife, who was a woman of full stature. Giants are 
likewise impotent, deficient in intellect, feeble in body, and short-lived. It is a remarkable 
fact, that giants and dwarfs proper are almost unknown in the animal kingdom, while they 
are common in all the races of men, and under all circumstances." '■''9 

Our chapter on G-eographical Distribution alludes to one peculiar 
efi'ect in the crossing of races, as illustrated by the blacks and whites 
in our Southern States : viz. — how the smallest admixture of ISTegro 
blood is equivalent to acclimation against yellow fever, being almost 
tantamount to complete exemption. 

Much passes current, among breeders of domestic animals, aboiTt 
the improvements of breeds by crossing them ; and similar ideas have 
been suggested by many writers, as applicable to the human family ; 
but the notion itself is very unphilosophical, and could never have 
originated ■with any intelligent naturalist of thorough experience in 
such matters. It is mind, and mind alone, which constitutes the 
proudest prerogative of man ; whose excellence should be measured 
by his intelligence and virtue. The Kegro and other unintellectual 
types have been shown, in another chapter, to possess heads much 
smaller, by actual measurement in cubic inches, than the white races ; 
and, although a metaphysician may tlispute about the causes which 
may have debased their intellects or precluded their expansion, it can 
not be denied that these dark races are, in this particular, greatly 
inferior to the others of fairer complexion. JSTow, when the white 
and black races are crossed together, the offspring exhibits through- 
out a modified anatomical structure, associated with sundry character- 
istics of an intermediate type. Among other changes superinduced, 
the head of a mulatto is larger than that of the ISTegro; the forehead 
is more developed, the facial angle enlarged, and the intellect becomes 
manifestly improved. This fact is notorious in the United States ; and 
it is historically exemplified by another: viz., that the mulattoes, 
although but a fraction of the population of Ilayti, had ruled the 
island till expelled bjl^he ovenvhelming jealousy and major numerical 
force of the blacks. In Liberia, President Roberts boasts of but one- 



404 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, 

fourth JSTegro blood ; while all the colored chiefs of departments in 
that infant republic hold in their veins more or less of white-blood ; 
which component had been copiously infiltrated, prior to emigra- 
tion from America, into that population generally. If all the white- 
blood were suddenly abstracted, or the flow of whitening elements from 
the United States to be stopped, the whole fabric would doubtless 
soon fall into ruins ; and leave as little trace behind as Herodotus's 
famous JSTegro colony of Colchis, or the more historical one of Meroe. 
From the best information procurable, we know that there has been 
a vast deal of exaggeration, among colonizationists at home, about 
this mulatto colony of Liberia abroad ; noi", much as we should be 
gratified at the success of the experiment, can we perceive how any 
durable good can be expected from it, unless some process be disco- 
vered by which a Kegro's head may be changed in form, and enlarged 
in size. History affords no evidence that cultivation, or any known 
causes but physical amalgamation, can alter a primitive conformation 
in the slightest degree. Lyell himself acknowledges : — 

" The separation of the colored children in the Boston schools arose, not from an indul- 
gence in anti-Negro feelings, but because they find they can in this way bring on both races 
faster. Up to the age of fourteen, the black children advance as fast as the whites ; but 
after that age, unless there be an admixture of white-blood, it becomes in most instances 
extremely diflBcult to carry them forward. That the half-breeds should be intermediate 
between the two parent-stocks, and that the colored race should therefore gain in mental 
capacity in proportion as it approximates in physical organization to the whites, seems 
natural ; and yet it is a wonderful fact, psychologically considered, that we should be able 
to trace the phenomena of hybriJity even into the world of intellect and reason." '50 

To persons domiciled in our slave-States, it is really amusing to 
hear the many-toned hosanuahs sung in Old England and in N'ew 
England, over the success of the Republic of Liberia : while the world 
shakes with laughter at Frenchmen for attempting a republic, or any 
other stable form of government short of absolute despotism ; as if 
iN'egroes were a superior race to the Franco-Gauls ! 

Robespierre gave, in palliation of his cruelties, that you could not 
reason with a Gallic opposition : the only way to silence it being 
through the guillotine. It would be a curious investigation to inquire, 
what Avas the type of those turbulent spirits ? I have little doubt that 
each despot of the hour would be found to have been one of those 
dark-skinned, black-haired, black-eyed fellows, depicted so well [supra] 
by Bodichon ; and if the imperial government were simply to chop 
off" the head of eveiy demagogue who was not a blond wMte-vuSin, 
they might "get along" in France as tranquilly as in England, Ger- 
many, and the United States. i)ar^-skinned races, history attests, 
are only fit for military governments. It is tl" unique rule genial to 
their physical nature : they are unhappy without it, even now, at 



■VIE"WED IN CONNECTION "WITH MANKIND. 405 

Paris. ISToue but the fair-skinned types of mankind have been able, 
hitherto, to realize, in peaceful practice, the old Germanic system 
described by Tacitus — "De minoribus rebus, principes consultant; 
de majoribus, omnes" — omnes, be it understood, signifying exclu- 
sively white men of their own type. 

If these remarks be true in basis, it is evident, theoretically, that 
the superior races ought to be kept free from all adulterations, other- 
wise the world will retrograde, instead of advancing, in civilization. 
It may be a question, whether there is not already too much adultera- 
tion in Europe. Spain and Italj^, where the darker races are in the 
majority, continue still behind in the march. France, although teem- 
ing with gigantic intellects, has been struggling in vain for sixty 
years to found a stable government — her population is tainted with 
bad elements ; and wherever Portuguese or Spanish colonies attempt 
to compete with Anglo-Saxons, they are left astern, when not " an- 
nexed." It is the strictly-Avhite races that are bearing onward the 
flambeau of civilization, as displayed in the Germanic families alone. 
Sir Walter Scott declares : — 

" The government of Spain, a worn-out despotism, lodged in the hands of a family 
of the lowest degree of intellect, was one of the worst in Europe ; and the state of the 
nobility in general (for there were noble exceptions) seemed scarcely less degraded. The 
incestuous practice of marrying within the near degrees of propinquity had long existed, 
with its usual consequences : the dwarfing of the body and the degeneracy of the under- 
standing." «! To which Mr. Percival Hunter adds, that "writers on lunacy attribute the 
insanity, or rather the innate idiocj', so frequent among certain Scotch families, to the old 
national practice of never marrying out of their clan." ■'52 

The civilization of ancient Rome, achieved by a veiy mixed race, 
although grand in its way, was, nevertheless, characterized throughout 
by cruelty, a certain degree of barbarism and want of refinement. 

These crude elements of the laws of hybridity — laws by no means 
clearly defined in anthropological science — derive some illustration 
by contrasting the aristocracies of Europe. In England, where inter- 
marriages between impoverished nobles of the ISTorman stock with 
wealthy commoners of the homogeneous Saxon, and where elevation 
of plebeians to the peerage, reinvigorate the breed, such patrician 
classes comprehend more manly beauty (Circassia, perhaps, excepted) 
than exists in the same number of individuals throughout the globe. 

" What proportion," well asks the Westminster Review, " of the old Percy blood flows in 
the veins of those who claim the honor of the family's representation ? The faiuaics of 
'blood,' i. «., those who are not content to yield that reasonable amount of regard to it, 
which sense and sentiment both permit, should remember that when the main line has 
merged, again and again, into other families, the original blood must be but a small consti- 
tuent of the remote descendant's personality. 

" The great subverter of the aristocratic principle in the creation of peers, was Pitt. In 
fighting his battle against the Whigs, he availed himself immensely of the moneyed interest ; 



406 HTBKIDITT OF ANIMALS 



and rewarded the supporters of party with the honors of the crown. At every general 
election a batch was made : eight peerages were created in 1790 ; and in 1794, when aWhig 
defection to him took place, ten were created. Sir Egerton Brydges, a very accomplished 
man, both as a genealogist and a man of letters, published a special pamphlet on the point 
in 1798. He undoubtedly expressed the views of the aristocratic party when he said — 

" ' In every parliament I have seen the number augmented of busy, intriguing, pert, low 
members, who, without birth, education, honorable employments, or perhaps even fortune, 
dare to obtrude themselves, and push out the landed interest.' 

..." What then is at present the portion of genuine aristocracy in the House of Lords ? 
Calculations have been made by genealogists on this subject, of which we shall avail our- 
selves. 

" The learned author of the Origines Genealogicm analysed the printed peerage of 1828, 
and found that of 249 noblemen 35 ' laid claim' to having traced their descent beyond the 
Conquest; 49 prior to 1100; 29 prior to 1200; 32 prior to 1300; 26 prior to 1400; 17 to 
1500 ; and 26 to 1600. At the same time 30 had their origin but little before 1700. . . . 
Here then we have a result of one-half of the peerage being at all events traceable to a 
period antecedent to the Wars of the Roses. But of these a third only had emerged at all 
out of insignificance during the two previous centuries. 

" Sir Harris Nicolas fixes as liis standard of pretension in Family, the having been of 
consideration, baronial or knightly rank, that is, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; and ap- 
plying that test to the English Peerage in 1830, found that one-third of the body were enti- 
tled to it. 

" There still remains in the male line, up and down England, a considerable number of 
landed families of very high antiquity ; but the gradual decay and extinction of these is the 
constant theme of genealogists. Hear old Dugdale in the Preface to his Baronage in 1676. 

" He first speaks of the Roll of Battle Abbey, and says of it : — ' There are great errors 
or rather falsities in most of these copies. . . . Such hath been the subtilty of some monks 
of old.' But, speaking of his labors, generally, he has these more remarkable words : — 

" 'For of no less than 270 families, touching which this first volume doth take notice, 
there will hardly be found above eight which do to this day continue ; and of those not any 
whose estates (compared with what their ancestors enjoyed) are not a little diminished. 
Nor of that number (I mean 270) above twenty-four who are by any younger male branch 
descended from them, for aught I can discover.' " *53 

Hence ethnology deduces, that the prolonged superiority of the 
English to any other aristocracies is mainly due to the continuous 
upheaval of the Saxon element : and, at such point of view, the social 
aspirations of Lord John Manners would seem to he as philosophical 
as his poetic eflusions are unique : — 

" Let arts and manners, laws and commerce, die ; 
But leave us still our old nobility •' " 

So, again, in Muscovy. German wives and Teutonic officers have 
metamorphosed the old Tartar nohility into higher-castes than Ivan 
and his court would have reputed to be Russian. On the other hand, 
the recreant crew of eonti, haroni, marchesi, in Spain, Portugal, Italy, 
Sicily, and parts of Southern Europe, include some of the most abject 
specimens of humanity anywhere to be found. The physical cause of this 
deterioration, from the historical greatness of their ancestral names, is 
said to be — "breeding in and in." Now, this may be true enough, as 
an apparent reason ; but is there not a latent one ? History shows that 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 407 

the families most deg-radcd (in Portugal especially, where the lowest 
forms are encountered,) are compounded of Iberian, Celtic, Arab, 
Jewish, and other types — pure in themselves, but bad in the amal- 
gam. Pride of birth, for centuries, has prevented them from marry- 
ing out of the circle of aristocracy. With rare exceptions, they are 
too mean in person to be accepted by the white nobility of ITorthern 
Europe. The consequence is, they intermarry with themselves ; and, 
as in other mulatto compounds, the offspring of such mongrel com- 
minglings deteriorate more and more in every generation. They 
cease to procreate, and there are some hopes that the corrupt breed is 
extinguishing itself. The Peninsular war, and the still more recent 
Don-Pedro-experiences, left on the mind of every foreign legionary 
concerned, the sentiment that, " if you take a Castilian, and strip 
him of all his good qualities, you will leave a respectable Portuguee." 
It is precisely the same with the Perotes, Greek aristocracy of Istam- 
boul: on whom read Commodore Porter's "Letters from Constanti- 
nople, by an American." Such are unsolved enigmas in the rough- 
hewn conceptions we can yet form of human hyhridity. 

It seems to me certain, however, in human physical history, that the 
superior race must inevitably become deteriorated by any intermix- 
ture with the inferior ; and I have suggested elsewhere, that, through 
the operation of the laws of hyhridity alone, the human family might 
possibly become exterminated by a thorougii amalgamation of all the 
various tj^es of manldnd now existing upon earth. 

Sufficient having been said on the crossing of races, I shall close 
this chapter with a few remarks on the propagation of a race from a 
single pair, or what in common parlance is termed " breeding in and 
in." It is a common belief, among many rearers of domestic ani- 
mals, and one acted upon every day, that a race or stock deteriorates 
by this procedure, and that improvement of breed is gained by cross- 
ing. Whether such rule be constant or not, with regard to inferior 
animals, I am unprepared to aver — some authors having cited facts 
to the contrary. Science possesses no criteria by which it can de- 
termine beforehand the degree of prolificacy of any two species 
when brought together ; and so differently are animals affected by 
physical agents, that actual experiment alone can ascertain the com- 
parative operations of climate upon two given animals when moved 
from one zoological province to another — some becoming greatly 
changed, others but little, and man least of all. Recurring to our 
definitions of remote, allied, and proximate "species" {supra, p. 81], 
let us inquire what are the data as respects mankind. 

Will any one deny that continued interman-iages among blood- 
relations are destructive to a race, both physically and intellectually ? 



408 HTBRIDITT OF 

The fact is proverbial. Do we not see it most fully illustrated in the 
royal families and nobility of Europe, where such matrimonial alli- 
ances have long been customary ? The reputation of the House of 
Lords in England would long since have been extinct, had not the 
Crown incessantly manufactured nobles from out of the sturdy sons 
of the people. Cannot every one of us individually point to degene- 
rate offspring which have arisen from family intermarriages for mere 
property-sake ? 

In early life, I witnessed a most striking example, in the upper 
part of South Carolina, where my father owned a country-seat. Al- 
most the entire population of the neighborhood was made up of Irish 
Covenanters, who had moved to that country before the Revolutionary 
war. They had intermarried for many generations, until the same 
blood coursed thi'ough the veins of the whole of them ; and there are 
many persons now living in South Carolina who will bear me out 
when I state, that the proportion of idiots and deformed was unpre- 
cedented in that district, of which the majority in its population was 
stupid and debased in the extreme. I could mention several other 
striking examples, beheld in higher life, but it would be painful to 
particularize. 

And do not the instincts of our nature, the social laws of man, all 
over the civilized world, and the laws of God, from Genesis to Reve- 
lations, cry aloud against^ incest f Does not the father shrink with 
horror from the idea of marrying his own child, or from seeing the 
bed of his daughter polluted by her brother ? Do not children them- 
selves shudder at the thought ? And can it be credited, that a God 
of infinite power, wisdom, and foresight, should have been driven to 
the necessity of propagating the human family from a single pair, 
and then have stultified his act by stamping incest as a crime ? *** 

I do not believe that true religion ever intended to teach a common 
origin for the human race. " Cain knew his wife," whom he found 
in a foreign land, when he had no sister to marry ; and although cor- 
ruption and sin were not wanting among the patriarchs, yet nowhere 
in Scripture do we see, after Adam's sons and daughters, a brother 
marrying his sister. 

It is shown, in our Supplement, that many of the genealogies of 
Genesis have been falsely translated, and otherwise misconstrued, in 
our English Bible ; and that the names of Abraham's ancestors re- 
present countries and nations, and not individuals. Moreover, no- 
where in Genesis is the dogma of a future state hinted at : and its 
ancient authors could have had no object in teaching the modern 
idea of unity of races, when those writers themselves possessed no 
clear perceptions upon "salvation" hereafter. 



VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 409 

In my remarks, five years ago, on "Universal Terms," reproduced 
and extended in tliis volume, I showed that the only text in the J^ew 
Testament which refers directly to the unity of races, is that in Acts, 
where St. Paul says, that God " hath made of one blood all nations 
of men." I hold that no scientific importance should be attached 
to this isolated passage, inasmuch as the writer of Acts employed uni- 
versal terms very loosely ; at the same time that he kneAv nothing of 
the existence of races or nations beyond the circumference of the 
Roman Empire. 

Dr. Morton, in one of his letters to me (Sept. 27, 1850), shortly 
before his demise, thus emphatically expressed himself: — 

" For my own part, if I could believe that the human race had its origin in incest, I 

should think that I had at once got the clue to all ungodliness. Two lines of Catechism 

■would explain more than all the theological discussions since the Christian era. I have put 

it into rhyme. 

" Q. Whence came that curse we call primeval sin ? 

"A. From Adam's children breeding in and in." 

The reader can now appreciate some of the contradictory pheno- 
mena that perplex the investigator of human Hyhridity. I have 
purposely set them before him in juxtaposition. To me they appear 
irreconcileable ; unless the theory of plurality of origin be adopted, 
together with the recognition that there exist remote, allied.^ and proxi- 
mate, " species," as well of mankind as of lower animals. 

Having speculatively alluded (supra, p. 80) to a possible extermina- 
tion of races in an unknown futurity, I would here briefly justify such 
hypothesis by saying, that Nature marches steadily towards perfec- 
tion ; and that it attains this end through the consecutive destruction 
of living beings. Geology and palaeontology prove a succession of 
creations and destructions previously to any eflacements of Man ; and 
it is contended by Hombron and other naturalists, that the inferior 
races of mankind were created before the superior types, who now 
appear destined to supplant their predecessors. Albeit, whatever 
may have been the order of creation, the unintellectual races seem 
doomed to eventual disappearance in all those climates where the 
higher groups of fair-skinned families can permanently exist. 

The entire race of the Guanches, at the Canary Islands, was exter- 
minated by the Portuguese during the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 
turies ; not a living vestige remaining to tell the tale. Some of the 
pre-Celtic inhabitants of Britain, Gaul, and Scandinavia, seem to have 
shared a similar fate : 16,000,000 of aborigines in ITorth America 
have dwindled doAvn to 2,000,000 since the "Mayflower" discharged 
on Plymouth Rock ; and their congeners, the Caribs, have long been 
extinct in the "West Indian islands. The mortal destiny of the whole 
American group is already perceived to be running out, hke the sand 
52 



410 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS. 

in Time's hour-glass. Of 400,000 inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands, 
far less than 100,000 survive, and these are daily sinking beneath 
civilization, missionaries, and rum. In N'ew Holland, 'Sew Guinea, 
many of the Pacific islands, and other parts of the world, the same 
work of destruction is going on ; and the labors of proselytism are 
vain, save to hasten its accomplishment. 

" Pourquoi cela?" asks Bodichon.''55 "J{ is because their social state is a perpetual strife 
against humanity. Thus, murder, depredations, incessant useless strifes of one against an- 
other, are their natural state. They practise human sacrifices and mutilations of men ; 
they are imbued with hostility and antipathy towards all not of their race. They maintain 
polygamy, slavery, and submit women to labor incompatible with female organization. 

"In the eyes of theology they are lost men ; in the eyes of morality vicious men ; in the 
eyes of humanitary economy they are non-producers. From their origin they have not 
recognized, and they still refuse to recognize, a supreme law imposed by the Almighty ; 
yii. : the obligation of labor, 

" On the other hand, all nations of the earth have made war upon the Jews for 4000 
years : the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Romans, &c. ; — Christians and Ma- 
hommedans by turns ; with innumerable cruelties, physical and moral : nevertheless, that 
race lives and probers. Why ? Because they have everywhere played their part in the 
progress of civilization. 

" True philanthropy (insists Bodichon) should not tolerate the existence of a race whose 
nationality is opposed to progress, and who constantly struggle against the general rights 
and interests of humanity." 

Omnipotence has provided for the renovation of manhood in 
countries where eiFeminacy has prostrated human energies. Earth 
has its tempests as well as the ocean. There are reserved, without 
doubt, in the destinies of nations, fearful epochs for the ravage of 
human races ; and there are times marked on the divine calendar for 
the ruin of empires, and for the periodical renewal of the mujidane 
features. 

" In the midst of this crash of empires (says the philosophical Vieey), which rise and fall 
on every side, immutable Nature holds the balance, and presides, ever dispassionately, over 
such events ; which are but t'le re-establishment of equilibrium in the systems of organized 
beings." 

J. C. K 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 411 



CHAPTER XIII. 

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES.' 

[By J. C. N.] 

"Craniorum inquam quibus ad gentilitias varietates distingnendas et defi- 
niendas nulla alia liumani corporis pars aptior videtur, cum caput osseum 
(prBeterquam quod animse domicilium et officina, imo vero interpres quasi et 
explanator ejus sit, utpote universfe physiognomiae basin et firmamentum 
constituens) stabilitati suae maximam conformationis et partium relativse 
proportionis varietatem junctam habeat, unde characteres nalionum certissimas 
desumere licet." Blcmenbach. 

In examining tlie physical organization of races, the anatomist of 
the present day possesses many advantages over his predecessors : 
his materials for comparison are far more complete than theirs ; and 
the admission now generally made by anthropologists, that the leading 
types of mankind now seen over the earth have existed, indepen- 
dently of all known physical causes, for some 5000 years at least, 
gives quite a new face to this part of the investigation. 

It has been shown in preceding chapters that permanence of type 
must be considered the most satisfactory criterion of specific character, 
both in animals and plants. The races of mankind, when viewed 
zoologically, must have been governed by the same universal law ; 
and the Jew, the Celt, the Iberian, the Mongol, the l^egro, the Poly- 
nesian, the Australian, the American Indian, can be regarded in no 
other light than as distinct, or as amalgamations of very proximate, 
species. When, therefore, two of these species are placed beside each 
other for comparison, the anatomist is at once struck by their strong 
contrast ; and his task is narrowed down to a description of those 
well-marked types which are known to be permanent. The form and 
capacity of the skull, the contour of the face, many parts of the ske- 
leton, the peculiar development of muscles, the hair and skin, all 
present strong points of contrast. 

It matters not to the naturalist how or when the type was stamped 
upon each, race ; its permanence makes it specific. If all the races 
sprang from a single pair, nothing short of a miracle could have pro- 
duced such changes as contenders for "unity" demand; because (it 
is now generally conceded) no causes are in operation which can 



412 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

transmute one type of man into another. If, as for centuries it 
was supposed, the races became actually transformed when tongues 
were confounded at Babel, I presume this .was effected by an instan- 
taneous fiat of the Almighty; and when done it was "ipso facto" 
irrevocable. 'So terrestrial causes, consequently, could reverse His 
decree ; nor, afterwards, metamorphose a white man into a K'egro, or 
vice versa, any moi'e than they could change a horse into an ass. 

However important anatomical characteristics may be, I doubt 
whether the physiognomy of races is not equally so. There exist 
minor differences of features, various minute combinations of details, 
certain palpable expressions of face and aspect, which language cannot 
describe : and yet, how indelible is the image of a type once im- 
pressed on the mind's eye ! When, for example, the word. " Jew" is 
pronounced, a type is instantly brought up by memory, which could 
not be so described to another person as to present to his mind a 
faithful portrait. The image must be seen to be known and remem- 
bered ; and so on with the faces of all men, past, present, or to come. 
Although the Jews are genealogically, perhaps, the purest race living, 
they are, notwithstanding (as we have shown), an extremely adulte- 
rated people; but yet there is a certain face among them that we 
recognize as typical of the race, and which we never meet among 
any other than Chaldaic nations. 

If we now possessed correct portraits, even of those people who 
were contemporary with the founders of the Egyptian empire, how 
many of our interminable disputes would be avoided ! Eortunately, 
the early monuments of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, &c., and even 
of America, afford much information of this iconographic kind, which 
decides the early diversity of types : but still, science is ill-supplied 
with these desiderata to afford a full understanding of the subject. 
Our first glimpse of human races, though dating far back in time, 
does not (we have every reason to believe with Bunsen,) reach 
beyond the "middle ages" of mankind's duration. 

The very earliest monumental record, or written history, exhibits 
man, not in nomadic tribes, but in full-grown nations borne on the 
flood-tide of civilization. Even the writers of the Book of G-enesis 
could not divest their imaginations of the idea of some civilization 
coeval with the creation of their first parents ; because the man, 
A-DaM, gave names, in Paradise, "to all the eattle,'"^^ BeHaiMall; 
which implies either that, in the cosmogenical conception of those 
writers, some animals (oxen, horses, camels, and so forth,) had been 
already domesticated ; or, writing thousands of years subsequently 
to animal domesticity, they heedlessly attributed, to ante-historic 
times past, conditions existing in their own days present. They 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 413 

could not conceive sucli a thing as a time when cattle were untamed ; 
any more than archiieology can admit that anybody could describe 
events prior to their occurrence. 

[This is no delusion. Open Lepsius's Dcnkmdler, and upon the copies of monuments of 
the IVth Memphite dynasty, dating more than 2000 years before Moses, (to -whom the Pen- 
tateuch is ascribed,) you will behold caiile of many genera — bulls, cows, calves, oxen, oryxes, 
donkeys (no horses or camels) — together with dogs, sheep, goats, gazelles ; besides birds, 
such as geese, cranes, ducks (no common fowls), ibises, &c. ; the whole of them in a state 
of entire subjection to man in Egypt ; and none represented but those animals indigenous 
to the Nilotic zoological centre of creation. 

AVherever we may turn, in ancient annals, the domestication of every domesticable animal 
has preceded the epoch of the chronicle through which the fact is made known to us ; and, 
still more extraordinary, there are not a dozen quadrupeds and birds that man has tamed, 
or subdued from a wild to a prolifically-domestic condition, but were already in the latter 
state at the age when the document acquainting us with the existence, anywhere, of a given 
domestic animal, was registered. In these new questions of monumental zoology, Greece, 
Etruria, Rome, Judoea, Hindostan, and Europe, are too modern to require notice ; because 
none of their earliest historians antedate, while some fall centuries below, Solomon's era, 
B. c. 1000. Verify, in any lexicons, upon all cases but Jewish fabled-antiquity, and no ex- 
ception to this rule will be found sustainable against historical criticism. The monuments of 
Assyria, whose utmost antiquity may be fixed '*57 about 1300 b. c, only prove that every 
tameable animal represented by Chaldseans (single and double humped camels, elephants, 
&c., inclusive) was already tamed at the epoch of the sculpture. Egyptian zoology has been 
cited. Chinese,J58 (in this respect the only detailed), proves that, in the times of the ancient 
writer, the domestication of six animals ; viz. : the horse, ox, fowl, hog, dog, and sheep — 
was ascribed to Fou-iii's semi-historical era, about 3400 years before Christ. 

■When Columbus reached this country, a. d. 1492, he found no animals alien to our Ame- 
rican continent, and none undomesticated that man could tame ; and, when Pizakbo over- 
turned the Inca-kingdom, the llama had been, for countless ages, a tamed quadruped in Peru. 
Geoffroi St. Hilaire is one of those authorities seldom controverted by naturalists. 
These, in substance, are his words : — 

There Are forty species of animals reduced, at this day, to a state of domestication. Of 
these, thirty-five are now cosmopolitan, as the horse, dog, ox, pig, sheep and goat. The 
other five have remained in the region of their origin, like the llama and the alpaca on the 
plateaux of Bolivia and Peru ; or have been transplanted only to those countries which 
most approximate to their original habitats in climatic conditions ; as the Tongousian rein- 
deer at St. Petersburg. Out of the thirty-five domesticated species possessed by Europe, 
thirty-one originate in Central Asia, Europe, and North Africa. Only four species have 
been contributed by the two Americas, Central and Southern Africa, Australia and Poly- 
nesia ; although these portions of the globe contain the major number of our zoological 
types. In consequence, the great bulk of tamed animals in Europe are of exotic origin. 
Hardly any are derived from countries colder than France : on the contrary, almost the 
whole were primitively inhabitants of warmer cliraates.^sg 

We thus arrive at the great fact, that the domestication by man of all domestic animals 
antecedes every history extant ; and, measured chronologically by Egypt's pyramids, most 
of these animals were already domesticated thirty-five centuries b. c, or over 5300 years 
ago. Indeed, the first step of primordial man towards civilization must have been the sub- 
jection of animals susceptible of domesticity ; and, it seems probable, that the dog became 
the first instrument for the subjugation of other genera. And, while these preliminary 
advances of incipient man demand cpochas so far remote as to be inappreciable by ciphers, 
on the other hand it is equally astounding, that modern civilization has scarcely reclaimed 
from the savage state even half-a-dozen more animals than were already domesticated at 
every point of our globe when history dawns. 



41^ COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

Consequently, inasmuch as all these domestications, together with the perfecting of those 
arts and sciences that enabled king Cheops to build the Great Pyramid, occupied Egyptian 
humanity unnumbered ages before the IVth dynasty, or prior to b. c. 3400, we may well 
consider that the earliest monuments of Egypt represent but the " middle ages" of humanity, 
and not mankind's commencements. — G. R. G.] 

There was, then, a time before all history. During that blank 
period, man taught himself to write ; and until he had recorded his 
thoughts and events in some form of writing — hieroglyphics, to wit 
— his existence prior to that act, if otherwise certain, is altogether 
unattainable by us, save through induction. The historical vicissi- 
tudes of each human type are, therefore, unknown to us until the 
age of written record began in each geographical centre. Of these 
documentary annals some go back 5300 years, others extend but to a 
few hundreds. Anatomy, however, possesses its own laws indepen- 
dently of history; and to its applications the present chapter is 
devoted. 

A minute and extended anatomical comparison of races, in their 
whole structure, would afford many curious results ; but such detail 
does not comport vdth the plan of this work, and would be fatiguing 
to any but the professed anatomist. It is indispensable, however, that 
we should enter somewhat fully into a comparison of crania ; and it 
may be safely assumed, as a general law, that where important pecu- 
liarities exist in crania, others equally tangible belong to the same 
organism. 

While engaged on this chapter, I had the good fortune to welcome Prof. Agassiz in Mo- 
bile, where he lectured on the "Geographical Distribution of Animals," &c. The instruc- 
tion derived from his lectures and private conversation on these themes, I here take occa- 
sion to acknowledge. 

Prof. Agassiz's researches in embryology possess most important bearings on the natural 
history of mankind. He states, for instance, that, during the foetal state, it is in most 
cases impossible to distinguish between the species of a genus; but that, after birth, ani- 
mals, being governed by specific laws, advance each in diverging lines. The dog, wolf, fox, 
and jackal, for example — the different species of ducks, and even ducks and geese, in the 
foetal state — cannot be distinguished from each other; but their distinctive characters 
begin to develop themselves soon after birth. So with the races of men. In the foetal 
state there is no criterion whereby to distinguish even the Negro's from the Teuton's ana- 
tomical structure ; but, after birth, they develop their respective characteristics in diver- 
ging lines, irrespectively of climatic influences. This I conceive to be a most important 
law ; and it points strongly to specific difference. Why should Negroes, Spaniards, and 
Anglo-Saxons, at the end often generations (although in the foetal state the same), still diverge 
at birth, and develop specific characters ? Why should the Jews in Malabar, at the end 
of 1500 years, obey the same law? That they do, undeviatingly, has been already demon- 
strated in Chapter IV. ; and while this sheet is passing through the press, a letter from my 
friend Dr. J. Barnard Davis (one of the learned authors of the forthcoming Crania Brilan- 
nica), opportunely substantiates my former statement: — 

" I find you have come to the same conclusions respecting them [the Jews] as myself. See- 
ing that the most striking circumstance adduced in the whole of Prichard's work was that 
of the change of the Jews to black in Cochin and Malabar ; and finding Lawrence to state 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF KACES. 415 

Dr. Claud. Buchanan's evidence altogether on the other side, I was induced to inquire into 
the matter, and settle >vheie the truth lay. I therefore wrote my friend Mr. Crawfurd, 
the author of the ' Indian Archipelago' and various other valuable works on the East, who 
cleared up the mystery at once. He said, he had often seen the Jews of Malabar serving 
in the ranks of our Sepoy regiments at Bombay, and that they are as black as the Hindoos of 
the same country, who are amongst the darkest people of India ; that, although they have 
preserved the religion of Moses, they have intermixed with the natives of the country 
extensively, and it is probable, have little Semitic blood in their veins. He says, he knew 
Dr. CI. Buchanan, who spent his Indian life in the town of Calcutta, except the single jour- 
ney in which he saw the Indian Jews and Christians of St. Thomas." Little value can in 
consequence attach to this worthy churchman's ethnological authority. 

Another of the preceding chapters (IX.) demonstrates how the aboriginal Americans 
present, everywhere over this continent, kindred types of specific character, which they 
have maintained for thousands of years, and which they would equally maintain in any 
other country. 

Prof. Agassiz also asserts, that a peculiar conformation characterizes the brain of an 
adult Negro. Its development never goes beyond that developed in the Caucasian in boy- 
hood ; and, besides other singularities, it bears, in several particulars, a marked resem- 
blance to the brain of the orang-outan. The Professor kindly offered to demonstrate those 
cerebral characters to me, but I was unable, during his stay at Blobile, to procure the 
brain of a Negro. 

Although a Negro-brain was not to be obtained, I took an opportunity of submitting to 
M. Agassiz two native- African men for comparison ; and he not only confirmed the distinc- 
tive marks commonly enumerated by anatomists, but added others of no less importance. 
The peculiarities of the Negro's head and feet are too notorious to require specification ; 
although, it must be observed, these vary in diiFerent African tribes. When examined from 
behind, the Negro presents several peculiarities ; of which one of the most striking is, the 
deep depression of the spine, owing to the greater curvature of the ribs. The buttocks are 
more flattened on the sides than in other races; and join the posterior part of- the thigh 
almost at a right-angle, instead of a curve. The pelvis is narrower than in the white race ; 
which fact every surgeon accustomed to applying trusses on Negroes will vouch for. In- 
deed, an agent of Mr. Sherman, a very extensive truss-manufacturer of New Orleans, 
informs me that the average circumference of adult Negroes round the pelvis is from 26 to 
28 inches ; whereas whites measure from 30 to 36. The scapulae are shorter and broader. The 
muscles have shorter bellies and longer tendons, as is seen in the calf of the leg, the arms, 
&c. In the Negress, the mammre are more conical, the areolae much larger, and the abdo- 
men projects as a hemisphere. Such are some of the more obvious divergences of the Ne- 
gro from the white types : others are supplied by Hermann Bdrmeister, Professor of 
Zoology in the University of Halle,*6o whose excellent researches in Brazil, during fourteen 
months (1850-'l), were made upon ample materials. Space limits me to the following 
extract: — 

" If we take a profile view of the European face, and sketch its outlines, we shall find 
that it can be divided by horizontal lines into four equal parts : the first enclosing the crown 
of the head ; the second, the forehead ; the third, the nose and ears ; and the fourth, the 
lips and chin. In the antique statues, the perfection of the beauty of which is justly ad- 
mired, these four parts are exactly equal ; in living individuals slight deviations occur, but 
in proportion as the formation of the face is more handsome and perfect, these sections 
approach a mathematical equality. The vertical length of the head to the cheeks is measured 
by three of these equal parts. The larger the face and smaller the head, the more unhand- 
some they become. It is especially in this deviation from the normal measurement that 
the human features become coarse and ugly. 

"In a comparison of the Negro head with this ideal, we get the surprising result that the 
rule with the former is not the equality of the four parts, but a regular increase in length from 



416 COMPAKATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

above downwards. The measurement, made by the help of drawings, showed a very con- 
siderable difference in the four sections, and an increase of that difference with the age. 
This latter peculiarity is more significant than the mere inequality between the four 
parts of the head. All zoologists are aware of the great difference in the formation of the 
heads of the old and the young orang-outans. The characteristic of both is the large 
size of the whole face, particularly the jaw, in comparison with the skull; in the young 
orang-outan, the extent of the latter exceeds that of the jaw; in the old it is the reverse, 
in consequence of a series of large teeth having taken the place of the earlier small ones, 
which resemble the milk-teeth of man. In fact, in all men, the proportion between the 
skull and face changes with the maturity of life ; but this change is not so considerable in 
the European as in the African. I have before me a very exact profile-drawing of a Negro 
boy, in which I find the total height, from the crown to the chin, four inches ; the upper 
of the four sections, not quite nine lines ; the second, one inch ; the third, thirteen lines ; 
the fourth, fourteen and one-quarter lines. The drawing is about three-quarters of the 
natural size ; and, accordingly, these numbers should be proportionately increased. The 
strongly-marked head of an adult Caffre, a cast of which is in the Berlin Museum, shows a 
much greater difference in its proportions. I have an exact drawing of it, reduced to two- 
thirds of the natural size, and I find the various sections as follows : — the first is 11 lines ; 
the second, 13 ; the third, 15 ; and the fourth, 18 lines. This would give, for a full-sized 
head of 7|- inches, 15| lines for the crown ; 19^ for the forehead : 22J for the part includ- 
ing the nose ; and 27 lines for that of the jaws and teeth. In a normal European head, the 
height of which is supposed to be 8|-, each part generally measures 2 inches, while the 
remaining ^ may be variously distributed, in fractions, throughout Ihe whole. 

" Any difference of measurement in the European seldom surpasses a few lines, at the 
most : it is impossible to find a case of natural formation where the difference between the 
parts of the head amounts, as in the Caffre, to one inch. I would not assert, that this 
enormous difference is a law in the Negro race. I grant, that the Caffre has the Negro 
type in its excessive degree, and cannot, therefore, be taken as a model of the whole Afri- 
can race: But, if the normal difference only amounts to half that indicated, it still remains 
so much larger than in the European, as to be a very significant mark of distinction between 
the races, and an important point in the settlement of the question of their comparative 
mental faculties. 

" The peculiar expression of the Negro physiognomy depends upon this difference be- 
tween the four sections. The narrow, flat crown ; the low, slanting forehead ; the projec- 
tion of the upper edges of the orbit of the eye : the short, flat, and, at the lower part, broad 
nose ; the prominent, but slightly turned-up lips, which are more thick than curved ; the 
broad, retreating chin, and the peculiarly small eyes, in which so little of the white eyeball 
can be seen ; the very small, thick ears, which stand off from the head ; the short, crisp, 
woolly hair, and the black color of the skin — are the most marked peculiarities of the Ne- 
gro head and face. On a close examination of the Negro races, similar differences will be 
found among them, as among Europeans. The western Africans, from Guinea to Congo, 
have very short, turned-up lips. They are ordinarily very ugly, and represent the purest 
Negro type. The southern races, which inhabit Loanda and Benguela, have a longer nose, 
with its bridge more elevated and its wings contracted ; they have, however, the full lips, 
while their hair is somewhat thicker. Some of the individuals of these races have tolerably 
good, agreeable faces. A peculiar arch of the forehead, above its middle, is common 
among them. 

" In the eastern part of Southern Africa, the natives have, instead of the concave bridge 
of the nose, one more or less convex, and very thick, flat lips, not at all turned-up. The 
Negroes of the East are commonly more light-colored than those of the AVest ; their color 
tends rather to brown than to black, and the wings of their noses are thinner. The people 
of Mozambique are the chief representatives of this race — the Caffres also belong to it. 
The nose of the Caffre is shorter and broader than that of the othei-s, but it has the convex 
bridge. The short, curly hair shows no essential deviation. The dark, brownjsh-black 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. OF RACES. 417 

eyeball, which is hardly distinguishable from the pupil, remains constant. The white of 
the eye has in all Negroes a yellowish tinge. The lips are always brown, never red-colored : 
they hardly differ in color from the skin in the neighborhood ; towards the interior edges, 
however, they become lighter, and assume the dark-red flesh-color of the inside of the 
mouth. The teeth are very strong, and are of a glistening whiteness. The tongue is of a 

(large size, and remarkable in thickness. The ear, in conformity with the nose, is surpris- 
ingly small, and is very unlike the large, flat ear of the ape. In all Negroes, the external 
border of the ear is very much curved, especially behind, which is quite different in the 
ape. This curvature of the ear is a marked peculiarity of the human species. The ear-iobe 
is very small, although the whole ear is exceedingly fleshy. 

" The small ear of the Negro cannot, however, be called handsome ; its substance is too 
thick for its size. The whole ear gives the impression of an organ that is stunted in its 
growth, and its upper part stands off to a great distance from the head." 

It may be objected against perfect exactitude in the above minutiae, 
that races run insensibly into each other; but I contend, on the other 
hand, that gradation is the law, as illustrated in our Chapter VI. 

Looking for a point of departure, in this brief anatomical compari- 
son of types, one naturally turns to Egypt, where the most ancient 
and satisfactory materials are found : there lie not only the embalmed 
bodies of many races, deposited in catacombs several thousand years 
old, but all anatomical facts deducible from these are confirmed by 
those characteristic portraits of races, on the monuments, with which 
our volume abounds. 

And here it is, that homage is more especially due to our great 
countryman, Morton, whose Crania Americana and Crania ^gyptiaca 
created eras in anthropology. His acumen, in this department of 
science, is admitted by those who have studied his works ; for, beyond 
all other anatomists, he enjoj'ed the advantage of possessing, in several 
departments, the most complete assortment of skulls in the world. 
His collections of American and Egyptian crania, especiall}', are copi- 
ous, and of singular interest. 

In 1844, Dr. Morton had received " 137 human crania, of which 100 
pertain to the ancient inhabitants of Egypt. "*''^ Seventeen additional 
of the latter reached his cabinet in the same year ; ^^ the more inte- 
resting as they were taken from tombs opened by Lepsius around the 
pyramids of the IVth dynasty ; and, in some instances, may have 
been coeval with those early sepulchres. Through the enthusiastic 
cooperation of his many friends, about twenty-three more mummied 
heads ^^ were added by 1851 : so that his studies were matured over 
the crania of some 140 ancient, compared with 37 skulls of modern 
Egyptian races. Such facilities are as unexampled as the analytical 
labor bestowed ,upon them by the lamented Doctor was conscien- 
tiously severe. Possessors of his works, correspondence, and inedited 
manuscripts, my colleague and myself can now speak unhesitatingly 
upon Morton's testamentary views. 
53 



418 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

Morton very judiciously remarked, that the Egyptian catacombs do 
not always contain their original occupants ; for these were often dis- 
placed, and the tombs resold for mercenary purposes ; whence it hap- 
pens that mummies of the Greek and Roman epochas have been 
found in those more ancient l-eceptacles, which had received the 
bodies of Egyptian citizens of a far earlier date. This I conceive 
to constitute one of the greatest obstacles to investigation, for, save 
in four very probable instances, there is no positive evidence that he 
possessed a single mummy-head beyond the tenth century b. c. ; 
although there are tombs that date more than 2000 years earlier, to 
which some of the Doctor's specimens doubtless belong, even if the 
proof be defective. 

We have shown through the portraits on the monuments that the 
population of Egypt was already a very mixed one in the IVth dy- 
nasty ; which Lepsius places at 3400 b. c. Dr. Morton confirms this 
conclusion by his anatomical comparisons. In the Crania ^gyptiaca 
he referred his series of Egyptian skulls to " two of the great races 
of men, the Caucasian and the iSTEORO : " subdividing the Caucasian 
class into three principal types, viz. : the Pelasgic, the Semitic, and 
the Egyptian. 

Referring to his work for specification of the others, I confine my 
observations to the last. 

" The Egyptian form (says Dr. Morton) differs from the Pelasgic in having a narrow and 
more receding forehead, while the face being more prominent, the facial angle is conse- 
quently less. The nose is straight or aquiline, the face angular, the features often sharp, 
and the hair uniformly long, soft, and curling. In this series of crania I include many of 
which the conformation is not appreciably different from that of the Arab and Hindoo ; but 
I have not, as a rule, attempted to note these distinctions, although they are so marked as 
to have induced me, in the early stage of this investigation and for reasons which will ap- 
pear in the sequel, to group them, together with the proper Egyptian form, under the pro- 
visional name of Austral-Egyptian crania. I now, however, propose to restrict the latter 
term to those Caucasian communities which inhabited the Nilotic valley above Egypt. 
Among the Caucasian crania are some which appear to blend the Egyptian and Pelasgic 
characters; these might be called the Egypto-Pelo.sgic heads; but without making. use of 
this term, except in a very few instances by way of illustration, I have thought best to 
transfer these examples from the Pelasgic group to the Egyptian, inasmuch as they so far 
conform to the latter series as to be identified without difficulty." •'Si 

On reading over this classification several comments strike me as worthy of utterance. 
1st. That, out of 100 crania presented in a tabular shape (op. cit. p. 19), only 49 are of 
the Egyptian form, while 29 are of the Pelasgic or foreign type ; and of the crania from 
Memphis, ascertained to be the oldest necropolis, the Pelasgic prevail over the Egyptian in 
the proportion of 16 to 7. Those of Thebes are 30 Egyptian to 10 Pelasgic. This proves 
that the Egyptian population, if such classification be correct, was an exceedingly mixed 
one. 

2d. The Semitic was, at all times, a type distinctly marked ; and diverse both from the 
Pelasgic and the Egyptian, as our previous chapters illustrate. 

3d. Hence, the conclusion is natural, that the earliest population of Egypt was a native 
African one, resembling closely Upper Egyptian Fellahs, and assimilating to the Nubian 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 419 

(Berber) population : that this stock soon became intermingled with Arab and other Asiatic 
races of Semitic and Pelasgic type. Therefore, little confidence can be reposed upon any 
very minute classification of such a mixed people. Of craniological ability to distinguish 
a pure Pelasgic, Semitic, or African head, as a general rule, I do not doubt ; but blended 
types must ever present difficulties. It is enough to know that we possess portraits of 
Pelasgic, Semitic and Egjrptian types ; and that the truthfulness of these portraits is attested 
by the crania of the catacombs. 

"With all his acuteness and experience in craniology, it is clear that 
Dr. Morton felt himself much embarrassed in making this classifica- 
tion. He has several times modified it in his different published 
papers ; and it is seen above, that in his Egyptian form of crania, he 
" includes many of which the conformation is not appreciably difie- 
rent from that of the Arab and Hindoo." 

To exemplify how much caution is necessary in classifications of 
this kind, it may be proper to refer to Morton's earlier opinion, that 
the Auitral-Egyptians were greatly mixed with Hindoos, whose crania 
he thinks he can designate ; adding, " That there was extensive and 
long-continued intercourse between the Hindoos and Egyptians is 
beyond a question," &c. Now, so great has been the advance of 
knowledge within the last five years, that, were Dr. Morton now alive, 
such doctrine would no longer be advocated by him ; because it is 
generally conceded by Egyptologists — our best authorities — that facts 
are opposed to any such intercourse, until after the Persian invasion, 
B. c. 525. 

D]". Morton classified the crania procured (1838-'40) from each 
locality for his cabinet by my colleague Mr. Gliddon (then our Con- 
sul at Cairo), into the following series : — 

Firit Series, from the Memphite Necropolis : 

A. Pyramid of Five Steps 2 skulls. 

B. Saccara, generally 11 " 

C. Front of the Brick Pyramid of Dashour 3 " 

D. North-west of Pyramid of Five Steps 9 " 

E. Toora (quarries) on the Nile 1 " 

Second Series, from Grottoes of Maabdeh 4 " 

Third " '« Abydos 4 " 

Fourth " " the Catacombs of Thebes 55 " 

Fifth " " KoumOmbos 3 " 

Sixth " " the Island of Beggeh, near Philae 4 " 

Seventh " " Debod, in Nubia 4 " 

On the first series, Morton remarks: — "A mere glance at this group of skulls will 
satisfy any one accustomed to comparisons of this kind, that most of them possess the Cau- 
casian traits in a most striking and unequivocal manner, whether we regard their form, 
size, or facial angle. It is, in fact, questionable whether a greater proportion of beauti- 
fully moulded heads-would be found among an equal number of individuals taken at random 
from any existing European nation. The entire series consists of sixteen examples of the 
Pelasgic, and seven of the Egyptian form ; a single Semitic head, one of the Negroid variety, 
and one of mixed conformation. Of the antiquity of these remains there can be no ques- 
tion," &c. 



420 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



Reasons are then adduced for assigning a high antiquity to some of these heads, and, as 
relates to Mosaic contemporaneousness, they are certainly substantial ; but still, science is 
very exacting; and I doubt that many more than the following can ascend to times an- 
terior to the Hyksos period, say not earlier than b. c. 2000. 

Excluding all bitumenized skulls, which, BiKCH has established *^ cannot be older than 
Egyptian conquests of Assyria, sixteenth century before Christ, the qaestion stands open in 
favor of four : viz. — 

C. — Three from the front of the Brick Pyramid of Dashour. Being in woollen wrappers. 

and desiccated rather than embalmed, they correspond with the human fragments 

found in the Third Pyramid, which, by Bunsen,*^ are attributed to King Menkera. 

These may be of the Old Empire. 
E. — One from Toora, on the Nile. There are grounds for supposing that the rectangular 

sarcophagi, at this locality, contained the bodies of quarry-men who cut stones for 

the pyramids. 

Another criterion, in behalf of antiquity for these four crania, is the great diminution of 
animal matter ; but, with regard to all the rest, probabilities militate against an age be- 
yond the New Empire ; and they range, consequently, from the sixteenth century before 
Christ downwards. 

Besides the want of any positive data for the remainder, we have the fact stated by 
Morton, that the great majority of them do not correspond with the Egyptian type in form, 
size, or facial angle ; as will be explained when I speak of the Internal Capacity of Crania. 



Fig. 252. One head (Fig. 252), 

with Dr. Morton's com- 
mentary, will explain 
his idea of the Egyptian 
type. 

" The subjoined wood-cut 
illustrates a remarkable head, 
which may serve as a type of 
the genuine Egyptian confor- 
mation. The long, oval cra- 
nium, the receding forehead, 
gently aquiline nose, and re- 
tracted chin, together with the 
marked distance between the 
nose and mouth, and the long, 
smooth hair, are all character- 
istic of the monumental Egyp- 
tian." 

The Crania JSgyptiaca^^'' here presents an "Ethnographic Tahle 
of 100 Ancient Egyptian Crania," arranged in the first place, accord- 
ing to their sepulchral localities ; and, in the second, in reference to 
their national afiinities — hut, while preserving the subjoined com- 
ments, I prefer the substitution (overleaf) of a later and more 
extended synopsis. 

" The preceding table speaks for itself. It shows that more than eight-tenths of the 
crania pertain to the unmixed Caucasian race ; that the Pelasgic form is as one to one and 
two-thirds, and the Semitic form one to eight, compared with the Egyptian ; that one- 




COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 421 

twentieth of the whole is composed of heads in which theri exists a trace of Negro and other 
exotic lineage ; that the Negroid conformation exists in eight instances, thus constituting 
about one-thirteenth part of the whole; and finally, that the series contains a single un- 
mixed Negro." [ FjV/e, ante, p. 267, Fig. 193 — the Negress.'\ 

I have already mentioned, that, subsequently to the appearance of 
the Crania ^gyptiaca, a second lot of antique skulls arrived from 
Eg3^pt. They had been collected by Mr. Wm. A. Gliddon, from some 
of the Memphite tombs opened by the Prussian Mission, in 1842-'3 ; 
and, although these heads may be a secondary or tertiary deposit in 
these sepulchres, which contained fragments of coffins and cerements 
as late as the Ptolemaic period, yet among them, as Morton has well 
observed [supra, pp. 318, 319], there are, very probably, some speci- 
mens of the olden time. Mr, W. A. G. took the precaution to mark, 
upon those skulls identifiable as to locality, the cartouches of the 
kings to whose reigns the tombs belonged ; and the hoary names of 
AssA, SAoRE, and Akiu {Heraku),"^ carry us back to the IVth and 
Vlth dynasties, or about 3000 years before Christ. 

The reader may be gratified to peruse a condensation of Morton's 
digest (October, 1844) of their craniological attributes ; and I have 
the more pleasure in reproducing his words, as they may be unknown 
or inaccessible to the majority of ethnologists. 

" The following is an ethnographic analysis of this series of crania : — 

Egyptian form 11 

Egyptian form, with traces of Negro lineage 2 

Negroid form 1 

Felasgic form 2 

Semitic form 1 

17 

" Remarks. — 1. The Egyptian form is admirably characterized in eleven of these heads, 
and corresponds in every particular with the Nilotic physiognomy, as indicated by monu- 
mental and sepulchral evidences in my Crania ^gyptiaca ; viz., the small, long, and nar- 
row head, with a somewhat receding forehead, narrow and rather projecting face, and deli- 
cacy of the whole osteological structure. No hair remains, and the bony meatus of the car 
corresponds with that of all other Caucasian nations. 

" Tw# other heads present some mixture of Negro lineage with the Egyptian. . . . 

" Of these thirteen crania, eleven are adult, of which the largest has an internal capacity 
of 93 cubic inches, and the smallest 76 — giving a mean of 86 cubic inches for the size of 
the brain. This measurement exceeds, by only three cubic inches, the average derived 
from the entire series of Egyptian heads in my Crania JEgypliaca. 

" The facial angle of the adult heads gives a mean of 82° ; the largest rising as high as 
86°, and the smallest being 78°. Two other heads are those of children, in whom the Egyp- 
tian conformation is perfect, and these give, respectively, the large facial angle of 89° and 
91°. The mean adult angle is greater than that given by the large series measured in the 
Crania ^gyptiaca. . . . 

" 2. The Negroid head, as I have elsewhere explained, is a mixture of the Caucasian and 
Negro form, in which the \a,tln predominates. . . . This head strongly resembles those of two 
modern Copts in my possession. _ It gives 81 cubic inches for the size of the brain, and a 
facial angle of 80°. . . . 



422 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, 



" Of two Pelasgic heads, one is perfect, and well characterized in most of its proportions. 
It has an internal capacity of 93 cubic inches, and a facial angle of 80°. . . . 

" The solitary Semitic head has rather the common Arab than the Hebrew cast of features. 
It measures internally 87 cubic inches, and has a facial angle of 79°. 

" The ages of the individuals to whom these seventeen skulls pertained may be proxi- 
mately stated as follows : 5, 7, 18, 20, 20, 25, 30, 40, 40, 40, 50, 50, 50, 50, 50, 50, 65." 

" The result derived from this series of crania sustain, in a most gratifying manner, those 
obtained from the greater collection of 100 skulls sent me from Egypt, by my friend Mr. G. 
R. Gliddon, and which have afforded the materials of my Crania u^gyptiaca ; and, without 
making further comparisons on the present occasion (for I design from time to time to 
resume the subject, as facts and materials may come to my hands), I shall merely subjoin 
my Ethnographic Table from the Crania JEgyptiata, so extended as to embrace all the 
ancient Egyptian skulls now in my possession. 



Ethnographic Table of one hundred and seventeen Ancient Egyptian Crania'. 



Sepulcbral Localities. 


No. 


Egypt'n. 


Pelasgic. 


Semitic. 


Mixed. 


Negroid. 


Negro. 


Idiot. 


Memphis 


26 
17 
4 
4 
55 
3 
4 
4 


7 
11 

1 

2 
30 
3 
2 
4 


16 
2 
1 
1 

10 

"i 


1 
1 

"l 

4 


1 

2 
"4 


1 
1 

2 
"5 


"i 


"2 


Ghizeh 


Maabdeh 


Abydos 


Thebes 




Phite 


Debod 






117 


60 


31 


7 


7 


9 


1 


2 



Internal Capacity of the Cranium. 



The part of Dr. Morton's work bearing this superscription, I re- 
gard as one of his most vahiable contributions to science, and it 
demands a close examination. 

"As this measurement," says he, "gives the size of the brain, I have obtained it in all 
the crania above sixteen years of age, unless prevented by fractures or the presence of 
bitumen within the skulls ; and this investigation has confirmed the proverbial fact of the 
general smallness of the Egyptian head, at least as observed in the catacombs south of Mem- 
phis. Thus, the Pelasgic crania, from the latter city, give an average internal capacity of 
89 cubic inches ; those from the same group from Thebes, give 86. This result^s some- 
what below the average of the existing Caucasian nations of the Pelasgic, Germanic, and 
Celtic families, in which I find the brain to be about 93 cubic inches in balk. It is also 
interesting to observe that the Pelasgic braiu is much larger than the Egyptian, which last 
gives an average of but 80 cubic inches ; thus, as we shall hereafter see, approximating to 
that of the Indo- Arabian nations." ^69 

" The largest head in the series measures ninety-seven cubic inches: this occurs three 
times, and always in the Pelasgic group. The smallest cranium gives but sixty-eight cubic 
inches ; and this is three times repeated in the Egyptian heads from Thebes. This last is 
the smallest cranium I have met with in any nation, with three exceptions — a Hindoo, a 
Peruvian, and a Negro." 

Morton then reduces his measurements of 100 ancient Egyptian 
crania into the subjoined tabular form : - — 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



423 



Ethnographic Division. 


Locality. 


Number of 
Crania. 


Largest 
Brain. 


Smallest 
Brain. 


Mean. 


1 ^ 

a 

1 
■ oo 

00 

p 

i> 
a 

a 

P 

. 3 

00 
p 

(0 

■p 

JO 

■1 

CO 


Pelasgic Fokm.... - 

Semitic Form J 

Egyptian Fokm ... 

Negroid Form - 

Negro 


Memphis 

Abydos 


14 
1 
5 

1 

1 
1 
3 

7 

2 

25 

2 
3 

1 
5 

1 


97 
89 
92 

74 

88 
69 
85 

83 
96 
95 

77 
82 

71 
88 

73 


79 
89 
82 

74 

88 
69 
79 

73] 
85 
68 
68 
70 

71 
71 

73 


89 

89 
86 
74 

88 
69 
79 

79 
90 
80 
73 

75 

71 
81 

73 


Thebes 


Philse 


Memphis 

Abydos 


Thebes 


Memphis 

Abydos 


Thebes 


Ombos 


Debod 


Maabdeh 

Thebes 


Philse 





An examination of this table again brings to view the fact that the 
Pelasgic heads (which are foreign to Egypt, and possibly belonging 
to some of the so-called Hykshos,) predominate at Memphis ; the 
point which invaders from Asia would first reach, and where they 
would be most likely to settle in ancient, no less than in present, 
times. The Pelasgic are here as 14 to 7, compared with the Egyp- 
tian form. 

[Thus, Cairo, on the eastern bank, has but replaced Memphis on the ■western ; at the 
same time that Tanis {Zoan), Bubastis (Fibeseth), and Heliopolis ( On), owing to their proxi- 
mity to the Isthmus of Suez, ever thronged with Asiatic foreigners. Here too, after the 
pyramidal period and the Xllth dynasty, was the land of Goshen — also, the shepherd- 
capita], Avaris ; the frontier province whence issued, with Israel's host, that GouM-aRaB 
(exactly the same as Goum-el-Arab), " Arab-levy," *™ mistranslated "mixed multitude;" 
and the scene of incessant Arabian relations, from Necho's canal down to Omar's, from the 
wars of Sesostris down to Mohammed- Ali's. In Coptic times this eastern province, now the 
Sherqieyeh, was the Tarabia (the-Araby) ; in Saracenic, the Khauf; ^''^ and here, at this 
day, the modern Fellahs are almost pure Arabs. — G. R. G.] 

At Thebes, higher up the river, the reverse is observed ; the Egyp- 
tian form prevails over the Pelasgic in the proportion of 25 to 5. It 
is evident, also, that the size of the brain in the Pelasgic heads is 
much greater than that of the Egyptian type ; and at Ombos, and 
Debod in Kubia, the crania are still much smaller than those of the 
Eg}'ptians. Such facts afibrd much plausibility to the idea, that the 
Pelasgic, as Dr. Morton terms them, or at least some large-headed 
superior race, had come into Egypt across the Isthmus of Suez, had 



424 COMPARATIYE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

taken possession of the country, and probably drove naultitudes of 
tbe native Egyptians before their invading swarms. These Pelasgie 
heads, as before stated, resemble greatly the population of ancient 
Hellas, of the heroic age ; and instead of migrating to Greece from 
Egypt in ancient times, similar tribes may have branched off from 
their original abode in Asia direct to the Peloponnesus. The latter 
view is strengthened by the fact that, in Greece, there are no traces 
of Miotic customs, hieroglyphic writing, style of art, &c. ; which 
would have been the case had that country been colonized by 
Egyptians. 

These anatomical deductions, then, establish conclusively that, in 
proportion as we ascend the Nile through Middle Egypt, the Asiatic 
elements of the ancient crania diminish, to become replaced, after pass- 
ing Thebes, by others in which African comminglings are conspicuous. 
Craniology, therefore, testifies to the accuracy of Lepsius's opinion, 
that the Hyksos invasion forced a large body of the Egyptians to 
emigrate to, and sojourn for a long period in, the Nubias.*'^ 

One grand difficulty, however, still remains with regard to the 
origin of the Egyptian type, as formerly understood, but since dis- 
avowed, by Morton. Thousands of paintings and sculptures on the 
monuments prove that ancient Egyptian faces often present a strong 
resemblance to the Grecian profile ; but, according to the preceding 
table, there is a difference of eight cubic inches in the size of the 
crania of the two races ! Were not the Egyptians, then, such as are 
represented on the monuments of the XVIIth and succeeding dynas- 
ties, a mixed Pelasgie and African race ? 

To the authors of this volume, in common with Morton's amended 
views, as before and finally set forth [supra, p. 245], the Egyptians 
had been once an aboriginally-Mlotic stock, pure and simple ; upon 
which, in after times, Semitic, Pelasgie and IS'ubian elements became 
engrafted. 

Our comments on monumental iconography [Chapters TV"., V., 
Vn., VIII.] have demonstrated that almost every type of mankind, 
of northwestern Asia, northern Africa, with some of southern 
Europe, is portrayed so faithfully, as to leave no doubt of the primi- 
tive existence of distinct races ; some of which we are enabled to 
date back to the IVth dynasty, or 3400 years b. c. But it has been 
objected that the drawing of the Egyptians was imperfect or conven- 
tional, and therefore not to be relied upon. Such assertions, if again 
obtruded at the present day, would merely argue small acquaintance 
with the laws of Egyptian art ; *''^ because, however false may be the 
canonical position given to the ear, however defective the non-fore- 
shortening of the eye, I defy Benvenuto Cellini himself to carve 



OOMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



425 



profiles more ethnologically-exact than those bas-relief effigies we 
possess, in myriads, from the IVth down to the X X TTd dynasties. 
But, I proceed to give copies of various crania from the catacombs ; 
which most triumphantly confirm all preceding asseverations coucern- 
ing the accuracy of tliese Egyptian portrait-painters. The materials 
are drawn mainly from the collection of Morton, which I have ex- 
amined carefully for myself. These heads, too, having been obtained 
in Egypt, direct from the tombs, by one of the authors of this volume, 
I can speak authoritatively, because all attendant circumstances are 
known to me. 

"A large, elongate-oval head (Fig. 253), with a broad, high forehead, low coronal re- 
gion, and strongly aquiline nose. The orbits nearly round; teeth perfect and yertical. 
Internal capacity 97 cubic inches ; facial angle 77°. Pelasgic form." *'4 



Fig. 253. 



Fio. 254. 





"A beautifully-formed head (Fig. 254), with a 
forehead, high, full, and nearly vertical, a good 
coronal region, and largely-developed occiput. The 
nasal bones are long and straight, and the whole 
facial structure delicately proportioned. Age between 
30 and 35 years. Internal capacity 88 cubic inches ; 
facial angle 81°. Pelasgic form." *"5 

" Skull of a woman of twenty years (Fig. 255) ? 
with a beautifully-developed forehead, and remark- 
ably thin and delicate structure throughout. The 
frontal suture remains. Internal capacity 82 cubic 
inches ; facial angle 80°. Pelasgic form." 4"6 

" Head of a woman 
(Fig. 256) of thirty, 
of a faultless Cauca- 
sian mould. The hair, 
which is in profusion, 
is of a dark-brown 
tint, and delicately 
curled. Pelasgicform," 
from Thebes. 

The following series 
(Figs. 257, 258, 259, 
260, 261), illustrates 
the Egyptian form. 

54 



Fio. 255. 



Fig. 256.*77 



■'1K> 




Fig. 257.*™ 




426 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



Fia. 258.479 



Fig. 259.*k> 




Fig. 260. «8i 



Fig. 261.482 




" An elongated head, 
with a broad, receding 
forehead, gently aqui- 
line nose, and retract- 
ed chin, together with 
the marked distance 
between the nose and 
mouth, and the long, 
smooth hair, are all 
characteristics of the 
monumental Egyj>- 
tian." 

Of the Semitic 
form, foregoing 
chapters have 
supplied many 
portraits. One, 
out of numerous 
mummied cra- 
nia, will suffice 
to illustrate its 
existence in the 
sepulchres of 
Egypt. 

" This head" (Fig. 262), says Morton, " possesses 
great interest, on account of its decided Hebrew fea- 
tures, of which many examples are extant on the 
monuments " of Egypt ; and we have already com- 
pared it with those of Assyria [supra, p. 116.] 

" The colossal head" from Nineveh 
proclaimed the existence of a higher 
order of Ohaldaic type upon Assyrian 
sculptures. The reader will he grati- 
fied to ohserve how faithfully ancient 
Chaldsea's tomhs testify to the exacti- 
tude of her iconographic monuments ; at the same time, he will per- 
ceive how art and nature conjointly establish the precision of modern 
anatomy's deductions. 

The following sketch (Figs. 263 and 264) is a faithful reduction of an Assyrian skull, 
recently exhumed by Dr. Layard, from one of the ancient mounds, and now deposited in 
the British Museum. Its fac-simile drawing has just been most kindly sent me from Eng- 
land, by Mr. J. B. Davis, F. S. A., one of the authors of the Crania Britannica (a great 
work, which is shortly to be published). I have no history of the skull, beyond the facts 
above stated ; but it is believed to be the representative of an ancient Assyrian. Speaking 
of the drawings, Mr. Davis says in his letter to me, "they are of the exact size of nature, 
and very faithful representations of the cranium." 

It is much to be regretted that we have as yet no series of ancient skulls from Nineveh 
and Babylon, as they would throw great light upon the early connection between the races 
of Egypt and Assyria. 



Fig. 262. 




COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



427 




Ancient Assyrian. 



Fig. 264. 



This skull is very interesting in several Fio. 263. 

points of view. Its immense size confirms 
history by showing that none but a high 
"Caucasian" race could have achieved so much 
greatness. The measurements taken from 
the drawing are — 

Longitudinal diameter, 7f inches. 
Transverse " 5| " 

Vertical " 5J " 

It is probable that the parietal diameter is 
larger than the measurement here given ; be- 
cause, possessor of only front and profile views, 
I think these may not express fairly the poste- 
rior parts of the head. There are but two heads 
in Morton's whole Egyptian series of equal 
size, and these are " Pelasgic ; " nor more 
than two equally large throughout his Ame- 
rican series. Daniel Webster's head measured 
— longitudinal diameter, 7|- inches; trans- 
verse, 5f ; vertical, 5^ : and comparison will 
show that the Assyrian head is but a frac- 
tion the smaller of the two. 

This Assyrian head, moreover, is remark- 
able for its close resemblance to several of 
Morton's Egyptian series, classed under the 
" Pelasgic form." It thus adds another pow- 
erful confirmation to the fact this volume 
establishes, viz., that the Egyptians, at all 

monumental times, were a mixed people, and in all historical ages were much amalgamated 
with Chaldaic races. Any one familiar with crania, who will compare this Assyrian head 
with the beautiful Egyptian series lithographed in the Crania JEgyptiaca, cannot fail to be 
struck with its resemblance to many of the latter, even more forcibly than anatomists will, 
through our small, if accurate, wood-cuts. 

To vary these illustrations, while confirming the deductions already 
drawn, I borrow two admirably-preserved heads (Figs. 265 and 266) 
Fig. 265. 

Fig. 266. 






428 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



from Champollion-Figbac/^^ who has reduced them from the folio- 
plates of Napoleon's Description de VEgypte. Fig. 266 yields the per- 
fect Egyptian type. 

From the mummy itself, now possessed by the University of Louisi- 
ana, at IN'ew Orleans, (and which I have personally scrutinized,) I 
present the most valuable specimen among all known to me ; inas- 
much as it is one of the extremely rare instances where the date of a 
deceased Egyptian can be positively determined by documentary 
evidence. 



Fig. 267. 




Portrait (Fig. 267) of the 
Mummy of Got-thothi-aunkh, 
" Chief of the Artificers," who 
died in the ' 'Year X. " of the reign 
of OsoRKON III. A man be- 
tween thirty and forty years of 
age, who was alive in the year 
B. c. 900 ; or, before a single 
stone yet discovered at ancient 
Babylon was inscribed with cu- 
neatic characters. Here is the 
history of its transmission to 
this country : — 

In 1845, Mr. Gliddon inti- 
mated, from Paris, to his friend 
Mr. A. C. Harris, the most in- 
fluential resident in Egypt, his 
desire to procure a series of funereal antiquities to illustrate his Lectures in the United 
States. The letter fortunately overtook Mr. Harris during one of this gentleman's archae- 
ological visits at Thebes ; where accident enabled him to obtain one admirable mummy, from 
the well-known Werda, in perfect condition. It was conveyed in his own yacht to Alex- 
andria, with a dozen other human mummies collected at Thebes, Abydos, and Memphis, 
intended for Mr. Gliddon. 

In 1846, after fruitless efforts to ship them, four were sequestrated at the Alexandrian 
Custom-house : Mohammed Ali, since 1835, having forbidden the exportation of Antiquities 
by any but agents of European powers. 484 An official application, made by the United States' 
Consul to the Viceroy failed; and, in 1849, these four mummies were found to have 
perished, through damp, in the Custom-house. Happily, Mr. Harris had preserved the 
most valuable specimen at his own residence. 

In 1848, after Mohammed All's superannuation, permission to export Mr. Gliddon's collec- 
tion was refused by Ibraheem Pasha. On his death, 1849, Mr. Harris's personal claims 
upon the courtesies of the Government obtained leave from Abbass Pasha ; and the mummy, 
(with two others divested of their cofiSns), was forwarded to Liverpool, where the influential 
complaisance of Messrs. Baring Brothers obtained their transhipment to the United States, 
free of examination at the Quarantine and Custom-house. At New York, similar facilities 
were accorded to Mr. R. K. Haight ; and, after five years of disappointments, Mr. Gliddon 
received these specimens in November, 1849. 

Opened at Boston, June, 1850, in the presence of two thousand persons, by Prof. Agnssiz, 
and a committee of sixteen of the leading physicians, these coffins yielded the embalmed 
corpse of the Theban Priest Got-thothi-aunkh, [latinicl, "Dixit Thoth, vivat! ") who died 
in the tenth year of King Osorkon III., early in the ninth century b. c, or about 2750 years 
ago. The amusing equivoque of gender that occurred at its opening received satisfactory 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



429 



Fig. 268. 



Inner Shell. 



Fig. 269. 



elucidation in the " Letter from Mr. Gliddon about the Papyrus found on the Boston Mum- 
my," published in the Boston Evening Transcript, August 21st and 22d, 1850. A copy of 
this article is appended to the mummy, ■which, with all its documentary cerements, now 
lies open to inspection at the Anatomical Museum of the Louisiana University. 

Fac-similes of all the hieroglyphical inscriptions on this mummy were forwarded by Mr. 
Gliddon to Mr. Birch ; and the only material emendation of the former's readings, added 
by this erudite hierologist, is, that the legend on the papyrus designates the corpse as that 
of the " Chief of the Artificers of the abode of Ammon," i. e. Thebes. 

Submitted, at Philadelphia, to the scientific scrutiny of the late Dr. Morton, this mum- 
mied body was not only pronounced to be " unequi- 
vocally identified with the reign of Osorkon III., by 
finding the cartouche or oval of that king stamped, in 
four difi"erent places, on a leather cross, placed dia- 
gonally on the thorax in front ; " but the same autho- 
rity also declares, " there are 130 embalmed Egyptian 
heads in the collection of the Academy, but none of 
them can be even approximately dated ; whence the 
great interest that attaches itself to the present ex- 
ample."''85 And finally, on the 23d of January, 1852, 
the whole of these archaeological facts have been con- 
firmed, at New Orleans, by the personal investiga- 
tion of Monsieur J. J. Ampfere, whose opinions in 
Egj'ptology are decisive.''85 Mr. Gliddon pointed out 
to me, on this corpse, the only absolute confirmation, 
he says, of Scripture, with which long studies of 
Egyptian lore have made him personally acquainted. 
All male mammies comply with the ordinances of 
Genesis xli. 14 ; and with Gen. xvii. 11 ; Exod. iv. 25 — 
but GoT-THOTHi's illustrates the accuracy of Eze- 
kiel's description of an "Egyptian" — xvi. 26; and 
xxiii. 19, 20. 

These Figs., 268 and 269, are copies of the mummy-cases, 
one is gilt ; but bitumen had obliterated the legends. 




Outer Case. 
The face of the inner 



That the influx of Asiatics into the Valley of the JSTile commenced 
long before the foundation of the Empire under Menbs — that is, 
prior to B. c. 4000 — there can be no further question ; and that amal- 
gamations of foreign with the Mle's domestic races commenced at a 
pre-historie epoch, is now equally certain. Hence it is evident, that 
it must be often impossible to define some crania of these blended 
Egj'ptian races with precision, so great is the intermixture of primi- 
tive types. The facts however, drawn by Morton from the monu- 
ments and crania, prove, that the Egyptians-proper possessed small, 
elongated heads, with receding foreheads, and an average internal 
capacity of 80 cubic inches. Such view is fortified by the resem- 
blance of this type to the modern native races of Egypt and surround- 
ing countries ; as the Fellahs, the Bedawees on both sides of the river 
and in the western oases, the Nubians, Berbers, &c. Their skulls 
have been already figured [supra, pp. 226, 227]. 



430 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF EACES. 



African-Negro Crania. 



Fig. 270.«7 




Bushman. 



Fig. 271.488 



Our Chapter Vlil. has already shown that Negroes are faithfully 
delineated on the monuments of the XVILth dynasty, or b. c. 1600 — 
1700 ; and that, although we produced no positive ITigritian portraits 

of earlier date, yet it is conceded ' 
that !N"egro tribes were abundant, 
along the Upper Nile, as far back 
as the Xnth dynasty ; and ergo, they 
must have been also contemporary 
with the earliest settlers of Egypt. 

Although Negro races present con- 
siderable variety in their cranial con- 
formations, yet they all possess cer- 
tain unmistakeable traits in common, 
marking them as Negroes, and dis- 
tinguishing them from all other spe- 
cies of man. Prognathous jaws, 
narrow elongated forms, receding 
foreheads, large posterior develop- 
ment, small internal capacity, &c., 
characterize the whole group crani- 
ologically. 

A few examples suffice to give the 
reader a good idea of their promi- 
nent characteristics, and will enable 
him to appreciate cranial distinctions 
between the varied Negro and other 
African types. (See Figs. 270-275.) 

It cannot fail 
Fig. 273.490 ' ^ -^g noticed 

that the Gaffre 
and the Ash- 
antee exhibit 
far higher con- 
formations 
than the rest; 
in accordance 
with recent 
historical 




Mozambique. 



Fig. 272.489 




CafiFre. 



Ashantee. 



events. They approach the Foolah "gradation." 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 
Fio. 274.«i Fig. 275.492 



431 





Creole Negro. 



Mummied Negress. 



Fig. 276.492 



Figure 276 is the portrait of a celebrated Hottentot female, -which (seemingly, tc 
Europeans) presents an extraordinary deformity. Some writers affirm that her bump, or 
hump, is an accidental freak of nature, or a peculiarity resulting from local causes. It 
is furthermore asserted, that such posterior development cannot 
be characteristic of any special race. But, while all these expla- 
nations are nullified by the fact that, around the Cape of Good 
Hope (and among Hottentot and Bushman races alone) similar 
retrotuberance is still quite common, it should not be forgotten 
that the proclivities of exotic Dutch Boors, combined with the 
action of local aborigines, have already modified the Hottentot and 
Bushman, and consequently divested both, to some extent, of their 
pristine uniformity. Ritter \_supra, p. 380] shows that Arabian 
single, and Bactrian double-humped camels (although distinct 
"species"), when bred together, produce offspring sometimes 
with one, at others with two humps ; and as the Hottentots are 
now a very mixed race, why should not the bump, once unde- 
viatingly characteristic of the good old race, be frequently ab- 
sent, or else diminished in volume, in the present genera- 
tion? 

That the laws governing the phenomena of Nature, if as yet 
often inscrutable, are nevertheless perdurable, may be exempli- 
fied, monumentally, even through instances of idiocy or lunacy. Rosellini's plates, com- 
pared with Eg3T)tian mummied skulls, and examined by the keen eyes of such comparative 
anatomists as Morton, furnish evidence that the natural deformities of humanity were ap- 
preciated, thousands of years ago, by Nilotic art; because the "sagacity of the Egyptian 
artist has admirably adapted this man's (Fig. 278) vocation to his intellectual developments, 
for he is employed in stirring the fire y 2-7 

in a blacksmith's shop."494 



Fig. 278. 




Hottentot Venus. 




Sculptured Fool. 




Mummied Idiot, 



4|2 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

Oceanic Races. 

Geographers divide our globe into Europe, Asia, Africa, America, 
and Oceanica. This last region has been subjected to many system- 
atic divisions by different writers ; but M. Jacquinot's are both simple 
and comprehensive : — 

" I. Australia — embraces New Holland, and Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land. 

" 2. Polynesia — all the islands of the Pacific Ocean, from the west coast of America to 
the Philippines, and the Moluccas; comprising what have been termed Micronesia and 
Melanesia. 

" 3. Malaysia, or East Indies — Indian Archipelago ; containing the Sunda, Philippine and 
Molucca Islands." 

The three divisions together are termed Oceanica ; and the races of men distributed over 
this vast area present an infinite diversity of types, which have also been variously clas- 
sified. Prichard very justly remarks that these Oceanic types differ so much among each 
other, and from the inhabitants of the Old and New World, that it is now impossible to 
trace their origin.*95 

[Ethnographic knowledge of the whole of them does not antedate the sixteenth century. 
Thus, the existence of Malay tribes was unknown to Europe before their discovery by Lopez 
de Sequeira, in a. d. 1510, followed by Albuquerque about 1513. Micronesians were first 
seen by Ferdinand Magelhaens in 1520 ; Polynesians by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543, 
and by Alvaro de Mendana in 1595: while Abel Jansen Tasman, in 1642-3, sailed around 
Van Diemen's Land, seeing " no people, but some smoaks," and afterwards had some of his 
men killed by natives of New Zealand — which seems to be the first historic notice of Aus- 
tralian families. When we recollect that the second "voyage around the world" was not 
undertaken by Francis Drake before the year 1557,496 it \fill be comprehended at once how 
very recent is the information which ethnology possesses of Malayan, Polynesian, and 
Australian types ; whose separate existence, nevertheless, must be as ancient as that of the 
animals and plants of their respective provinces of creation. — G. R. G.] 

As every classification of these races is vpholly arbitrary, and inas- 
much as any attempts at emendation would here be futile, I shall 
merely select for illustration a few of their more prominent types. 
"We have shown, from the monuments of Egypt and other sources, 
that various distinct races of men stood, face to face, 5000 years ago, 
and that no physical causes have since transformed one type into an- 
other. We may, therefore, reasonably assume that these Oceanic 
races have ever been contemporary with others elsewhere, and were 
created where originally found by modern navigators. There is a 
more or less intimate connection, it is said, among most of the 
Polynesian tongues; birt the Australian, whose type is altogether 
peculiar, Prichard declares, "is the only one whose language is known 
to be distinct." 

Australians. 

Australia comprises such immense superficies as to deserve the name of a continent ; and, 
consequently, its inhabitants present considerable diversity of types. This is inferred from 
the contradictory accounts of travellers, who have described them at difiFerent geographical 
points. It should be remarked, that the natives of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New 
Guinea, and some other of these islands, although differing in many particulars, are all SO 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF EACES. 



433 



black in complexion as to have been termed Oceanic Negroes. They partake of the cranial 
conformation of African Negroes; displaying, like them, narrow, elongated heads, defective 
foreheads, small internal capacity, projecting jaws, &c. 

Capt. Wilkes, commander of the late U. S. Exploring Expedition, thus describes them : — 

" The natives of Australia diflFer from any other race of men in features, complexion, 
habits, and language. Their color and features assimilate them to the African type : their 
long, black, silky hair has a resemblance to the Malays. The natives are of middle height, 
perhaps a little above it ; they are slender in make, with long arms and legs. The cast of 
the face is between the African and the Malay ; the forehead unusually narrow and high ; 
the eyes small, black, and deep-set ; the nose much depressed at the upper part, between 
the eyes, and widened at the base, which is done in infancy by the mother, the natural 
shape being of an aquiline form ; the cheek-bones are high, the mouth large, and furnished 
with strong, well-set teeth ; the chin frequently retreats ; the neck is thin and short. The 
color usually approaches a deep umber, or reddish-black, varying much in shade ; and in- 
dividuals of pure blood are sometimes as light-colored as mulattoes. Their most striking 
distinction is their hair, which is like that of dark-haired Europeans, although more silky. 
It is fine, disposed to curl, and gives them a totally different aspect from the African, and 
also from the Malay and American Indian. Most of them have thick beards and whiskers, 
and they are more hairy than the whites." 

Jacquinot, of the French Exploring Expedition, gives a very similar description, except 
that " Uur couleur etait d'un noir fuligineux assez intense." *^ 

M. DE Freycinet, who passed considerable time at different points of the country, de- 
scribes these tribes in the same manner. He says : " The people everywhere assimilate. 
Their color varies from intense black to reddish black. Their hair is invariably black and 
smooth, though undulating, and never has the woolly appearance seen in other races." 498 



Fio. 279.499 



Fia. 280.500 





Australian. 



Australian. 



" This man (Fig. 279), whose name was Durabub, was killed in a fray, after having him- 



self killed two savages 
of a hostile tribe, a. d. 
1841. His skull (adds 
Morton) is the nearest 
approach to the orang 
type that I have seen. 
.a;tat. 40. J. C. 81." 
Fig. 281 is from la 
Baie Raffle, coast of 
New Holland ; taken 
from the Atlas of Du- 
moutier. 

55 



282.502 




Native of New Holland. 



Native of the Island of Timor. 



434 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



Fig. 282 — "Natif d'Amnoubang, lie Timor." 

To these heads from New Holland and the Island of Timor many others might be added, 
from the various works on the Physical History of Mankind. Our series, however, supplies 
fair specimens of these races, who represent the lowest grade in the human family. Their 
anatomical characteristics are certainly very remarkable. While, in countenance, they 
present an extreme of the prognathous type hardly above that of the orang-outan, they 
possess at the same time the smallest brains of the whole of mankind ; being, according to 
Slorton's measurements, seventeen cubic inches less than the brain of the Teutonic race. 
In my own collection I have a cast of the head figured above in Morton's catalogue ; and, 
decidedly, it exhibits more of the animal than of man. 



Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land. 

It is certainly an extraordinary fact, that this comparatively-small island, merely sepa- 
rated from Australia by a narrow channel, should be occupied by people of entirely diffe- 
rent type. The tribes 
Fia. 283.503 Fiq. 284.504 of New Holland, it 

has been just set 
forth, are more or 
less black, but pos- 
sess fine, straight and 
silky hair ; while their 
neighbors of Tasma- 
nia are thus described 
by Capt. Cook : — 

" The color of the 
people of Van Die- 
men's Land is a dull 
black, and not quite 
so deep as that of the 
African Negroes. The 
hair is perfectly 
woolly. Their noses, 
though not flat, are 
broad and full. The 
lower part of the face 
projects a good deal." 
The reader can se- 
lect from the follow- 
ing 4 samples (Figs. 
283-286) which he 
considers the worst 
expression of the most 
inferior grades of hu- 
manity. 
Fig. A from Martin, and B from Dumoutier, compare well with the heads of Austra- 
lians ; and not less disagreeably. 




A. — Tasmanian. 



Fig. 285.505 



Tasmanian. 



Fio. 286.506 
I 




C. — Tasmanian. 



D. — Tasmanian. 



Papuas, of New Cfuinea. 

New Guinea is the largest of all these islands after New Holland. Numerous navigators, 
the old as well as the living, have described this people at various localities on the coast 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



435 




New Guinea-man. 



Fig. 288.508 



The tribes appear everywhere to be substantially the same : Fia. 287.507 

skin more or less black, features Negro, hair woolly and 
formed into enormous tufts. 

This (Fig. 287) is a fair specimen of the inhabitants 
of New Guinea, which not only presents the Negro com- 
plexion, and features like the Australian, but also the 
woolly hair. We may consider this skull an average type 
of the Papuan race. 

Harfours, or Alforians. 

In Malaysia, under the names of Harfours, Alfours, Ha- 
raforas, &c., have been designated the inhabitants of the 
interior of the large islands, or mountain regions. But great 

diversity exists in the type of these families ; and much confusion in descriptions. They seem 
generally to be a true Negro race, of the lowest order ; and from their position in the inte- 
rior, no less than from their degraded condition, they are, most probably, the true abori- 
gines of many of these islands, who have been 
iriven back by immigrants from other islands. 
Dne skull (Fig. 288) sufficiently represents them. 

I shall not overload our pages with detailed de- 
scriptions of the various Oceanic Negro types in- 
habiting the smaller islands. Materials lack for 
satisfactory anatomical comparison. There is to be 
found in print very little to aid the craniologist, 
beyond the magnificent plates of Dumoutier, from 
which we have extensively borrowed ; but his text 
has not yet been published ; nor do drawings alone 
furnish the information required. All travellers 
and every anatomist agree, however, in placing 
these Oceanic Negroes at the bottom of the scale 
of races ; and, at the same time, the Alforians are 
described as totally different from every group of Alfour. 

Negroes on the African continent. 

Therefore, the supposition of any community of origin between these Australasians and 
the true Nigritians — neither of them migratory races, and widely separated by oceans — 
would be too gratuitous to merit refutation. So also would be any hypotheses based upon 
climatic influences, when the zones of their respective habitats are as opposite in nature, 
as the races of Malaysia are distinct from those of Africa, and, at the same time, geogra- 
phically remote. 




Polynesian Race. 

An elaborate account of this race may be found in Prichard's " Physical History of Man- 
kind ;" but I rely more particularly on the later work of M. Jacquinot; inasmuch as it is, 
in every respect, deserving of confidence and admiration : coming, besides, from a naturalist 
who has seen these tribes in their various localities : — 

" The Polynesian race is well marked and distinct ; it inhabits all Malaysia and the greater 
part of Polynesia, comprising the numerous islands separated by d'Urville under the name 
of Micronesia. 

" The general characters of this race may be thus given : — Skin tawny, of a yellow color 
washed with bistre, more or less deep ; very light in some, almost brown in others. Hair, 
black, bushy, smooth and sometimes frizzled. Eyes black, more split than open, not at all 
oblique. Nose long, straight, sometimes aquiline or straight; nostrils large and open, 



436 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, 



■which makes it sometimee look flat, especially in ■women and children ; in them, also, the 
lips, ■which in general are long and curved, are slightly prominent. Teeth fine ; incisors 
large. Cheek-bones large, not salient ; enlarging the face, ■which, nevertheless, is longer 
than ■wide." 

Blumenbach describes the cranium thus : — " Summit of the head slightly contracted ; 
forehead rather convex ; cheek-bones not prominent ; superior maxillary bone rather pro- 
jecting; parietal protuberances very prominent." 

Jacquinot declares that these characters are constant in all the individuals of the Poly- 
nesian race ; and he says his description is confirmed by Forster,509 MoerenhoutjSW Ellis, su 
Quoy et Gaimard, and others. 

Most authors recognize three distinct races among the Polynesians : independent of those 
just described, they designate the inhabitants of the Carolines, or Micronesians, and the 
Malays ; but M. Jacquinot regards this division as unfounded in nature. That there is 
considerable variety of types in these scattered islands is admitted ; and the question re- 
duces itself to, ■whether these islanders are really of one stock or of several. Anthropo- 
logy perceives no reason for supposing that they are all descended from one pair ; and I 
therefore regard them as a group of proximate races, like the numerous other groups 
already signalized on the earth's superficies. They have been separated, by some •writers, 
on philological grounds ; but I hold it to be a demonstrable, even if not demonstrated fact, 
that zoological characters are far more reliable than mere analogies of language ; ■which 
(critically examined) are frequently less real than fanciful. 

After surveying the Polynesian race in detail, through all the islands, from the Philip- 
pines to New Zealand and the Sand^wich, Jacquinot concludes : — 

" Thus this race is found spread from 20° N. lat. to 50° S. lat. ; that is to say, it occu- 
pies a space of about 3500 miles of latitude by 4500 of longitude. Certainly, ■within these 
extremes, the climate oflFers numerous variations. Some of these islands are flat, others 
mountainous ; some are very fertile, others sterile ; and, notwithstanding all these circum- 
stances, the Polynesians remain the same everywhere. They are all in the same degree of 
civilization, of industry and intelligence ; their color is not more dark under the equator 
than without the tropics — and everywhere we find some more brown than others. 

" We repeat that, before such facts fall all theories respecting the influence of atmosphere 
and of climate. 

" They prove also, in the clearest manner, that the Polynesians cannot be a hybrid race ; 
because, if it were so, they could not preserve, in the numerous islands, a homogeneousness 
of character so perfect ; there would necessarily be mixed breeds in different degrees, and 
showing every shade and grade. The Polynesian race then is primitive." 

The original of Fig. 289 
FiQ. 289. Fig. 290. died in the Marine hospital 

at Mobile, while under the 
charge of my friends Drs. 
Levert and Mastin ; and 
the skull was presented to 
Agassiz and myself for ex- 
amination, without being 
apprised of its history. 
Notwithstanding there was 
something in its form which 
appeared unnatural, yet it 
resembled more than any 
other race the Polynesian ; 
and as such we did not he- 
sitate to class it. It turned out afterwards that we were right ; and that our emban-ass- 
ment had been produced by an artificial flattening of the occiput; which process the 




Sandwich Islander. 



Vertical Tiew. 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



437 



Islander, while at the 
hospital, had told Dra. 
Levert and Mas tin 
was habitual in his 
family. The profile 
view displays less pro- 
tuberance of brain be- 
hind, and the vertical 
Tiew more compres- 
sion of occiput, than 
belongs generally to 
his race ; but still 
there remains enough 
of cranial characteris- 
tics to mark his Poly- 
nesian origin ; even 
were not the man's 
history preserved, to 
attest the gross de- 
pravity of his animal 
propensities. 

The first of these 
heads (Fig. 291) is an 
ancient Guanche from 
the Canary-Isles; 
and, though out of 
place here, is one of 
Dumoutier's series. — 
Besides being itself 
interesting, it con- 
trasts still more pow- 
erfully with Americao 
aborigines. 

The other five (Figs. 
292-296) are Polyne- 
sians from difi"erent 
islands, presenting a 
strong family likeness 
to each other — reced- 
ing foreheads ; elon- 
gated heads ; project- 
ing jaws, ponderous 
behind, &c. 



Fio. 291.512 



Fia. 292.513 




Guanche. 



Fig. 293.514 




Taitian. 



Fig. 295.516 



Nouka-HivaiaD. 



Fig. 294.515 




Tonga-Islander. 



Fig. 296.517 




Fejee-Islander. 



Sandwich-Islander. 



I have pursued the Oceanic races, somewhat in detail, from the 
Indian seas across the whole extent of the Pacific Ocean to the shores 
of America ; where another group of races, of entirely different type, 
remains yet to be described. My object in this tedious voyage has 
been, to place before the reader such material as might enable him 
to judge whether there is any proof, in this geographical direction, 
of migrations from the Old to the New "World, that could account 
for its primitive manner of population. We have beheld, during our 
Oceanic travels, very opposite types in localities near to each other, 



438 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

as well as many distinct languages ; and we have seen the same type 
as that of the Polynesians Scattered throughout all climates, and yet 
speaking dialects of the same language. 

It now remains to be shown that, (with perhaps some very partial 
exceptions along the Pacific coast,) the types of America are entirely 
distinct from those of Oceanica ; and that American languages, civiliza- 
tions, social institutions, &c., are utterly opposed to Oceanic influence, 
while diiFering, too, amongst each other. It is from the so-called 
Polynesian and Malay races that many writers have derived the popula- 
tion of America; yet in no two types of man do we find cranial 
characters more widely different. The heads which we have copied 
from the Atlas of M. le Docteur Dumoutier, (who accompanied M. Jac- 
quiuot in the Exploring Expedition of 1837-'8-'9-'40, of the Astro- 
labe and Zelee, sent out by the French government,) were all taken 
by the daguerreotj'pe process, either fi'om nature or from plaster- 
casts ; and are therefore not only beautifully executed, but perfectly 
reliable. To the eye of the anatomist, these heads will be found to 
present a most striking contrast with those of the aboriginal Ameri- 
cans which we are about to produce. It is much to be regretted, 
however, that we have not complete measurements of these Oceanic 
heads, their various diameters, internal capacity, &c., after the plan 
adopted by Morton ; but I presume such essentials will appear in 
full, when the text is published. It will be obsen'^ed, furthermore, that 
the American heads differ more widely from all the Oceanic crania than 
they do even from those of the Chinese or true Mongol races, whence 
our American Indians are still supposed by fabulists to be, derived. 
The Oceanic races, including even the Sandwich Islanders, when 
compared with our Indians, exhibit crania more elongated, more 
compressed laterally, less prominent at the vertex, and more prog- 
nathous, in type. American races, I shall render evident, are 
strongly distinguished by the very reverse of all these points, in 
addition to their own greatly-flattened occiput. Whilst running the 
eye, too, over Dumoutier's long series of Oceanic heads, I was struck 
by one remarkable difference : viz., the greater amount of brain 
behind the meatus of the ear than in the skulls of the aborigines 
of America ; and the reader will notice vertical lines, rendering this 
fact obvious. 

American Group. 

The author of Crania Americana separated [supra, p. 276] the 
races of this continent into two grand divisions : viz., the Toltecan and 
the Barbarous tribes. That luminous paper — Inquiry into the Dis- 
tinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America^^^ — amply 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. - 439 

justified the traveller's adage, that " he who has seen one tribe of 
Indians, has seen all." 

" The half-clad Fuegian, shrinking from his dreary winter, has the same characteristic 
lineaments, though in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical plains ; and 
these, again, resemble the tribes which inhabit the region west of the Rocky Mountains — 
those of the great Valley of the Mississippi, and those, again, which skirt the Eskimaux on 
the North. All possess alike the long, lank, black hair, the brown or cinnamon-colored 
skin, the heavy brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the full and compressed lips, and the salient, 
but dilated nose. . . . The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in the osteo- 
logical structure of these people, as seen in the square or rounded head, the flattened or 
vertical occiput, the large quadrangular orbits, and the low, receding forehead. . . . Mere 
exceptions to a general rule do not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which is 
as undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro ; for whether we see him in the athletic 
Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian 
Btill, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race." 

And, above all anatomists, Morton had the best right to pronounce. 
We have seen [supra, p. 325] how his unrivalled " collection embraces 
410 skulls of 64 different nations and tribes of Indians." 

Time, moreover, from ante-historical — nay, even from geological 
epochas, down to the present hour, appears to have wrought little or 
no change on the physical structure of the American aborigines. Dr. 
Lund's communication to the Historical and Geographical Society of 
Brazil,^'' on the human fossil crania discovered by him in the Pro- 
vince of Minas Geraes, added to the published decisions of Dr. Meigs 
on the Santas fossilized bones, with those of Dr. Moultrie on the 
Guadaloupe fossilized head, settle that matter conclusively {supra, 
pp. 347, 350] : nor do the last-discovered fossilized jaws with perfect 
teeth, and portions of a foot, from Florida, now in the possession of 
Prof. Agassiz, negative this deduction ; although such vestiges, still 
imbedded in conglomerate, may not be cited in the affirmative. 
Lund's language, as rendered by Lieut. Strain, U. S. N., is unequi- 
vocal : — 

" The question then arises, who were these people ? what their mode of life ? of what 
race ? and what their intellectual perfection ? The answers to these questions are, happily, 
less difficult and doubtful. He examined various crania, more or less perfect, in order to 
determine the place they ought to occupy in the system of Anthropology. The narrowness 
of the forehead, the prominence of the zygomatic bones, the maxillary and orbital confor- 
mation, all assign to these crania a place among the characteristics of the American race. 
And it is known, says the Doctor, in continuation, that the race which approximates nearest 
to this is the Mongolian ; and the most distinctive and salient character by which we dis- 
tinguish between them, is by the greater depression of the forehead of the former. In this 
point of organization, these ancient crania show not only the peculiarity of the American 
race, but this peculiarity, in many instances, in an excessive degree ; even to the entire 
disappearance of the forehead. We must allow, then, that the people who occupied this 
country in those remote times, were of the same race as those who inhabited it at the time 
of the conquest. We know that the human figures found sculptured on the ancient monu- 
ments of Mexico represent, for the greater part, a singular conformation of the head 

being without forehead — the cranium retreating backward, immediately above the super- 



440 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



ciliary arch. This anomaly, which is generally attributed to an artificial disfiguration of 
the head, or the taste of the artist, now admits a more natural explanation ; it being now 
proved by these authentic documents, that there really existed on this continent a race 
exhibiting this anomalous conformation. The skeletons, which were of both sexes, were 
of the ordinary height, although two of the men were above the common stature. These 
heads, according to the received op'inions in Craniology, could not have occupied a high 
position in intellectual standing. This opinion is corroborated by finding an instrument of 
imperfect construction joined with the skeletons. This instrument is simply a smooth stone, 
of about ten inches iu circumference, evidently intended to bruise seeds or hard substances. 
"In other caverns he has found other human bones, which show equally the character- 
istics of fossils, being deprived of all the gelatinous parts, and consequently very brittle 
and porous in the fracture." 

rinally, the "Peruvian Antiquities" of Eivero and Tscliudi^^° cor- 
roborate the above scientific view, viz., that the artificial disfigure- 
ment of the skull among the Inca-Peruvians and other South Ameri- 
can families, owes its origin to the prior existence of an autocthonous 
race, in whose crania such (to us, seemingly) a deformity was natural: 
and thus the contradictory materials which induced Dr, Morton at 
first to deem this peculiarity to be congenital, and afterwards so exclu- 
sively artificial, become reconciled ; while due regard is preserved to 
his truthful candor and craniological acumen. 

Of the four forms of the head among 
the Old Peruvians, which were produced 
by artificial means (as established by Mor- 
ton, in Ethnography and ArchoRology of the 
American Aborigines, 1846), space restricts 
me to one example (Fig. 297), on which 
the "course of every bandage is in every 
instance distinctly marked by correspond- 
ing cavity of the bony structure;" and 
another form (Figs. 298, 299) is monu- 
mentally illustrated through Del Rig's 
Account of Palenquefi'^ 
The learned antiquaries, Rivero and Tschudi, whose researches establish that these 
grotesque forms are primeval, no less than congenital (being exhibited even in the 
fxlus among Peruvian mummies), do not appear to have been aware that Dr. Morton 

had already classified the 
Fig. 298. 



Fig. 297.S21 




Fig. 299. 




four varieties of such 
distortions, in a paper 
published five years pre- 
viously to their work. 523 
The compression of 
the head practised by 
various Indian tribes, al- 
though it causes distor- 
tion of the cranium in 
different directions, does 
not diminish the volume 
of the brain. This sin- 
gular fact was announced 
many years ago by Prof. 
Tiedemann,and has since 
been abundantly con- 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF EACES. 



441 



firmed by the multiplied observations of Morton. From the measurements of twenty-six 
Peruvian crania, all extremely distorted, some elongated, others conical, and others again 
flattened on the forehead and expanded laterally, he obtained a mean of 76 cubic inches, 
or one inch more than the Peruvian average. From twenty-one native skulls from Oregon, 
all more or less distorted by artificial means, he obtained a mean rather below the average 
of the barbarous tribes ; but from the whole of his measurements of distorted crania, as 
derived from the Peruvian and Nootka-Columbian series collectively, he found the average 
volume of the brain to be 79 cubic inches, or precisely the mean of the whole American 
group of races. I may add that, as mechanical distortion of the skull does not lessen the 
volume of the brain, neither does it appear to affect the intellect. 

These points established, I would remark, that the most striking 
anatomical characters of the American crania are, small size, averag- 
ing but seventy-nine cubic inches internal capacity ; low, receding 
forehead; short antero-posterior diameter; great inter-parietal dia- 
meter ; flattened occiput ; prominent vertex ; high cheek-bones ; pon- 
derous and somewhat prominent jaws. Such characteristics are more 
universal in the Toltecan than the Barbarous tribes. Among the 
Iroquois, for instance, the heads were often of a somewhat more 
elongated form ; but the Cherokees and Choctaws, who of all modern 
Barbarous tribes display greater aptitude for civilization, present the 
genuine type in a remarkable degree. My birth and long residence 
in Southern States have permitted the study of many of these living- 
tribes (a hundred Choctaws may be seen daily, even now, in the 
streets of Mobile), and they exhibit this conformation almost without 
exception. I have also scrutinized many Mexicans, besides Catawbas 
of South Carolina, and tribes on the Canada Lakes, and can bear 
witness that the living tribes everywhere confirm Morton's type. 

One might, indeed, describe an Indian's skull by saying, it is the 
opposite in every respect from that of the Negro ; as much as the 
brown complexion of the Red-man is instantly distinguishable from 
the Black's ; or the long hair of the former difiers in substance from 
the short wool of the latter. 

The annexed sketches of 
three heads (Figs. 300-306) . - Fig. 301. 

will, by comparison, illus- 
trate this type better than 
language. Figs. 300 and 
301, a Negro; Figs. 302 
and 303, the head (in my 
possession) of a Cherokee 
Chief, who died while a 
prisoner, near Mobile, in 
1837; and Figs. 305 and 
306, the antique cranium 
from Squier's mound \_ubi 
supra, p. 291.] 



Fig. 300.524 



I shall now proceed 




Negro — Profile View. 



Vertical View. 



442 



COMPARATIVE AISTATOMT OF RACES. 



Fig. 302. 



Fig. 304. 




Creek Chief— Profile View. 



Fig. 305. 




Mound-builder' — Profile View. 



Vertical View. 



Fig. 306. 




Vertical View. 



to show, through 
faithful copies, that 
the type just attri- 
buted to the Ameri- 
can races is found 
among tribes the 
most scattered — 
among the semi-civil- 
ized, and the barbar- 
ous — among living 
as well as among ex- 
tinct races ; and that 
no foreign race has 
intruded itself into 
their midst, even in 
the smallest appreci- 
able degree: availing 
myself of some of 
the original wood- 
cuts of the Or an i a 
Americana, placed by 
Mrs. Morton's kind- 
ness at our disposal. 



Peruvians, from Temple of the Sun. 

This head (Fig. 307) from the Cemetery of Pachacamac, is characteristic of the" American 
type, as will be seen at a glance : the parietal and longitudinal diameters being nearly equal ; 
the vertex prominent. 



Fig. 307.525 



Fig. 308. 



Fig. 309. 




PeruTian — Profile View. 



Vertical View. 



Back View. 



Longitudinal diameter, 6 inches; parietal, 5-9; frontal, 4-4; vertical, 5. Internal ca- 
pacity, 77 cubic inches. 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



443 



Fig. 310, from the Inca Cemetery, is perfectly Fig. 310.526 

typical of the race. 

Longitudinal diameter, 6-5 inches ; parietal, 
5-5; frontal, 4-6; vertical, 5'6. Internal capa- 
city, 68 '5 cubic inches. 

Morton supplies the measurements of twenty- 
three adult skulls of the " pure Inca race," from 
the cemetery called Pachacamac, or the Temple 
of the Sun, near Lima ; obtained and presented 
to him by Dr. Ruschenberger, U. S. N. As this 
sepulchre was reserved for the exclusive use of 
the higher class of Peruvians, it is reasonable to 
infer that the skulls thence disinterred belonged 
to persons of intelligence and distinction ; al- 
though I am aware that Rivero and Tschudi express doubts that any of these can have 
belonged to royal Peruvian personages.527 

The largest cranium of this series yields an internal capacity of 89-5 cubic inches, which 
is a fraction short of the Caucasian mean ; while the smallest measures but 60. The mean 
of the whole is but 73 cubic inches. 

The following examples of Mexican heads suffice to show the identity of the two races. 




PeruTian. 



Mexicans. 



This (Fig. 311) is a 
relic of the genuine 
Toltecan stock, hav- 
ing been exhumed 
from an ancient ce- 
metery at Cerro de 
Q u e s 11 a s, near the 
city of Mexico. It 
was accompanied by 
numerous antique ves- 
sels, weapons, &c., in- 
dicating a personage 
of distinction. This 
cranium was brought 
from the city of 
Mexico by the Hon. 
J. R. Poinsett, and by 
him presented to the 
Academy of Sciences 
of Philadelphia. 

Longitudinal diam- 
eter, 7-1 inches; pa- 
rietal, 6-7 ; frontal, 
4-4 ; vertical, 5-2. In- 
ternal capacity, 83 
cubic inches. 

A remarkably-well 
characterized h e a ^ 
(Fig. 313) from an 
ancient tomb near the 
city of Mexico, whence 
it was exhumed with 
a great variety of an- 



Fio. 312. 




Mexican — Tertlcal View. 



Fig. 313.529 



Back View. 



Fig. 314. 




Mexican — Vertical View. 



Back View. 



444 



COMPAEATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



tique vessels, masks, ornaments, &c. It is preserved in the collection of the American Phi- 
losophical Society. The forehead is low, but not very receding ; the face projects, and the 
■whole cranium is extremely unequal in its lateral portions. I had almost omittecl the 
remark, that this irregularity of form is common in and peculiar to American crania. 

Let us now track the American type into the Barbarous races. Among the Iroquois and 
some other tribes of both North and South America, heads of more elongated form are 
occasionally met with ; but the type truly characteristic predominates largely among the 
Creeks — under which appellation were embraced most of the tribes of Alabama, Georgia 
and Florida. Having personally examined many of these nations, I can vouch for this fact. 
While Prof. Agassiz was in Mobile last spring, I took occasion to point out this cranial uni- 
formity ; and his critical eye detected no exception in at least 100 living Choctaw Indians 
whom we examined together in and around the city. The modern Creeh chief [supra, Fig. 
802] affords satisfactory evidence. 




Seminole (Creek Tribe) and Dacota (Sioux). 

Fig. 316. Seminole war- 

FiG. 315.™ r^"-""'^ "°^ (■'^^S- 315) 

-i— \'^/ J-_ slain at the bat- 

tle of St. -Jo- 
seph's, 30 miles 
below St. Au- 
gustine, in June, 
1836, by Capt. 
Justin Dimmick, 
U. S. Artillery. 
Longitudinal di- 
ameter, 7-3 in. ; 
parie tal, 5-9 ; 
frontal, 4-6; ver- 
tical, 5-8. In- 
ternal capacity, 
93 cubic inches. 
Fig. 318 is the 
head of a Sioux 
warrior ; very 
characteristic of 
his tribe. Longi- 
tudinal diameter 
6-7 inches; pa- 
rietal, 5-7 ; fron- 
tal, 4-2j vertical, 
5'4. Internal ca- 
pacity, 85 cubic 
inches. 

Reference to 
the Crania Ame- 
ricana will show 
that examples 
might be greatly 
multiplied, to prove that our Indian aborigines are everywhere comprehended under one 
group. I have already spoken of the ancient mounds and the mound-builders ; have shown 
how numerous and widely-extended they are, and that they all belonged to the great 
Toltecan family. In addition to the cranium discovered by Squier [Fig. 198], I subjoin 
two more of these mound-skulls, selected from points separated by immense distance. 



Seminole — Profile Tiew. 



Fig. 317. 



Vertical View; 



Tig. 318.531 




Seminole — Back View. 



Dacota— Profile View. 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



445 



Skull from a Mound on the Upper Mississippi. 

Skull (Fig. 319) taken Fig. Z\^.^ 

from a mound seated 
on the high bluff which 
overlooks the Missis- 
Bippi river, 150 miles 
above the month of the 
Missouri. There were 
six mounds, placed over 
each in a right line, 
commencing with a 
small one, only a few 
feet high, and termi- 
nating in another of 
eight or ten feet eleva- 
tion and twenty in di- 
ameter. This skull was 
obtained from the fifth 

mound of the series. It is a large cranium, very full in the vertical diameter, 
between the parietal bones. 

Longitudinal diameter, 7-1 inches; parietal, 5-3; frontal, 4-8; vertical, 5-5, 
capacity, 85'5 cubic inches. 




Vertical View. 



Back View. 



and broad 
Internal 



Fig. 322. 



Skull from a Mound in Tennessee. 

This cranium (Fig. Fio. 321.533. 

321) was exhumed by 
the late distinguished 
Dr. Troost, of Nash- 
ville, Tennessee, from a 
mound in that State, at 
the junction of the 
French, Broad and Hol- 
ston rivers. Many other 
mounds are found in 
this section of country. 
This skull is remarkable 
for its vertical and pa- 
rietal diameters, flat- 
ness and elevation of 
the occiput. The facial 
angle is also unusually 
great. 

Longitudinal diameter, 6-6 inches; parietal, 5-6; frontal, 4-1; vertical, 5-6. Internal 
capacity, 87 '5 cubic inches. 

To the reader have thus been submitted specimens of American 
skulls, fi'om parts of the continent the most widely separated — some 
crania collected, from the Toltecan, some from the Barbarous tribes 
of the present times, and others from ancient mounds and burial- 
places : and, although there are sundry minor varieties in the forms 
of crania — a few exceptions to the general rule, yet the type which I 




Vertical View. 



Back View. 



446 



COMPAKATIVE ANATOMY OF EACES. 



laid down as characteristic of this people, largely predominates over 
all others. It is everywhere peculiar, and bears no resemblance to 
any known nation of ancient or modern epochas throughout the 
world. 

Mean Results, selected from Morton's Table.534 





Toltecan na- 
tions, including 
skulls from the 
mounds. 


Barbarous na- 
tions, with skulls 
from the Valley 
of the Ohio. 


American Race, 
embracing the 
Toltecans & Bar- 
barous nations. 


Flat-head tribes 

of Columbia 

Kiver. 


Ancient Peru- 
fians. 


Facial an- \ 
gle / 

Internal 
capacity ■ 
incu. in. . 


75° 35' 
76-8 


76° 13/ 
82-4 


75° W 
79-6 


69° 30' 

79-25 


67° 20^ 
73-2 



Mongol- Americans — Eskimaux. 

The Polar family, which are identical on both continents, display one of the strongest 
possible contrasts with the aboriginal Americans ; and no one can compare the crania of 
the two, and suppose that one continent was populated from the other through the Eski- 
maux channel. In fact, the Eskimaux are confined to a polar zone, as well in America as 
in Asia. 

Dr. Morton obtained, from Mr. George Combe, four genuine Eskimaux skulls, of which 
figures are grouped below (Figs. 323-326). The eye at once remarks their narrow elon- 
gated form, the projecting upper jaw, the extremely flat nasal bones, the expanded zygo- 
matic arches, the broad, expanded cheek-bones, and the full and prominent occipital region. 

" The extreme 



Fig. 323. 



Fio. 324. 




Eskimaux. 



Fig. 325. 



Eskimaux. 



Fig. 326. 




Eskimaux. 



Eskimaux. 



elongation of the 
upper jaw con- 
tracts the facial 
angle to. a mean 
of 73°, while the 
mean of 3 heads 
of the 4, gives an 
internal capacity 
of 87 cubic in., 
a near approach 
to the Caucasian 
average."535 The 
diagrams here 
given will enable 
the reader to 
make his Eski- 
maux compari- 
sons still more in 
detail. Fig. 823 
is " from Davis's 
Strait, the larg- 
est head in the 
series, and the 
best frontal de- 
velopment. The 
nasal bones are 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



447 



60 flat as to be scarcely perceptible." " On this skull (Fig. 324) is •written tbe brief me- 
morandum ' Found in the snow, by Capt. Parry.' In every particular, a well-characterized 
Eskimaux head." Fig. 325 was "found by Mr. John Turnbull, Surgeon, upon Disco 
Island, coast of Greenland, in the summer of 1825." And " this skull (Fig. 326) was ob- 
tained at Icy Cape, the northwest extremity of America, and is marked, 'from A. Collie, 
Esq., Surgeon of H. M.'s ship Blossom.' " 

Nothing can be more obvious than the contrast between these Eskimaux heads and those 
of all other tribes of this continent. They are the only people in America who present the 
characters of an Asiatic race ; and, being bounded closely on the south by genuine abori- 
gines, they seem placed here as if to give a practical illustration of the irrefragable distinct- 
ness of races ; together with an example, that modifications of human types are independent 
of any physical causes but direct amalgamation. 

M. Jacquinot not only regards all the American races (exclusive of the Eskimaux) as one 
race, but as a branch of the same race as the Polynesians. He is very positive in this 
opinion, and rests it solely upon resemblance of type ; at the same time acknowledging 
that, to the present day, no affinity between the languages of America and Polynesia has 
been discovered. •''^6 It is with reluctance that we difi"er from an authority we prize so 
highly ; but, apart from the strange circumstance that M. Jacquinot was unacquainted 
with Morton's labors, we do so on materials furnished by M. Dumoutier, who was his com- 
pagnon de voyage ; for which we refer to our remarks upon Polynesian crania. No anato- 
mist, who has examined Dr. Morton's collection, or lived, as I have done, for half a cen- 
tury among Indian tribes, can subscribe to the opinion of M. Jacquinot ; who does not appear 
to have bestowed adequate consideration upon American craniology, nor, indeed, upon our 
Indian questions generally. 

Ethnography is yet unaware of its resources. The London " Times" of the 8th of Octo- 
ber, 1853, publishes the despatches of Commander McClure, to the British Admiralty, 
through which the existence of Arctic men is announced, flourishing in a higher latitude 
than any other Eskimaux heretofore known : — " You will, I am certain, be very happy to 
learn that the Northwest Passage has been discovered by the Investigator, which event was 
decided on the 26th October, 1850, by a sledge-party over the ice, from the position the 
ship was frozen in. . . . We have been most highly favored, ... in being able to extend our 
search in quest of Sir John Franklin over a very large extent of coast, which was not 
hitherto known, and found inhabited by a numerous tribe of Esquimaux, who had never 
ere our arrival seen the face of the white man, and were really the most simple, interesting 
people I ever met — living entirely by the chase, and having no weapons except those used 
for that object. The fiercer passions of our nature appeared unknown : they gave me a 
pleasing idea of man fresh from his Maker's hand, and uncontaminated by intercourse with 



our boasted civilization. 
greatest reprobates." 
Annexed are 
given, by way of 
contrast, but 
without com- 
jient, two skulls 
(Figs. 827, 328) 
of the most pro- 
minent Asiatic 
types: viz., the 
Tartar, and the 
Mongo I, which 
will show how 
greatly m d e r n 
races differ ; not- 
withstanding the 



All those who traded with the Company were found the 



Fia. 828.538 



Fig. 327.537 




Cbineec — Mongol. 



Tartar. 



448 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



amalgamations -which have been going on for several thousand years. These races all, 
unquestionably, antedate the foundation of the Egyptian Empire — proving how diflScult it 
is to obliterate a type. 

Thus far, in the Comparative Anatomy of Eaces, I have permitted 
myself to cull but a few of the more salient facts touching the races 
of Europe, America, Africa, and Oceanica, and already are my pre- 
scribed limits exhausted. Asia, with a population incomparably the 
most numerous of any division of the globe, and presenting an infini- 
tude of widely different types, must be abandoned ; although no ter- 
restrial sphere affords a richer and more interesting field of research. 
However, I can scarcely regret the omission — regarding our side of 
the case to be sufficiently well made out. 

All the types of mankind known to history or monumental re- 
searches vanish into pre-historical antiquity ; and investigation shows 
that this remark applies with full force to the Mongolian group of 
Asia. Tartar races are distinctly portrayed on the monuments of the 
XlXth dynasty of Egypt ; and a reference to our chapter on Chron- 
ology will prove that the Chinese Empire, with the same Mongolian 
types now seen, together with their peculiar language, institutions, 
arts, &c., were contemporary with the Old Egyptian Empire. Such 
facts confirm the only rational theory : viz., that races were created 
in each zoological province, and therefore all primitive types must be 
of equal antiquity. 

Pauthier, -whose work is the only veritable key to Chinese history and literature yet 
put forth in Europe, admirably remarks : — "Of all historical phenomena that strike the 
human understanding, and which it seeks to comprehend when wishing to embrace the 
whole of universal life, as well as the general development of humanity, the most curious 
and the most extraordinary is assuredly the indefinite existence of the Chinese Empire. 
Like the great river of Egjrpt, which veils to travellers one-half of its course, the grand 
empire of High Asia has only revealed itself to Europe after traversing an unknown region 
of more than forty ages of existence. It was during our Middle Ages — epoch of profound 

darkness in the West, and of immense move- 
ment in the East — that the noise of a colossal 
empire at the extremity of Asia reached Euro- 
pean ears, simultaneously with the clangor of 
those Tartarian armies which (like an ava- 
lanche) then began to fall upon our panic- 
stricken Occident." 539 

But the deficiency of Mongolian skulls, com- 
plained of by Morton, may, in part, be counter- 
balanced through Chinese iconography. The 
following selections are made merely with the 
view to illustrate Mongolian permanence of 
type. 

A portrait (Fig. 329) of the Miao - iseu, 
"sons of the uncultivated fields" — the un- 
subdued and aboriginal savage tribes of 
China : whose existence recedes to the ante- 



FiG. 329.S40 




COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



449 



historical times of Fo-hi (b. c. 3400), and de- Fig. 330.mi 

ecends to the present day, in various wild and 

movintainous regions of the empire, as well 

as among the hills near Canton. They have 

ever been reputed, by the Chinese, to be un- 

tameable, and, in this respect, resemble the 

aborigines of America. Paravey says he 

copied this figure from a Chinese work of 

2400 plates, now in Holland. 

Portrait of Khounq-Fou-Tseu (Fig. 330), 
Confucius ; born 551 years b. c. ; whom the 
Chinese venerate as the " most saintly, the 
most sage, and the most virtuous, of human 
Institutors." His face, while Sinico-Mongol, 
possesses the massive lineaments of a great 
man. 

Another form of Chinaman is beheld in the 
historian Sse-ma-Thsian (Fig. 331), who, born 
B. c. 145, composed the grand history of the 
Empire, in 130 books. 

The work of Pauthier is illustrated by an 
infinitude of Chinese likenesses of all ages ; 
and it is so very accessible in form and price, 
that we refer our readers to the original for 
proofs that, with the exception of i\iQ pig-tail 
introduced by the Tartars, the Chinese have 
not altered in the 4000 years for which we 
possess their records. 

The subjoined (Figs. 332-335) are authentic 
Chinese portraits 543 of the ancient foreign 
people at the /our extremities, or four cardinal 
points, of the Empire : — 

Fig. 332 — "The men of Tai-ping (at the 
east) are humane, benevolent." 

Fig. 333 — " The men of Tan-joung (at the south) are sage, prudent. 

Fig. 334 — " The men of Tai-moung (at the west) are faithful, sincere" — Indian nations. 




Fig. 331.M2 




Fig. 332. 



Fig. 333. 



Fio. 334. 






450 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



Fia. 335. 




Fig. 335 — " The men of Eoung-ihoung (at the north) are war- 
like, valiant " — Tartar nations. 

I have merely to remark, on these foreigners, that they 
represent varieties of the Mongol type, such as naturally 
belong to that centre of human creations; referring the 
reader to Pauthier's sketch of the " Relations of Foreign Na- 
tions with China," w* and to Jardot's " Tableau synoptique, 
chronologique, et par Race," ^5 for the best specification of 
ancient Mongol-Tartar subdivisions. 



I conclude these few words on crania with 
some comments upon the following Tahle, taken 
from Morton's printed Catalogue (Philadelphia, 
3d edition, 1849) : — 

Table, showing the Size of the Brain in cubic inches, as obtained from the measurement of 623 
Crania of various Races and Families of Man. 



EACES AND FAMILIES. 



Modern Caucasian Group. 

Teutonic Family — Germans 

" " English 

" " Anglo-Americans 

Pclasgic " Persians 

" " Armenians 

" " Circassians 

Celtic " Native Irish 

Jndostanic " Bengalees, &c 

Semitic " Arabs 

Miotic " Fellahs 

Ancient Caucasian Group. 

Pelasgic Family — Graeco-Egyptians (catacombs). 
Nilotic " Egyptians (from catacombs).. 

Mongolian Group. 
Chinese Family 

Malay Group. 

Malayan Family 

Polynesian " 

American Group. 

Toltecan Family — Peruvians 

" " Mexicans 

Barbarous Tribes — Iroquois 

" " Lenap^ 

" " Cherokee 

" " Shoshon^, &c 

Negro Group. 

Native- African Family 

American-born Negroes 

Hottentot Family 

Alforian Family — Australians 



No. of 
SkuUs. 



18 
5 

7 

10 

6 
32 

3 
17 



18 
55 



20 
3 



156 

22 

161 



62 

12 

3 



Largest 
LC. 



114 

105 

97 

94 

97 
91 
98 
96 



97 
96 



91 



97 

84 



101 
92 

104 



99 
89 
83 
83 



Smallest 
LC, 



70 
91 

82 

75 

78 
67 
84 
66 



74 



70 



68 
82 



58 
67 

70 



65 
73 
68 



Mean. 



90 
96 
90 

84 

87 
80 
89 
80 



80 



82 



86 
83 



75 
79 

84 



83 
82 
75 
75 



Mean. 



92 



I 85 



y 79 



83 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 451 

Some classification of races, however ai'bitrar}^, seems to be almflst 
indispensable, for the sake of conveying clear ideas to the general 
reader ; yet the one here adopted by Dr. Morton, if accepted without 
proper allowance, is calculated to lead to grave error. Like Tiede- 
mann, he has grouped together races which between themselves pos- 
sess no affinity whatever — that present the' most opposite cranial 
characters, and which are doubtless specificallj'- difierent. In the 
"Caucasian" group, for example, are placed, among so-called white 
races, the Hindoos, the" ancient and modern Egyptians, &c., who are 
dark. Our preceding chapters have shown that this group contains 
many diverse types, over which physical causes have exercised very 
little, if any influence. 

Two important facts strike me, in glancing over this Table: — 1st, That the Ancient 
Pelasgic heads and the Modern White races give the same size of brain, viz., 88 cubic 
inches. 2d, The Ancient Egyptians, and also their representatives, the modern Fellahs, 
yield the same mean, viz., 80 cubic inches. The difference between the two groups being 
eight cubic inches. 

Hence we obtain strong evidence, that time, or climate, does not influence the size of 
crania ; thus adding another confirmation to our views respecting the permanence of primi- 
tive types. The Hindoos, likewise, it will be observed, present the same internal capacity 
as the Egyptians. Now, I repeat, that no historical or scientific reason can be alleged, 
why these races should be grouped together, under one common appellative ; if, by such 
name, it is understood to convey the idea that these human types can have any sanguineus 
affiliation. 

Again, in the Negro group — while it is absolutely shown that certain African races, 
whether born in Africa or in America, give an internal capacity, almost identical, of 83 
cubic inches, one sees, on the contrary, the Hottentot and Australian yielding a mean of but 
75 cubic inches, thereby showing a like difference of eight cubic inches. Indeed, in a 
Hottentot cranium, (now at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia,) "pertaining 
to a woman of about twenty years of age, the facial angle gives 75 degrees ; but the 
internal capacity, or size of brain, measures but G3 cubic inches, which. Dr. Morton 
remarked, was as small an adult brain (with one exception, and this also a native African) 
as he had ever met with ;" so that, in reality, the average among Hottentots may be still 
lower. 

In the American group, also, the same parallel holds good. The Toltecan family, our 
most civilized race, exhibit a mean of but 77 cubic inches, while the Barbarous tribes give 
84 ; that is, a difference of seven cubic inches in favor of the savage. 

The contrast becomes still more pronounced, when we compare the highest with the lowest 
races of mankind ; viz. : the Teutonic with the Hottentot and Australian. The former 
family show a mean internal capacity of ninety-two, whilst the two latter have yielded but 
seventy-five cubic inches ; or a difference of seventeen cubic inches between the skull of 
one type and those of two others ! Now, it is herein demonstrated, through monumental, cra- 
nial, and other testimonies, that the various types of mankind have been ever permanent ; 
have been independent of all physical influenees for thousands of years ; and, I would ask, 
what more conclusive evidence could the naturalist demand, to establish a specific diffe- 
rence between any species of a genus ? 

These facts, too, determine clearly the .arbitrary nature of all classifications heretofore 
invented. What reason is there to suppose that the Hottentot has descended from the same 
stem as the African Mandingo, or lolof, any more than from the Samoi'des of Northern Asia ? 
or the Hindoo from the same stock as the Teuton ? The Hindoo is almost as far removed in 



452 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

Stnicture from the Teuton as is the Hottentot : and we might just as ■well class reindeer 
and gazelles together as the Teuton and Hindoo, the Negro and Hottentot. Can any natu- 
ralist derive a Peruvian from a Circassian ? a Papuan from a Turk ? 

Dr. Morton's collection of crania, though extraordinarily copious in some races, is very 
defective in others ; and, although his measurements doubtless approximate suflBciently to 
the truth to prove a wide difference in the form and size of crania, yet they are by far too few 
to afford perfectly accurate admeasurements. The first, or Teutonic group, for example, 
gives a mean of ninety-two cubic inches ; and this average is based on the measurements 
of but thirty skulls; whereas 300 might not suiSce to evolve a fair average of Germanic 
cranial developments. 

In these anatomical statistics the science of anthropology is wofuUy deficient ; nor can 
the vacuum be filled without the universal concurrence of physiologists. Morton's cabinet, 
the largest in the world, fails to supply adequate materials. In African, American, and 
Egyptian, types, it leaves little to be desired ; but the great ethnographer himself frankly 
calls attention to its requirements: "For example, it contains no skulls of the Eskimaux, 
Fuegians, Californians or Brazilians. The distorted heads of the Oregon tribes are also 
but partially represented ; while the long-headed people of the Lake of Titicaea, in Bolivia, 
are altogether wanting. Skulls also of the great divisions of the Caucasian and Mongolian 
races are too few for satisfactory comparison ; and the Slavonic and Tchudic (Finnish) na- 
tions, together with the Mongol tribes of Northern Asia and China, are among the especial 
desiderata of this collection." 5*6 

Nevertheless, it is with some feelings of national and professional pride that I remind 
the reader how an American physician, unsupported by any government, and amidst in- 
cessant devotion to a most arduous practice, who " commenced the study of ethnology in 
1830" without a single cranium, has bequeathed to posterity above 840 human skulls, and 
above 620 of the inferior animals, so thoroughly illumined by his personal labors, that, in 
the absence of fresher materials, science must pause before she hazards a doubt upon any 

result at which Samuel George Morton had maturely arrived. 

• 

Deploring the absence of these cranial desiderata, the idea occurred 
to me that such deficiency might, in some degree, be supplied by hat- 
manufacturers of various nations ; notwithstanding that the informa- 
tion derived from this source could give but one measurement ; viz. : 
the horizontal periphery. Yet this one measurement alone, on an ex- 
tended scale, would go far towards determining the general size of 
the brain. Accordingly, I applied to three hat-dealers in Mobile, and 
to a large manufacturer in Newark, ITew Jersey, for statements of the 
relative number of each size of hat sold to adult males. Their tables 
agree so perfectly, as to leave no doubt of the circumference of the 
heads of the white population of the United States. The three houses, 
together, dispose of about 15,000 hats annually. 

The following table was obligingly sent me by Messrs. Vail and Yates of Newark ; and 
they accompanied it with the remark, that their hats were sent principally to our Western 
States, where there is a large proportion of German population ; also that the sizes of these 
hats were a little larger (about one-fourth of an inch) than those sold in the Southern 
States. This useful observation was confirmed by the three hat-dealers in Mobile. Our 
table gives — 1st, the number, or size of the hat; 2d, the circumference of the head corre- 
sponding ; 3d, the circumference of the hat ; and, lastly, the relative proportion of each 
sold out of twelve hats. 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 453 

Size— Inches. Circum. of Hend— Inches. Circum. of Hat— Inches. Eel. Proportion in 12. 

6^ 21f 22| 1 

7 22 22| 2 

7} : 22| 23^ 3 

'i 22f 23J 3 

7f 23^ 23i 2 

7} 23^ 24^ 1 

All hats larger than these are called " extra sizes." 

The average size, then, of the crania of white races in the United States, is about 22J 
inches circumference, including the hair and scalj}, for which about l^- inches should be 
deducted; leaving a mean horizontal periphery, for adult males, of 21 inches. The mea- 
surements of the purest Teutonic races in Germany, and other nations of Europe, would 
give a larger mean ; and I have reason to believe that the population of France, which is 
principally Celtic, would yield a smaller mean. I hope that others will avail themselves of 
better opportunities for comparison. 

Dr. Morton's measurements of aboriginal American races present a mean of but about 
19J inches ; and this mean is substantially confirmed by the fact stated to me by my 
friend, Capt. Sc.\rbitt, U. S. A. \_siipra, p. 289]. Although his head measures but 22 inches, 
it was with great difficulty that he found one hat amid several hundred to fit him ; thus 
proving that the Anglo-American mean is equal to the maximum of the Mexican Indians ; 
who are here, at Metamoras, more or less mixed, too, with Spanish blood. 

Hamilton Smith states: — "We have personally witnessed the issue of military chacos 
(caps) to the Second West India regiment, at the time when all the rank and file were 
bought out of slave ships, and the sergeants alone being part white, men of color, Negroes 
from North America, or born Creoles : and it was observed that scarcely any fitted the 
heads of the privates excepting the two smallest sizes ; in many cases robust men of the 
standard height required padding an inch and a half in thickness, to fit their caps ; while 
those of the non-commissioned officers were adjusted without any additional aid."-w 

My own experience abundantly proves the correctness of these facts in the United States-, 
and my colleague, Mr. Gliddon, who resided two years in Greece, 1828-30, informs me that 
he saw hundreds of the Greek regulars, at reviews, drills, or on guard, who were compelled 
to wind a handkerchief around their heads to prevent their newly-adopted chacos, made 
for English soldiers, falling over their noses. The modern Greek head, like the Armenian, 
is somewhat sugar-loafed, owing to early compression by the turban. 

The largest skull in Dr. Morton's collection gives an internal capacity of but 114 cubic 
inches ; and we know that heads of this size, and even larger, are by no means uncommon 
in the Anglo-Saxon race. Dr. Wyman, in his post-mortem examination of the famed Daniel 
Webster, found the internal capacity of the cranium to be 122 cubic inches: and, in a pri- 
vate letter to me, he says, " The circumference was measured outside of the integuments, 
before the scalp was removed, and may, perhaps, as there was much emaciation, be a little 
less than in health." It was 23J inches in circumference ; and the Doctor states that it is 
well known there are several heads in Boston larger than Mr. Webster's. 

Mr. Arnold, a very intelligent hat-dealer in Mobile, writes me in a note as follows : — 
" Frequently I have calls for the following sizes (measured from head) — 24, 24f, and, about 
once a year, 25 inches." 

I have myself, in the last few weeks, measured half-a-dozen heads as large and larger 
than Webster's ; while a reference to Morton's tables will show that in his whole Egyptian 
group only one reaches 97 inches internal capacity ; and, out of 338 aboriginal American 
skulls, but one attains to 101, and another to 104 cubic inches. 

It has been asserted by Prof. Tiedemann of Heidleberg, that the brain of the Negro is as 
large as that of the White races ; but Dr. Morton has refuted this opinion by a mass of 
facts which cannot be overthrown. He has, moreover, shown that Tiedemann's own tables 
contradict such deduction. 



454 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



Tiedemann adopted the common error of grouping together, under the term Caucasian, 
all the White races (Egyptians, Hindoos, &c.) ; no less than all the African dark races under 
the unscientific term of Negroes. Now, I have shown, that the Egyptians and Hindoos pos- 
sess about twelve cubic inches less brain than the Teutonic race; and the Hottentots about 
eight inches less than the Negro proper. I affirm that no reason can be assigned why the 
Hottentot and Negro should be classed together in their cranial measurements ; nor the 
Teuton with the Hindoo. I can discover no data by which to assign a greater age to one 
type than to another ; and, unless Professor Tiedemann can overcome this difficulty, he 
has no right to assume identity for all the races he is pleased to include in each of his 
groups. Mummies from catacombs of Egypt, and portraits from the monuments, exhibit 
the same disparity of size in the heads of races who lived 4000 years ago, as among any 
human species at the present day. 

As Dr. Morton tabulated his skulls on a somewhat arbitrary basis, I 
abandon that arrangement, and present his facts as they stand in 
nature, allowing the reader to compare for himself. 



Size of the Brain in Cubic Inches. 



RACES. 



Modem White Races ; 
Teutonic Group 

Pelasgic 

Celtic 

Semitic 

Ancient Pelasgic ... 



Malays 

Chinese 

Negroes (African) 

Indostanees 

Fellahs (Modern Egyptians). 
Egyptians (Ancient) 

American Group; 

Toltecan Family 

Barbarous Tribes 



Hottentots.., 
Australians . 



I.e. 


I.e. 


Mean. 


Mean. 


92 


92 


84 


) 


87 


I 88 


89 


1 


88 




85 

82 


|83i 


83 




80 




80 




80 




77 
84 


}" 


75 
75 


s- 



Absolute measurements 
array themselves into a 
sliding scale of seventeen 
cubic inches, between the 
lowest and the highest 
races. Here we behold 
cranial measurements as 
history and the monuments 
first find them; nor can 
such facts be controverted. 

Let me again revert to 



the question of hylridity, 
in connection with endea- 
vors to obtain accurate cra- 
nial statistics. The adul- 
teration of primitive types, 
at the present day conspi- 
cuous among many races of mankind, renders precision, in regard to 
the commingled inhabitants of various countries, frequently impos- 
sible ; especially wherever the c7«r^-skinned races of Europe, and the 
lower grades of humanity elsewhere, have co-operated in mutual con- 
taminations. Of the latter, our own continent supplies two deplorable 
regions, from which real philanthropy might take warning. Tschudi's 
"Travels in Peru" furnishes a list of the crosses resultino; from the 
intermixture of Spanish with Indian and Negro races in that country. 
The settlement of Mexico by Spaniards took place at the same time, 
and the intermixture of i-aces has been perhaps greater there than in 
Peruvian colonies. Mexican soldiers present the most unequal char- 
acters that can be met with anywhere in the world. If some are 



COMPARATIYE ANATOMY OF KACES. 455 

brave, others are quite the reverse — possessing the basest and most 
barbarous qualities. This, doubtless, is a result, in part, of the cross- 
ings of the races. Here is Tschudi's catalogue of such amalgamations 
in Peru : — 

Parents. Children. 

" White father and Negro mother Mulatto. 

White father and Indian mother Mestiza. 

Indian father and Negro mother Chino. 

White father and Mulatto mother Cuarteron. 

White father and Mestiza mother Creole — -pale, brownish complexion. 

White father and China mother Chino-blanco. 

White father and Cuarterena mother Quintero. 

White father and Quintera mother White. 

Negro father and Indian mother Zambo. 

Negro father and Mulatto mother Zambo-Negro. 

Negro father and Mestiza mother Mulatto-oscuro. 

Negro father and China mother Zambo-Chino. 

Negro father and Zamba mother Zambo-Negro — perfectly black. 

Negro father and Quintera mother Mulatto — rather dark. 

Indian father and Mulatto mother Chino-oscuro. 

Indian father and Mestiza mother Mestizo-claro — frequently very beautiful. 

Indian father and Chino mother Chino-cola. 

Indian father and Zamba mother Zambo-claro. 

Indian father and China-cholar mother Indian — with frizzly hair. 

Indian father and Quintera mother Mestizo — rather brown. 

Mulatto father and Zamba mother Zamba — a miserable race. 

Mulatto father and Mestiza mother Chino — rather clear complexion. 

Mulatto father and China mother Chino — rather dark. 

" To define their characteristics correctly," adds the learned German, "would be impos- 
sible ; for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a general rule, it may be 
fairly said, that they unite in themselves all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their 
progenitors ; as men, they are generally inferior to the pure races ; and as members of 
society, they are the worst class of citizens." 

In Peru, be it also observed, these mongrel families are produced by the intermixture 
of two distinct types [Indians and Xegroes) with a third [Portuguese and Spaniards), which 
I have shown to have been already corrupted by European comminglings, previously to 
their landing in South America. After all, in the United States, the bulk of mulatto grades 
is occasioned solely by the union of Negro with the Teutonic stock — Indian amalgamations 
being so unfrequent as to be rarely seen, save along the frontier. 

This leads me to substantiate previous remarks on Liberia. " Gov. Roberts, of Liberia, 
a fair mulatto, and Russwarm, of Cape Palmas, are clever and estimable men ; and we 
have in these two men unanswerable proofs of the capacity of the colored people for self- 
government. 

" The climate of Western Africa cannot be considered as unwholesome to colored colonists. 
Every one must pass {owing to the unacclimated exotic blood in his veins] through the acclimat- 
ing fever ; but, now that more convenient dwellings are erected, so that the sick may be 
properly attended to, the mortality has considerably decreased. Once well through this 
sickness, the [mulatto] colonist finds the climate and the air suitable to his constitution ; not 
so the WHITE man. The residence of a few years on this coast is certain death to him." 

So far Commodore M. C. Perry, U. S. N., in his report on Liberia. Miss Frederika 



456 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF KACES. 

Bremer adds, with that charming simplicity so peculiarly Swedish (Jenny Lind, Die Bull, 
&c., have familarized Americans with its philanthropical self-sacrifices): — "It thus ap- 
pears as if Liberia and Sierra Leone would become the nurseries from which the new civi- 
lization and more beautiful future of Africa would proceed. I cannot believe but that these 
[mulatto] plants from a foreign land must, before that time, undergo a metamorphosis — 
must become viore African." ^^^ 

The most inveterate anthropologist could not better foreshadow Liberian destinies ! 

And, as concerns the " beautiful " likely to arise in Africa when 
the half-civilized mulatto becomes re-absorbed into the indigenous 
'Negro population, let me add, that, were authority necessary at this 
day to rebut the good-natured Abbe Gregoire's testimony in favor of 
mulatto-poesies, (and such posies !) ethnography might begin with 
Mr. Jefferson's. His Notes on Virginia contain this sentence : — 

" Never yet could I find that a Black had uttered a thought above the level of plain nar- 
ration; never saw even an elementary trait of painting or of sculpture." 

I have looked in vain, during twenty years, for a solitary exception 
to these characteristic deficiencies among the Negro race. Every 
!N"egro is gifted with an ear for music ; some are excellent musicians ; 
all imitate well in most things ; but, with every opportunity for cul- 
ture, our Southern Negroes remain as incapable, in drawing, as the 
lowest quadrumana. 

As before stated, the plan of this work does not permit a complete anatomical comparison 
of races ; and I have merely selected such illustrations as I deem sufficient to demonstrate 
plurality of origin for the human family. A few others are subjoined, with a brief com- 
mentary. The " Caucasian," Mongol, and Negro, constitute three of the most prominent 
groups of mankind ; and the vertical views of the following crania (Figs. 336-338) display, 
at a glance, how widely separated they are in conformation. How they diflFer in size and 
in facial angle has been already shown. So uniform are these cranial characters, that the 
genuine types can at once be distinguished by a practised eye. 

K, as we have reiterated times and again, those types depicted on 
the early monuments of Egypt have remained permanent through all 
subsequent ages — and if no causes are now visibly at work which 
can transform one type of man into another — they must be received, 
in Natural History, as primitive and specific. When, therefore, they 
are placed beside each other {e.g. as in Eigs. 336-338) such types speak 
for themselves; and the anatomist has no more need of protracted 
comparisons to seize their diversities, than the school-boy to distin- 
guish turkej^s from peacocks, or pecaries from Guinea-pigs. 

Our remarks on African types have shown the gradations which, 
ever ascending in caste of race, may be traced from the Cape of 
Good Hope northward to Egypt. The same gradation might be 
followed through Asiatic and European races up to the Teutonic ; 
and with equal accuracy, were it not for migrations and geographical 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 



457 



displacements of these last, to which aborigines in Africa have been 
less subjected. 



Fig. 336.549 



Fig. 337.550 



Fig. 338.551 






Caucasian. 



Mongol, 



Negro. 



Although I do not believe in the intellectual equality of races, and 
can find no ground in natural or in human histoiy for such popular 
credence, I belong not to those who are disposed to degrade any type 
of humanity to the level of the brute-creation. I^evertheless, a man 
must be blind not to be struck by similitudes between some of the 
lower races of mankind, viewed as connecting links in the animal 
kingdom ; nor can it be rationally'' affirmed, that the Oraug-Outau 
and Chimpanzee are more widely separated from certain African and 
Oceanic Kegroes than are the latter from the Teutonic or Pelasgic 
types. But the very accomplished anatomist of Harvard University, 
Dr. Jeffries Wyman, has placed this question in its true light: — 

" The organization of the anthropoid quadrumana justifies the naturalist in placing them 
at the head of the brute-creation, and placing them in a position in which they, of all the 
animal series, shall be nearest to man. Any anatomist, however, who will take the trouble 
to compare the skeletons of the Negro and Orang, cannot fail to be struck at sight with the 
wide gap which separates them. The difference between the cranium, the pelvis, and the 
conformation of the upper extremities, in the Negro and Caucasian, sinks into insignificance 
when compared with the vast difference which exists between the conformation of the same 
parts in the Negro and the Orang. Yet it cannot be denied, however wide the separation, 
that the Negro and Orang do afford the points where man and the brute, when the totality 
of their organization is considered, most nearly approach each other." 5i2 

The truth of these obsei'vations becomes popularly apparent through 
the following comparative series of likenesses. There are fourteen of 
them ; and, by reference to the works whence they are chosen, the 
reader can verify the fidelity of the major portion. For the remain- 
der, taken from living nature, the authors are responsible when 
vouching for their accuracy. 
58 



FlQ, 339.— Apollo BelTidere.S53 




Fig. 340.556 




Greek. 



FlQ. 341. ■ — Negro.554 




Fig. 343. — Young Chimpanzee.55S 




Fig. 342.357 




Creole Negro. 



Fig. 344.558 




Toung Chimpanzee. 



(458) 



Fio. 346.561 



Fig. 345.559 




Orang-Outan. 



Fig. 347.560 




Mobile Negro, 1853. 

Fig. 351. 





Hottentot Wagoner — CaCfre War. 

Fig. 348.562 




Hottentot from Somerset. 
Fig. 350. 




Mobile Negro, 1853. 
Fig. 352. 




Negro, 3200 years old [supra, pp. 250-251]. 



Nubian, 3200 years old. 

(459) 



460 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

It will doubtless be objected by some tbat extreme examples are 
here selected ; and this is candidly admitted : yet, each animal type 
has a centre around which it fluctuates — and such a head as the Greek 
is never seen on a ISTegro, nor such a head as that of the 'Negro on 
a Greek. Absolute uniformity of type is not a law of E^ature in any 
department : in the gradations of species, extremes meet, and are 
often confounded. 

Morton's manuscripts supply an extract which shows, that " skep- 
tical physicians" are not the only honest men who cannot descry 
unity of human origins in i^ature's phenomena : — 

" We fully concur with a learned and eloquent divine (the Hon. and Rev. William Her- 
bert), that we possess no information concerning the origin of the different races of man- 
kind, ' which are as different in appearance as the species of vegetables.' No one of these 
races has sprung up within the period of historical certainty ; nor are we any better in- 
formed in respect to their 'innumerable languages, which cannot be reunited ; and no person 
can show how or when any one of them arose, although we may trace the minglings of one 
with another in the later years of the world,' " ^63 

Intellect. 

I had intended to publish an entire chapter on the " Comparative 
Mental Characters of Races;" but our Part I. has already swelled 
beyond its prescribed limits ; and, in consequence, although this field 
is a broad and fertile one, I must be content with a few brief remarks. 
It has been admirably observed by Dr. Robert Knox, that 

" Human history cannot be a mere chapter of accidents. The fate of nations cannot be 
always regulated by chance ; its literature, science, art, wealth, religion, language, laws 
and morals cannot surely be the result of mere accidental circumstances." set 

It is the primitive organization of races, their mental instincts, 
which determine their characters and destinies, and not blind hazard. 
All history, as well as anatomy and physiology, prove this. 

Reason has been called the "proud prerogative of man" — being 
the faculty which disunites him from the brute creation. Metaphy- 
sicians propose many definitions of instinct and of reason ; and learned 
tomes have been written to show wherein the one difl["ers from the 
other : and yet no true mental philosopher will contend that the line 
of demarcation can be drawn, nor can he point out where animal 
intellect ends and that of man begins. Even Prichard admits that 
animals do reason, and I might quote observations of the ablest natu- 
ralists to support him ; but the following resume suflices. 

To judge the true nature of a "species" of animals, it must be viewed in its natural 
state ; that is, unchanged either by domestication, or through foreign influences. To judge 
a " type" of the human family, it must also be studied separately; unadulterated in blood, 
and in the natural condition in which its instincts and energies have placed it. Our 
domestic animals, influenced by artificial causes, now differ exceedingly in physique and in 



COMPARATIVE ANATOxMT OP RACES. 461 

morale from their primitive wild progenitors. The races of men are governed by similar 
laws. Intelligence, activity, ambition, progression, high anatomical development, charac- 
terize some races ; stupidity, indolence, immobility, savagism, low anatomical development 
distinguish others. Lofty civilization, in all cases, has been achieved solely by the "Cau- 
casian" group. Mongolian races, save in the Chinese family, in no instance have reached 
beyond the degree of semi-civilization ; while the Black races of Africa and Oceanica, no 
less than the Barbarous tribes of America, have remained in utter darkness for thousands 
of years. Negro races, when domesticated, are susceptible of a limited degree of improve- 
ment ; but when released from restraint, as in Hayti, they sooner or later relapse into 
barbarism. 

Furthermore, certain savage types can neither be civilized nor domesticated. The Bar- 
barous races of America (excluding the Toltecs), although nearly as low in intellect as the 
Negro races, are essentially untameable. Not merely have all attempts to civilize them 
failed, but also every endeavor to enslave them. Our Indian tribes submit to extermina- 
tion, rather than wear the yoke under which our Negro slaves fatten and multiply. 

It has been falsely asserted, that the Choctaw and Cherokee Indians have made great pro- 
gress in civilization. I assert positively, after most ample investigation of the facts, that the 
pure-blooded Indians are everywhere unchanged in their habits. Many white persons, settling 
among the above tribes, have intermarried with them ; and all such trumpeted progress 
exists among these whites and their mixed breeds alone. The pure-blooded savage still 
skulks untamed through the forest, or gallops athwart the prairie. Can any one call the 
name of a single pure Indian of the Barbarous tribes who — except in death, like a wild 
cat — has done anything worthy of remembrance ? 

Sequoyah, alias George Guess, the "Cherokee Cadmus," so re- 
nowned for the invention of an alphabet, was a half-breed, owing his 
inventive genius to his Scotch father. My information respecting 
these Cherokee tribes has been obtained from such men as Governor 
Butler, Major Hitcbcock, Colonel Bliss, and other distinguished offi- 
cers of our army — all perfectly conversant with these hybrid nations. 

While, on the one hand, it must be admitted, that animals possess 
a limited degree of reason, it is equally true, on the other, that the 
races of men also have their instincts. They reason, but this " reason," 
as we term it, is often propelled by a blind internal force, which can- 
not be controlled. Groups of mankind, as we have abundantly seen, 
differ in their cranial developments ; and their instincts drive them 
into lines diverging from each other — giving to each one its typical 
or national character. 

The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Celts, the Chinese, 
or the Hindoos, have not been solely guided by simple reason. Each type possessed, at the 
start, mental instinct, which, driving reason before it, determined each national character. 
The earliest civilization known to us is that of Egypt ; and from this foundation, it is com- 
monly said, all more modern civilizations are derived. Of this, science is by no means 
certain. From Egypt, the stream is supposed to have flowed steadily on, through Assyria, 
Palestine, Tyre, Persia, Greece, Rome, Gaul, Germany, Spain, Britain, until it crossed the 
Atlantic to our Federal Union. Certain it is, that Western Europe has rifted the bonds of 
barbarism only within recent historical times. European races, notwithstanding, possessed 
those cranial developments, and those moral instincts, which forced them to play their 
parts in the grand drama, as soon as the light penetrated to them, and that forms of 
government and stability became secured. The Celtic and the Germanic races required no 



462 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 

gradual "expansion of brain," through successive educated generations. Created -with 
the fullest " expansion," they only awaited opportunity to practise it. But, -what has been 
the history of the dark races ? When the stream originating in old Oriental civilization 
bounded across the Atlantic, instead of emulously dvinking of its glorious waters, the abori- 
gines of America have succumbed beneath its eddy, as though it exhaled an epidemic 
pestilence. 

The Black- African races inhabiting the South of Egypt have been 
in constant intercourse with her, as we prove from the monuments, 
during 4000 years ; and yet they have not made a solitary step to- 
wards civilization — neither will they, nor can they, until their physical 
organization becomes changed. With our verbal reservations about 
the term "Caucasian," [supra, p. 247,] the following paragraph, from 
the trenchant pen of Theodore Parkek, speaks incontestable truths : — 

"The Caucasian diflFers from all other races : he is humane, he is civilized, and progresses. 
He conquers with his head, as well as with his hand. It is intellect, after all, that con- 
quers — not the strength of a man's arm. The Caucasian has been often master of the 
other races — never their slave. He has carried his religion to other races, but never 
taken theirs. In history, all religions are of Caucasian origin. All the great limited forms 
of monarchies are Caucasian. Republics are Caucasian. All the great sciences are of 
Caucasian origin ; all inventions are Caucasian ; literature and romance come of the same 
stock ; all the great poets are of Caucasian origin ; Moses, Luther, Jesus Christ, Zoroaster, 
Budha, Pythagoras, were Caucasian. No other race can bring up to memory such cele- 
brated names as the Caucasian race. The Chinese philosopher, Confucius, is an exception 
to the rule. To the Caucasian race belong the Arabian, Persian, Hebrew, Egyptian ; and 
all the European nations are descendants of the Caucasian race." 

It is vehemently maintained, that mankind must be of common 
origin, because all men are endowed with more or less of reason, with 
some moral sense, and are impressed with the idea of responsibility 
to a Supreme Being ; but the ver}' statement of such proposition car- 
ries with it the conviction that it is simply an hypothesis, unsupported 
by facts. N'o line can be drawn between men and animals on the 
ground of "reason," and more than one of the savage races of men 
possess no perceptible moral or religious ideas. 

If the Bible had been so construed as to teach that there were, from the beginning, 
many primitive races of men, instead of one, the psychological grades would doubtless have 
been regarded by everybody as presenting the plainest analogies when compared with the 
species of inferior animals. It would have been allowed at once, that beings so distinct in 
physical characters should naturally present diversity of mental and moral traits. All the 
species of equidm exhibit certain habits and instincts in common, whilst diflFering in others. 
Amongst carnivora, the felines — such as lions, tigers, panthers, leopards, lynxes, cats — 
present a unity of moral and intellectual character, so to say, quite as striking as that dis- 
played by the human family; and, scientifically speaking, there is just as much ground, 
at this point of view, for saying that all the felines ai-e of one " species," as all the various 
types of mankind. 

Nor can any valid argument be drawn from credence in a God, or in a future state. 
There exists among human races not the slightest unity of thought on these recondite 
points. Some believe in one God ; the greater number in many : some in a future state, 
whilst others have no idea of a Deity, nor of the life hereafter. Blany of the African, and 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 463 

all of the Oceanic Negroes, as missionaries loudly proclaim, possess only the crudest and 
most grovelling superstitions. Such tribes entertain merely a confused notion of " good 
spirits," whose benevolence relieves the savage from any fatiguing illustration of his grati- 
tude ; and an intense dread of " bad spirits," whom he spares no clumsy sacrifice to propi- 
tiate. Did space permit, I could produce historical testimonies by the dozen, to overthrow 
that postulate which claims for sundry inferior types of men any inherent recognition of 
Divine Providence — an idea too exalted for their cerebral organizations : and which is 
fondly attributed to them by untravelled or unlettered "Caucasians;" whose kind-hearted 
simplicity has not realized that diverse lower races of humanity actually exist uninvested 
by the Almighty with mental faculties adequate to the perception of religious sentiments, 
or abstract philosophies, that in themselves are exclusively " Caucasian." 

Men and animals are naturally imbued with an instinctive fear of death ; and it is per- 
haps more universal and more intense in the latter than the former. Man not only shud- 
ders instinctively at the idea of the grave, but his mind, developed by culture, carries 
him a step further. He shrinks from total annihilation, and longs and hopes for, and be- 
lieves in, another existence. This conception of a future existence is modified by race and 
through education. Like the pre-Celtse of ancient Europe, the Indian is still buried with 
his stone-headed arrows, his rude amulets, his dog, &c., equipped all ready for Elysian 
hunting-fields ; at the same time that many a white man imagines a heaven where he shall 
have nothing to do but sing Dr. Watts' hymns around the Eternal throne. 

It matters not from whatever point we may choose to view the argument, unity of races 
cannot be logically based upon psychological grounds. It is itself a pure hypothesis, 
which one day will cease to attract the criticism of science. 

In a Review by Geo. Combe of Morton's Crania Americana,^ may 
be found a most interesting comparison of the brains of American 
aborigines with the European. Comparisons of any two well-marked 
types would yield results quite as striking. A few extracts are all we 
can afford from an article that, commanding the respect, will excite 
the interest of the reader. 

"No adequately-instructed naturalist doubts that the brain is the organ of the mind. 
But there are two questions, on which great diflFerence of opinion continues to prevail : — 
1. Whether the size of the brain (health, age and constitution being equal,) has any, and if 
80, what influence, on the power of mental manifestations ? 2. Whether different faculties 
are, or are not, manifested by particular portions of the brain." 

I believe that all scientific men concede that brains below a certaiil 
size are always indicative of idiocy, and that men of distinguished 
mental faculties Jiave large heads. 

" One of the most singular features in the history of this continent is, that the aboriginal 
races, with few exceptions, have perished, or constantly receded, before the Anglo-Saxon 
race ; and have in no instance [not even Cherokee] either mingled with them as equals, or 
adopted their manners and civilization." 

" Certain parts of the brain, in all classes of animals [says Cuvier^ee ] are large or small, 
according to certain qualities of the animals." 

"If then there be reason to believe that different parts of the brain manifest different 
mental faculties, and if the size of the part influence the power of manifestation, the ne- 
cessity is very evident of taking into consideration the relative proportions of different parts 
of the brain, in a physiological inquiry into the connection between the crania of nations 
and their mental faculties. To illustrate this position, we present exact drawings of two 
casts from nature; one (Fig. 353) is the brain of an American Indian; and the other 
(Fig. 354) the brain of an European. Both casts bear evidence of compression or flattening 



464 



COMPAKATIVE ANATOMY OF KACES. 



out, to some extent, by the pressure of the plaster ; but the European brain is the flatter 
of the two. We have a cast of the entire head of this American Indian, and it corresponds 
closely with the form of the brain here represented. It is obvious that the absolute size 
of the brain (although probably a few ounces less in the American) might be the same in both ; 
and yet, if diiferent portions manifest difl^erent mental powers, the characters of the indi- 
viduals, and of the nations to which they belonged (assuming them to be types of the races), 
might be exceedingly different. In the American Indian, the anterior lobe, lying between 




D D 

American Indian. 




A A and B B, is small, and in the European it is large, in proportion to the middle lobe, 
lying between B B and C C. In the American Indian, the posterior lobe, lying between C 
and D, is much smaller than in the European. In the American, the cerebral convolutions 
on the anterior lobe and upper surface of the brain, are smaller than in the European. 

" If the anterior lobe manifest the intellectual faculties — the middle lobe, the propensi- 
ties common to man with the lower animals — and the posterior lobe, the domestic and social 
affections — and if size influence the power of manifestation, the result will be, that in the 
native American, intellect will be feeble — in the European, strong ; in the American, ani- 
mal propensity will be very great — in the European, more moderate; while, in the Ame- 
rican, the domestic and social afi'ections will be feeble, and, in the European, powerful. 
We do not state these as established results ; we use the cuts only to illustrate the fact 
that the native American and European brains differ widely in the proportions of their different 
parts ; and the conclusion seems natural, that if difl'erent functions be attached to different 
parts, no investigation can deserve attention which does not embrace the size of the diffe- 
rent regions, in so far as it can be ascertained." 

Prof. Tiedemann admits that "there is, undoubtedly, a very close connection between 
the absolute size of the brain and the intellectual powers and functions of the mind ; " as- 
serting also that the Negro races possess brain as large as Europeans : but, while he over- 
looked entirely the comparative size of parts, Morton has refuted him on the equality in 
absolute size. 

The atove comparison of two human brains illustrates anatomical 
divergences between European and American races. Could a com- 
plete series of engravings, embracing specimens from each t}^e of 
mankind, be submitted to the reader, his eye, seizing instantaneously 



COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 465 

the cerebral distinctions between Peruvians and Australians, Mon- 
gols and Hottentots, would compel bina to admit that the physical 
difference of human races is as obvious in their internal brains as in 
their external features. 

Let us here pause, and inquire what landmarks have been placed 
along the track of our journey. The reader who has travelled with 
us thus far will not, I think, deny that, from the facts now accessible, 
the following must be legitimate deductions : — 

1. That the surface of our globe, is naturally divided into several zoological provinces, each of 

which is a distinct centre of creation, possessing a peculiar fauna and flora; and that every 
species of animal and plant was originally assigned to its appropriate province. 

2, That the human family offers no exception to this general law, but fully conforms to it : 

Mankind being divided into several groups of Races, each of which constitutes a primitive 
element in the fauna of its peculiar province. 
8. That history affords no evidence of the transformation of one Type into another, nor of the 
origination of a new and permanent Type. 

4. That certain Types have been permanent through all recorded time, and despite the most 

opposite moral and physical influences. 

5. That PERMANENCE of Type is accepted by science as the surest test of specific character. 

6. That certain Types have existed {the same as now) in and around the Valley of the Nile, 

from ages anterior to 3500 years B. c, and consequently long prior to any alphabetic 
chronicles, sacred or profane. 

7. That the ancient Egyptians had already classified Mankind, as known to them, into four 

Races, previously to any date assignable to Moses. 

8. That high antiquity for distinct Races is amply sustained by linguistic researches, by psycho- 

logical history, and by anatomical characteristics. 

9. That the primeval existence of Man, in widely separate portions of the globe, is proven by the 

discovery of his osseous and industrial remains in alluvial deposits and in diluvial drifts ; 
and more especially of his fossil bones, imbedded in various rocky strata along with the 
vestiges of extinct species of animals. 

10. That PROLiFiCACT of distinct species, inter se, is now proved to be no test of common 

ORIGIN. 

11. That those Races of men most separated in physical organization — such as the BLACK3 
and the whites — do not amalgamate perfectly, but obey the Laws of Hybridity. Hence 

12. It follows, as a corollary, that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial 
Types or "Species," 



Here terminates Part I. of this volume, and with it the joint 
responsibilities of its authors. It remains for my colleague, Mr. 
Gliddon, to show what light has been thrown by Oriental researches 
upon those parts of Scripture that bear upon the "Origin of 
Mankind." 

J. C. N. • 

59 



PART II. 



CHAPTEE XIV. 

THE Xth CHAPTEE OF GENESIS. 

" Consilium igitur fuit tractatui de Paradiso pro appendice subnectere 
breu6 expositionem decimi capitis Geneseos de humani generis propagatione 
ex stirpe Nose. Ex qua non veteres mode sed et nouitios inierpretes honcm 

ignoratione a sacri Scriptoris scopo scepe aberasse pateret Itaque hoc restat 

vnicum, vt ad sacram anchoram hoc est ad Scripturam confugiamus : Quse 
non solum in genere docet omnes homines ex vno semine esse editos, nempe ex 
Adamo in creatione, et post diluuium ex Noa et tribus filiis, sed et recenset 
nepotes Nose, et qui populi ex singulis ortum duxerint." 

(Phaleg seu De Dispersione Gentium et Terrarum divisione ficta iu 
cedlficatione iurris Babd — auctore Samvele Bochario : 1651.) 567 

Preliminary Hemarks. 

Two centuries intervene, as well as many thousand miles of land 
and water, between the completion of Bochart's unsurpassable labors 
and the seemingly-audacious resumption of his inquiries in the present 
volume. The author of Geographia Sacra would smile, with more 
complacency perhaps than some of our readers, did he know that the 
edifice raised by his enormous erudition, in old scholastic Belgium, 
had been taken to pieces stone by stone ; and, after a scrutinizing, 
but frugal, rejection of time-rotted superfluities, has been reverentially 
rebuilt, in the piny-woods of Alabama^, on the rough, though beaute- 
ous, shore of Mobile Bay. 

It is with some regret that, in order to compress their work into a 
portable tome, the authors lop away unsparingly the evidences of 
studies to which many months were conjointly and exclusively de- 
voted : but, at present, they must content themselves with the briefest 
synopsis of results. Their references indicate the sources of all emen- 
dations proposed — by far the greater bulk of which (with the sole 
exception of MiCHiELis's criticisms of seventy years ago)^**^ arise fi'om 
discoveries made by living Egyptologists, Hebraists, Cuneatic-students, 

( 4G6 ) 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 467 

and similar masters of Oriental lore. These references will establish, 
that, in the conscientious application of enlightened learning to the 
Hebrew Text of Xth Grenesis, commentaries of the genuine English 
evangelical school have ever played an insignificant part. Where the 
latter sometimes happen to be right, their facts are taken — generally 
at second-hand, and mostly without acknowledgment — from Bochart; 
and wherever, more frequently, they are wrong, they have either 
ignored his text or the very-accessible criticism of Continental archae- 
ologists. Of trivial value in themselves, such popular commentaries 
possess less weight in science ; and, having wasted their own time in 
hunting through dozens of them for a new fact or an original obser- 
vation, the authors will spare the reader's by leaving them unmen- 
tioned. 

" Priscorum mendax coimnenta estfahula vatum, 

Sincerumgue nihil, nil sine labe fuit. 

Sordibus ex isHs densa et caligine lucem 

Eruere, humancB non fuit ariis opus. 

Desperaia aliis unus tentare Bochaetvs 

Ausus, et ignotas primus inire vias." 

" The ethnographic chart 569 contained in the tenth chapter of Genesis, presents," says 
Dr. Eadie, "a broad and interesting field of investigation. It carries us back to a dim and 
remote era — when colonization was rapid and extensive, and the princes of successive 
bands of emigrants gave their names to the countries which they seized, occupied, and 
divided among their followers. This ancient record has not the aspect of a legend which 
has arisen, no one can tell how, and received amplification and adornment in the course of 
ages. It is neither a confused nor an unintelligible statement. Its sobriety vouches for 
its accuracy. As its genealogy is free from extravagance, and as it presents facts without 
the music and fiction of poetry, it must not be confounded with Grecian and Oriental my the, 
■which is so shadowy, contradictory and baseless — a region of grotesque and cloudy phan- 
toms, where Phylarchs are exalted into demigods, born of Nymph or Nereid, and claiming 
some Stream or River for their sire. The founders of nations appear, in such fables, as 
giants of superhuman form — or, wandering and reckless outcasts and adventurers, exhibit- 
ing in their nature a confused mixture of divine and human attributes ; and the very names 
of Ouranos, Okeanos, Kronos, and Gaea, the occupants of this illusory cloud-land, prove 
their legendary character. In this chapter there is, on the other hand, nothing that lifts 
itself above vulgar humanity, nothing that might, nothing that did not happen in those dis- 
tant and primitive epochs. The world must have been peopled by tribes that gave them- 
selves and their respective regions those several names which they have borne for so many 
ages ; and what certainly did thus occur, may have taken place in the method sketched in 
these Mosaic annals. No other account is more likely, or presents fewer diflSculties ; and, 
if we credit the inspiration of the writer of it, we shall not only receive it as authentic, but be 
grateful for the information which it contains. Modern ethnology does not contradict it. Many 
of the proper names occurring on this roll remain unchanged, as the appellations of races 
and kingdoms. Others are found in the plural or dual number, proving that they bear a 
personal and national reference (Gen. x. 13) ; and a third class have that peculiar termina- 
tion which, in Hebrew,^ signifies a sept or tribe (x. 17)." ''"o 

The above scholar-like definition of what Dr. Hales styles " that 
most venerable and valuable Geographical Chart, the tenth chapter of 
Genesis,^'^ indicates the absolute impossibility of obtaining satisfactory 



468 THE TENTH CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 

glimpses of a large portion of humanity's earliest migrations without 
discussing, at the very threshold of inquiry, that antique document. 
Apart from this fundamental classification of some human primordial 
wanderings, bootless jndeed would be attempts to follow the cobweb 
threads of our own ancestral creepings, backward from America to 
Europe, and thence to their primitive European or Asiatic starting- 
points. Every aboriginal tradition we Anglo-Saxons cherish, is but 
a ray of morning light, flitting though it be, projected from the Au- 
rora of our Eastern homes. 

" The Orient, with her immense recollections that touch the cradle of the ■world, as this 
itself touches the cradle of the sun, with her seas of sand, beneath which nations lie for- 
gotten, endures still. She preserves, yet living in her bosom, the first enigma and the first 
traditions of the human race. In history as in poetry, in religious manifestations as in 
philosophical speculations, the East is ever the antecedent of the West. AVe must therefore 
seek to know her, in order to become well acquainted with ourselves." 572 

But, before the historical character of this Ethnic map can be appre- 
ciated — before our unhesitating acceptance of it as a witness demon- 
strably credible — its antiquity, its nature, and its authorship, are 
indispensable points of preliminary inquiry. 

The authors of the present work, impressed with the necessity of 
using the Xth chapter of Grenesis as a "ground-text" for a lai'ge sec- 
tion of their anthropological researches, coincided in the opinion that 
an "Archaeological Introduction to its study" ought to preface their 
adoption of its data. In consequence, it was decided, that the labor 
involved in such undertaking should be allotted to that one of the 
writers whose Oriental specialities naturally indicated him as per- 
former of the task. Too complex in nature, no less than too bullcy 
in size, to serve for a chapter in the text of " Tjq^es of Mankind," 
this Archseological Introduction now becomes a Supplement to the 
work itself; thereby preserving its own unity, at the same time that 
to the reader it is equally accessible, being bound up in the same 
volume. 

The perusal, then, of the Supplement is recommended to the reader 
previously to his further continuation of this work ; because the para- 
graphs upon Xth Genesis, hereto immediately following, are projected 
under the impression that such will be the natural course. 

Which taken for granted, we place before us Cahen's Genese,^'^ for 
the Hebrew text of Xth Genesis, and proceed to its critical dissection. 
The method we shall adopt, if at first sight novel, will be found 
strictly archaeological. It would be unphilosophic to set forth with 
any theory as to age, authorship, or true place, of this document, in 
the arrangement of the canonical books. These points can resile 
solely through exegetical analysis of tlie document itself; which — 
written in the square-letter Hebrew character (not invented prior to 



HEBRETV NOMENCLATURE. 469 

the third century after c.) ; divided into words (a system of writing 
not introduced in the earliest Hebrew MSS. — tenth century after c); 
punctuated by the "Masora" (commencing in the sixth, and closing 
about the ninth century after c.) ; and subdivided into verses (not 
begun before the thirteenth century after c.) — now presents itself to 
our contemplation. 

Section A. — Analysis op the Hebrew JSTomenclature. 

Omitting, for the present, any comment upon verse 1 : " Behold 
the generations of the children of I^oah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; 
they had children after the deluge " — our point of departure is verse 
2. " The children of Japheth," eldest of the three brethren ; whose 
descendants, upon grounds to be justified hereinafter, we denominate 

Iapetidje, or White Races. 

[ Before proceeding, let me mention that, after our Genealogical Table was in type, Prof. 
Agassiz favored me -with the loan of by far the most important work I have ever met with 
on Japethic questions: viz., Voyage auioiir du Caucase, chcz Ics Tcherkesses et les Abkhasea, 
en Colchide, en Georgie, en Armenie, et en Crmee,^~'^ par Fkederic Dubois de Montpekeux. 
Extreme was my satisfaction to perceive that our results not only had been anticipated, but 
that they were so accurate as to demand no alterations of the Table. Following the pro- 
found researches of Omalius de Halloy,5~5 and of Count John Potocki,5"6 the personal 
explorations of M. Dubois supersede everything printed on " Caucasian" subjects. I have 
made the freest use of his ethnological inquiries, as will be perceived under each Japethic 
name ; but it is not in my power to convey to the reader adequate knowledge of the maps 
with which this magnificent folio Atlas is profusely adorned. On these, the successive dis- 
placements occasioned by the migrations, &c., of ancient "Caucasians" are so skilfully 
shown, that one's eye seizes instantaneously some 2500 years of history. To take GoMeR, 
or Kimmerians, as an example. Beginning in the 

6th cent. b. o. — PI. Tllla. gives "Primitive Georgia before tlie invasion of the Scythians (Khazars)." 
" Scythia and Caucasus of Herodotus." 
" Periplus of Scylax Caryandinian." 
" Tauride, Caucasus, and Armenia of Strabo." 
" Tauride, Caucasus, and Armenia of Pliny.' 
" Arrian's Periplus of the Black Sea." 
" Wars of the Romans and Persians." 
" Massoudi's description of Caucasus," Ac. 

Now, on such maps, the transplantations of these Kimmerians can be followed, almost sta- 
tion by station : so minutely, that one might infer that GoMeR-m7!« became known to the 
Hebrew geographer after they had abandoned the northern Tauride to the Scythians, b. c. 
633, and had settled about Paphlagonia, on the south-eastern side of the Black Sea. And so 
on with all the lapetidoe of Xth Genesis. It need hardly be said that, in common with Bo- 
chart and ourselves, Dubois perceives nations and countries, and not individuals, in the 
Hebrew chart. — G. R. G.] 

Hi]' OD—BOT-n>AT^— "Affiliations of Japhet."— (?ew. x. 2. 
1. -)QJ— -GMR — 'Gomee.' 

Essentially Indo-Germanic, this name, as well as all those of Japethites, is irresolv- 
able into Semitish radicals ; and its Hebrew lexicographic affinities, such as to ' com- 
plete, consume,' &c., are rabbinical, spurious, and irrelevant. 



6th " 


« IX. 


^d « 
1st " 


" X. 
" XIa. 


1st cent. A. c. 


« xn. 


2d « 


« xni. 


6th « 


" XIV. 


10th " 


- « XVa. 



470 THE TENTH CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 

(1 Chron. i. 5, 6) — " Gomek, and all his hordes — " {Ezek. xxxviii. 6). In Homer 
and in Diodorus, Ktiiiicpiot ; in Herodotus, Boffiropoj Kimiiptos. In Josephus the Galatce 
are called Tonapci; ; possibly also understood in the Scytho-Bactrian Chomari, Comari, 
of Ptolemy. These are, undoubtedly, the Gomerians, Cimmerians, Crimeans, who, 
under the yarious forms of Cymr, Kymr, Kumero, Cimbri, Cambri, and Galatm, Gael, 
Gauls, Kelts, Celts, figure as a branch of Celtic migrations in later European history. 
If Celtic migrators be considered anterior to the age of Xth Genesis, we should not 
hesitate in adopting the Germanic Sigambri, Sicambri; or the Gambrivii, or the Gama- 
briuni, as memorials of 'Gomer.' Kawlinson evolves 'Tsimri' from the cuneatic 
legends of Khorsabad. 

The name GiMe'Rian, in endless forms, is scattered from Asia Minor to Scandinavia, 
for the following historical reason. About the year b. c. 633, the Scytho-Khazars ex- 
pelled the Kimmerians from Kimmericum. One set of fugitives sought asylum in 
Western Europe ; while the other skirted the eastern shores of the Black Sea ; and, 
settling in and around Phrygia, became known to the writer of Xth Genesis. Bochart 
had happily remarked " Itaque omnibus expensis terra Gomer mihi videtur esse 
Phrygia, cujus portio estregio KaraKtKaviJihri." This word signifies the ' 52trw!!-district:' 
and Dubois thoroughly establishes that the volcanic nature of such Kimmerian localities 
explains all their mythic associations with the infernal waters, Styx, Phlegethon, Co- 
cytus, Acheron, &c., which cluster around the naphtha-springs and mud- volcanoes of 
the present lenikale. 

The Tauric Chersonesus, north of the Black Sea, would seem to have been the ex- 
tremest geographical boundary assumed by the Hebrew writer ; and by a simple trans- 
position of letters, GMR (GRiMea) is still apparent in the name of this early Eimmerian 
halting-place, viz. : the Crimea.sn 

2. JIJin — MGUG- — ' Magog.' 

Indo-Germanic, or Scythic ; and, therefore, not the Hebrew "he who covers and dis- 
solves." [Gen. X. 2; Chron. i. 5; Ezek. xxxviii. 2; xxxix. 6). 

Magog is not associated with Gog until the times of Ezekiel, during the Captivity, 
from about ' the 30th year' of Nabopolassar, 595 b. c. down to 572 b. c. {Ezek. i. 1 ; 
xxxix. 17). In the post-Christian but uncertain age of the writer of the Apocalypse 
(between a. d. 95 and the Council of Laodicea, which rejected it as apocryphal, 360- 
369, A. D.,) ' Gog and Magog' appear together as nations (Rev. xx. 20) ; whereas, 
seven to eight centuries previously, Gog, "the Prince of Rhos, Meshech and Tubal," 
would seem to have been understood as the proper name of a king. King James's 
version {Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, &c.), by "Chief jamce of Meshech and Toubal," effaces 
HAS {i. e. Rhos ; the river Araxes, and the nation Rhoz-kXam., or Alains), and perpet- 
uates an error detected by Bochart 200 years ago. 

Arab tradition, under the appellatives Yabjooj and Madjoo.t, prolongs the union 
down to the seventh century after Christ ; with the commentary, that they are two 
nations descended from Japheth ; Gog being attributed to the Turks, and Magog to the 
GeeUn, the Geli and Gelse of Ptolemy and Strabo, and our Alani. 

In ancient Greek and Latin, Fiyas, Gygas, read also Gug-as, signified giant; and 
oriental legend associated giants with Scythians in the north of Asia. Magog has been 
assimilated to the Massagetce (perhaps J/«s«a-Get8e, J/a.9;a?i-Getoe, of Mount 3Iasiiis) who 
are to GetoR what Magog is to Gog ; the prefixes of ma and massa being considered 
intensitives to indicate either the most honored branch of the nation, or the whole 
nation itself. Tacitus and Pliny mention the 'CAoMCorum gentes,' and the Chauci, 
among powerful tribes in Germany at their day ; and Gog may underlie these migrations. 

Ezekiel groups Gog with Rhos, Toubal and Meshech; and, inasmuch as Roxalani, 
Tibareni, and Moschii, no less than the transplanted Crimeans (Gojieb), were geo- 
graphically located in Asia Minor, between the Black Sea and the Caspian, the habitats 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 471 

of them all lay in that region. By Straho, the country of Gog-arene (Gog-ai'ranian ? 
air = man ; ' man of CAUc-asus ' ?) is placed near that of the Moschi. Josephus renders 
the name of Magog by Scythians ; and Jerome, " Magog esse gentes Scythicas immanes 
et innumerabik-s, quoe trans Caucasum montem et Mseotidem paludem, et prope Caspium 
mare ad Indiam usque tendantur." 

But, ingenious as they are, such etymologies become henceforth superfluous through 
Dubois's excellent suggestions. The Hebrew word is Ma-GUG. The iirst syllable 
refers to the Maiotes, Mwtes, Mates, 3Ieotes : tribes of the Sarmates, royaMIedes, Sauro- 
Madai, (;. e., Tauric Medians, transplanted from the Taurus to the east of the Caspian,) 
of the Sea of Azof. The second syllable, GUG, is simply the Indo-Germanic word 
Khogh, ' mountain' (as in the celebrated diamond, Koh-en-noor, ' mountain of light ') ; 
■which has been preserved in the Hellenized name Kauk-asos, or Cauc-asus, from the 
time of Herodotus, b. c. 430 ; as also in the " inscription de P^risades, premier archonte 
du Bosphore, en 349 avant j.-c." Having thus fixed GUG to a 'mountain,' Cawc-asos, 
the root of asos is instantly recognized in the national name of the Osses, Osseth, Yases, 
Acs, Asi; whence the continent of 'Asia' derives its European designation. These 
Osses, or As, are traceable in the ancient Jaxamales, or Yas-Meotes, as perfectly as in 
the modern Jazigces, Yasyghes (or I rt«-Djiks), ' Jaz-Djiks ' ; who now call themselves 
Tcherkesses, by us corrupted into ' Circassians.' They have been likewise termed 
Ovsni, Adas, Akas, and even Kergis, by the old travellers ; and while the first syllable 
of their ante-historical name yet floats over the Sea of ASo/(Azof ), and lives in the 
Abkh-.4«s-mountaineers, it has been borne to Asaland (land of the Asa) no less than 
to Asgard (city of the Asa), in old Scandinavia. In this manner ably sums up Dubois, 
"As far back as history mounts, she finds within the angle circumscribed between the 
Cauc-asus, the Palus M^otis, and the Tanais, an Asia-proper, inhabited by a people, 
'AS,' of Indo-Germanic race: " and we discover, in the JVa-iotes of the 'mountain' 
Cffwc-asus, the long-lost and mystified nation, Ma-GUG, of Xth Genesis. 

Thus, this collective name of Magog designated one of many barbarous Caucasian 
hordes, -roaming of yore between the Euxine and the Caspian, including, probably, 
Gothic amid Scythic families ; and Gog has left, even to this day, besides the living 
Osses, a trail still visible in the very etymon of his ancient homestead, the CKVG-Asian 
mountains.5"8 

na — MDI — 'Madai.' 

Indo-Germanic, or Scythic. Not Hebrew, ' covering,' ' coat,' &c. 

The LXX transcribe Ma^oi, in lieu of Mtfo<. The Persian word madhya^the ' middle,' 
its supposed derivation. Herodotus counted seven nations, and says their ancient 
name was ^noj, the 'braves'; that is, Arii, 'Arians.' It is probable, however, that 
the root air, which in Scythic tongues means ' man,' may have been assimilated to Ari, 
'lion,' in the alien speech of Semitic nations. The name is spread over a vast area, 
from Arhan, 'Armenia,' through /r5«, 'Persia,' to the conquering Aryas, Ayras, of 
Hindostan. 

In primitive times, the origines of all nations were personified ; and, according to 
Strabo, Medus, son of the mythological Jason and Medea, was the progenitor of the 
Medes. The name Madak occurs in the seventh century, written in Assyrian cunei- 
form, on sculptures from Khorsabad ; and Rawlinson transcribes Mddiya from the in- 
numerable legends of Behistun and Persepolis, deciphered through his acumen. 

Ragce 'Media,' was called Ruka by the Egyptians of the XVIIIth dynasty; and 
perhaps Matai is iledia itself. 

The name Mede still survives in Ilamadan (Ecbatana), just as that oi Arian (Aria, 
Arii) in the HaRA of 1 Chron. v. 26. 

They are the Medes : and further reference to Scriptural or to classical passages, 
in their case, is superfluous.s~9 



472 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

4, |V_IUN' — 'Javan.' 

Indo-Germanic ; and not from the Hebrew, ' mud,' or ' oppressor.' 

In this instance, the Masoreiic points (not added to the Text until after the fifth cen- 
tury of our era), and the modern Jewish reading of V for U, alone obscure a name 
whose literal meaning springs out at first glance. 

" The barbarians called all Greeks by the name of lonians," says the Scholiast on 
Aristophanes : and the Greeks revenged themselves by terming all other people bar- 
barians. 

The LXX correctly transcribe imvav ; for laovts is the older form in Homer ; a name 
to be distinguished from the later luvcj, according to Pausanias. Herodotus recounts 
how the Athenians, previously called Pelasgi, received the name lonians, from ION, son 
of Xuihus ; the traditionary ancestor of the Ionian race. 

In Daniel xi. 2, where King James's version renders Grecia, the original has lUN ; 
but the age of this document not ascending earlier than b. c. 175-160, in the reign of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, we go back to the 27th March, b. c. 196, date of the coronation 
of Ptolemy Epiphanes at Memphis, recorded on the Rosetta Stone; where the word 
EXX^viKois, in Greek, is rendered, on the corresponding demotic and hieroglyphic texts, 
by lUNiN : a name given by Egyptians to the Greeks at every age, back to the earliest 
records we possess in which lonians are mentioned — documents anterior to Xth Gen- 
esis by some centuries, because ascending to the XVIIIth dynasty. 

Upon the Assyrian monuments of Khorsabad, the same name, Jaotjnin, is read by 
cuneiform scholars, as early as the eighth century b. c. ; and upon the Persian sculp- 
tures of the Achoemenidan dynasty, in the sixth century b. c, the Greeks, as YUNA, 
or Ionia, frequently appear. 

Javanas, or Yavanas, is the Hindoo appellative of the Greeks, in the "Laws of 
Manou," who therein are classed among the Soudras, or 'degenerates'; and, although 
the fabulous antiquity of these Sanscrit records has sunk far below the pretensions 
of the so-called Mosaic, their compilation certainly ascends to the fourth century of 
our era, if not beyond. While, finally, among the Arabs, ancient and modern, Yoond.n 
is the generic name for Greeks in general, and lonians in particular. 

By lUN, or Ionian, the writer of Xth Genesis seems to class the Greeks collectively, 
as far as they were known to him ; and Ionia, on the western coast of Asia Minor, is 
the approximate limit of its geographical application.^so 

5. ^Dn — TiBL — ' Tubal.' 

Indo-Germanic. Not the Hebrew, ' he who is conducted,' &c. 

The LXX place before Thubal another son of Japheth, called Elisa ; but Isaiah, by 
exiling " those who escape" to " Tubal and Javan, the states afar off," shows that, in 
the idea of the writer of the second (or spurious) part of the oracles ascribed to this pro- 
phet, Thubal ranked among distant northern nations of the gentile world. Connected, 
in EzEKiEL, always with Meshech, by whom Tubal is immediately followed in Xth Genesis, 
these two nations of the " uncircumcised " must have lain close together in Hebrew 
geography. 

Iberia, from the roots ebb, and v-rrep, 'beyond,' or, so to say, 'the yojiderer,' was the 
name of an Asiatic country east of Colchis, south of Caucasus, west of Albania, and north 
of Armenia ; in short, corresponding to Georgia of the present day ; classically deno- 
minated Imeriti. The substitution of b for m, at once changes the Imeriti into the Ibe- 
riti: to which prefixing the antique particle t, we obtain the t-Jbarenes of Herodotus 
and Strabo : a designation equivalent to wZ/ra-Caucasians. The word Iberian, in the 
sense of ' yonderer,' was given to many remote nations by aliens to the formers' autoc- 
thonous traditions. 

Identified as the TeSap^jvoi of Strabo, who, by Herodotus, are located with ihe Moschoi, 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 473 

they seem to have been subject to Gog, Cauc-^«ms, in the days of Ezekiel, and to 
have supplied slaves and brazen vessels to the bazaars of Tyre. 

Through the common mutation of r for l, Tuhal is fixed among the Tibareni, (about 
Pontus, on the south-east of the Black Sea, in the neighborhood of Colchis,) from ante- 
historical times down to the Christian era ; and it is in vain, therefore, that Spanish 
orthodoxy, in efforts to affiliate its ancestry with some Genesiacal worthy, (confounding 
the Celto-/Jcr«a with the Iberians of Asia,) should claim Tubal as progenitor of 
Spaniards. 

"The identity of Thobel, or Tubal, with the Georgians," holds Dubois, whilst 
substantiating Bochart, "is nowadays well recognized; because Flavins Josephus 
expressly says, that Tubal represented the Iberians of his time, the Iberians of Pliny, 
of Strabo, of Procopius, who are the Georgians of our day. The transition between 
Tubal and Iberia is the Tibareni of Herodotus. This name has never been, among the 
Georgians themselves, that of the nation ; they give themselves the generic name of 
Karthles: but it has remained in their capital Tbelissi, our Tiflis." The root inrep, over, 
' ultra,' probably underlies T-ibar-eni, and its Hebraicized form of TmBaL ; as well in 
the Hispauian Iberes, as in the Caucasian Iberians — both being a "people beyond." ^^ 

6. ^tyo — MSK — 'Meshech.' 

Indo-Germanic. Not from the Hebrew, ' drawn with force,' &c. 

Erroneously substituted for the Shemite Mash (in 1 Chron. 1. 17), and confounded 
with the Arabian Meseq (in Psalm cxx.), by the forty-seven translators of King James's 
version ; mere analogy of sound has led some commentators to behold in Meshech the 
parent of the Muscovites, incarnated founder of the city of Moscow ! At the same time 
that the Arabic version transcribes Ehorasscin! 

As above stated, " Tubal and Meshech" were deemed cognate nations by the writer 
of Xth Genesis and by Ezekiel; confirmed by Herodotus — Mocxovi i^tv koi TiSaprivovs; 
and the concurrent testimony of Mela, Pliny, Stephanus, and Procopius, places the 
Moffx"') o"" Mtcr;^o(, on the Moschian range, adjacent to Iberia, (Tubal,) Armenia, and the 
Colchide, between the Black and Caspian seas ; still called Mesidji-d&gh, or ' Meshech- 
mountains,' by the recent Turks. The Misek of Rawlinson's cuneatic inscriptions ? 

More ancient than classical, Hebraical, Assyrian, or other extant annals, is the name 
of Meshech. Early as the age of Ramses II., in the fourteenth — fifteenth century 
B. c, or prior to the fugacious era of Moses, (even supposing the Xth chapter of Gen- 
esis to proceed from his individuality,) the Maasu, [Masii, Moschii,] whose cognomen 
is still preserved in " Mons Masius " of the Taurus chain, are chronicled on Egyptian 
papyri, inscribed in days contemporary with Ramses's reign. 

' Meskhes ' is the Georgian appellative for the people of Moskhike, or Moschic. They 
were a mixed population of primitive Phrygians (Thargamosians) and Medes, on the 
southern slope of Caucasus ; who in classical geographies, as the Mosunicoi, Mlosynceci, 
Moschici, are always neighbors of the Colchians, the Tibareni, the Khalybes, &c. ; 
while Ezekiel, as above shown, groups together, in the land of Gog (i. e., Caucasus), 
nations under the sway of the "Prince of Rhos, Meshech, and Tubal;" that is, the 
Araxians, the Meskhes, and the Iberians — inhabitants of that mountainous region. 

Meshech and Moschi are identified.582 

7. DTn — TelRS — 'TiRAS.' 

Indo-Germanic. Not hebraically, ' demolisher,' &c. 

Occurring but iwice, no light can be gathered upon this appellative from other 
Biblical sources than the context of Gen. x., and its repetition in 1 Chron. i. 5. 

The Armenian historian, Moses Chorenensis, remarks — "Our antiquities agree in 
regarding Tiras not as the son of Japheth, but as his grandson." 

epof, ' Thracia,' is unanimously reputed to be the ethnological synonyme of Thiras ; 

60 



474 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

and the river Tipaj, ' Tyras,' of Ptolemy, flowing into the Euxine, now called Dniester, 
to be its geographical, as Thuras, Mars, was its mythic, correspondent. 

TIRoaS, and Troas, in western Mysia, so closely resembling each other, it is not 
impossible that the Troad is intended by the Hebrew writer; especially since the Teucri 
were perhaps of Thracian origin : but no reasonable objection can be raised to the 
usual attribution of Tiras ; and Thrace, the Thraces, or Thracians, may be safely 
assumed as the " ultima Thule " of Hebrew knowledge, towards the north, in the time 
of the writer of Xth Genesis ; whose dim horizon in that direction was doubtless similar 
to that of the Egyptians during the XVIIIth dynasty. Sesostris (in this narrative, 
Ramses II.) had pushed his conquests into Thrace, according to Herodotus and united 
classical tradition. Thriksu, ' Thracians,' are recorded in hieroglyphics at the ruined 
temple north of Esneh, among the conquests of Ptolemy Evergetes 1.^83 



aen. X. 3. — no J '^^ — EeOT-GMR— ' Affiliations of the Crimea.' 

8. rJDtTN — ASKlsrZ — 'AsHKENAz.' 

Indo-Germanic ; and, although traced to a 'fire that distils,' so alien to Hebrew, 
that even Rabbinical philologers abandon it, as "obscure." In consequence, some 
perceive the parent of the Germans ! 

Oriental Jews call those of their co-religionists who are settled in Germany AsJike- 
nazlm, which has been confounded with the ASKNZ of Xth Genesis ; whereas the real 
source of this mistake lies in their intonation of the Indo-Germanic name, Sassenach, 
Sascenak, old form of our word Saxon. 

ASKIN, ISQIN, in many dialectic varieties, is the national name of the Basques ; 
and inasmuch as nobody seems to know whence they came to Biscayan neighborhoods, 
we pass on this suggestive similitude as cautiously as it was given to us. 

Repeated in 1 Chron. i. 6, the " Kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz," seem 
to have been limitrophic in the time of Jeremiah — 629 to 588 b. c. — and hence the 
province termed Asikinsene by Strabo has been looked upon as its equivalent. 

The Phrygians appear to have been anciently called Ascanians ; and footprints of 
this migratory name are traceable throughout Bithynian vicinities, in Sinus-Ascanius, 
Ascanius-lacus and amnis ; and likewise in Lesser Phrygia — Ascania, wa.A. Ascanice- 
Insulce. AscANius, son of iEneas, bore the original patronyme from Troas to Latium. 
Bordering on the Black Sea, these Ascanian similarities receive natural explanation 
through Pliny, " Pontus Euxinus, quondam AXENUS ; " and 'Ev^uvoi, the Euxine, or 
Black Sea, preserves a mnemonic of Ascanians and Ashkenaz. 

Rawlinson perceives analogies between Askenaz and the Arzeskan mentioned in cunei- 
form inscriptions of the Nimroud obelisk, the date of which is now assigned to about 
860 B. c. 

"Pontus," says Bochart, " oYim. Aseenaz, Grsecfe A^tvos, quasi inhospitalis dictns ; " 
which wears very much the guise of an Hellenic play upon a foreign word. Potocki, 
followed by Dubois, "finds the Askhandz (Rheginians of Flavins Josephus) in the My 
sian-Askanians, who came from Great-Mysia, and established themselves in the Phry 
gia of Olympus : it was a Germanic colony." May not ASKN, a,s Ascanian, or as Euxine 
be an adjective to aZ, the Asi? 

Suffice it for our purposes, to accept the southern coast of the Euxine as one of tht 
pristine habitats of a people called Ashkenaz.ss* 

9. nsn— RiPT^— 'EiPHATH.' 

Also Indo-Germanic; not 'medicine,' nor 'pardon.' 

Owing to the slight distinction between the letters 1, resh, k, and ^, daleth, v, of the 
modern square-letter character in which the Hebrew text is written, some copyist has 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 475 

bequeathed to us a dilemma — whether the 'Riphaih of Gen. x. 3, should be Biphath, 
or the Diphalh of 1 Chron. i. C, 'Riphaih 1 Commentators agree, however, in preferring 
Riphath; and, while some, following the pseudo-Josephus, have identified the name 
with Great Britain, there are many claimants for France! The LXX read ?i<paO, in 
Xth Genesis. 

Josephus restricts the name to Paphlagonia; in which country Mela places the 
Riphaces. ' 

Mons Niphates (snowy), in Armenia, through the substitution of n for r, has learned 
defenders. But the Vmata oprj, the Riphceis montibus, and the Rhipceas placed by Pto- 
lemy where no mountains exist, near his imaginary sources of the Tanais, or Don, are 
the favorite localities chosen for Riphaih. 

To this view there are weighty objections. If the Monies Rhipcei, or Ilypcrborci, be 
the Ural chain, they were too remote even for the vision of geographers who wrote 
at least nine centuries later than the author of Gen. x. The mere accidental analogy 
of a proto-syllable — RIP-e«re with RIP-aTi — when the second radically differs, (the 
only ground upon which the hypothesis rests,) cannot be allowed as negative proof 
against simpler reasons ; especially when the geographical position of the Biphsean 
mountains, save as the tenebrous hyperborean limit of Greek geognosy, is utterly 
unknown. 

The writer of Xth Genesis must have had some reason, more or less scientific, for 
the order in which he mapped out the nations he enumerates. In the present instance, 
among the " aflSliations of the Cimmerian," or Crimea, he places Riphaih between the 
Huxine (Ashkenaz) and Armenia (Togarma) ; confirmed by Latin writers who station the 
Rhibii east of the Euxine. 

"Riphath," adds Dubois, from the authentic reseai-ches of Potocki, "is the veritable 
and most ancient name of the people Shlave. Heniies and Honoriates are but transla- 
tions of a Sclavonian word which signifies honored, distinguished." The Latins added 
a letter to Unites ; which, becoming Vcnetes, Venedes, Vendes, Vinides, and Wends, was 
the title of those Wendo-Shlaves from whom descended the ancient Prussians, together 
with the present Lithuanians, and whence Venice inherits her name. 

Paphlagonia for the country, and Riphaces for its inhabitants, corroborated by the 
opinions of Josephus ond Mela, suflSciently define the position of Riphath.585 

10, riDljn — TiGEMH— 'ToGARMAH.' 

Indo-Germanic, or Scythic ; not, ' which is all bone ' ! 

"They of the house of Togarmah traded," in the fairs of Tyre, " with horses, horse- 
men, and mules," in the time oi Ezekiel xsvii. 14; and, based upon this text, Moses 
Chorenensis derives the Armenians, Georgians, &c., from Tiiaegamos, grandson of 
Noah. 

Its classical similitudes are visible in the Trocmi, Trogmi, about Pontus and Cappa- 
docia; and, at the Council of Chalcedon, there was a bishop, rpoxi^aSiov, of the Trog- 
mades. Josephus makes Aram, Minyas, and Khoul, adjacent to Togarmah. 

The name of Armenia now is Arhan, identical with IRAN, Iriana, original cradle 
of Persians. 

The "History of Georgia," compiled in the reign of Vakhtang V., King of Karthli, 
in 1703-'21, is one of the rarest works. Dubois translates some curious extracts of 
its commencement: — "According to these traditions, the Armenians, the Georgians, 
the inhabitants of Rani (Arran), of Movakani ( C/ic/c;, Chirvan, arxAMougan), of Herfethi 
(Cakheth), the Lesgians, the Mingrelians, and the Caucasians, all descend from the 
same father, who was called Thakgajios. This Thargamos was the son of Tarchis, son 
of Avanan, son ot Japhet, son ot Noah, and was a valiant man." Like Moses of Cho- 
rene, in the fifth century, "Vakhtang wished to hitch his local traditions on to Biblical 
origins. The former historian metamorphosed the names Zrouan, Didan, and Eabc- 



476 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

dosth (wliicli lie found in an old Cbaldsean volume), into " Shem, Ham, and Japheth ;" 
and the race of Habedosth, Merod, Sirath, and Thalclath, became, in his pious hands, 
" Gomer, Thiras, and Thorgomus ! " " It ivas thus that he reconciled the sacred with 
the profane, and that the Ha'ik of the ancient Chaldsean yolume, son of Thalclath, was 
superimposed upon Thorgomus, as a descendant of Japheth." History abounds with 
similar fraudulent genealogies. Thus, skilfully observes Jardot, " Rashid-ed-Deen, 
Vizir of the Emperor Gazan-Kh^n, has left at the commencement of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, upon the origin of the Mongols, erroneous notions, which Arab, Turkish, and Per- 
sian historians have copied ; and even Aboo '1-Ghazee, Governor of Kharizm, in 1654. 
Misguided by a false religious sentiment, Rashid-ed-Deen attached the antique tradi- 
tions of the nomad hordes of Asia to those of the Jews, as preserved in the Koran : — 
Japhei, son of Noah, transported himself to the East, and it is from him that descend the 
people of those countries, afterwards partitioned between two brothers, Tatar-Khdn and Mo- 
goul-Kh&n. All this recital is fabulous, and does not correspond with any of the 
accounts furnished by the Chinese." Even in our day, the " Caucasian" missionary is 
stipended to instil into the ill-furnished crania of African Hottentots and Australian 
Papuas the fond hope that they are positively and lineally descended from Ham! 

The Turks did not approach the Euphrates from their aboriginal hive on the confines 
of China until about 1000 a. n. ; and consequently all ascriptions of the name Togar- 
mah to them seem to be linguistically and historically fallacious. Whether in the 
appellative ' Turcoman ' there be any demonstrable connexion, we will not aver or 
deny. But the Armenians, a primordial people upon their native mountains, call 
themselves "the house otTkorgom;" and there is no good reason to suppose that 
Armenia is not Togabma.h.586 



Gen. X. 4. — p» 'jn — BeOT-rijW — " Affiliations of Ionia." 
11. njT'SiN — ALISH — 'Elishah.' 

Indo-Germanic ; not, ' God that gives help.' 

.Elisa, 'Elis,' on the coast of Peloponnesus, one of the earliest historical settlements 
of Greece, divides with Hellas the honor of being catalogued in Hebrew geography. 
The former, 'EXir, or the Elide, would seem supported by Ezek. iKvii. 7 — "blue and 
purple from the isles of Elishah;" purple-bearing shells having been abundant, an- 
ciently, on the Laconiau shore. The latter, *£AXas, whence 'EAXijvtf became the national 
name for Greeks, does not appear to have possessed, in the times of Homer (whose 
disputed era cannot be much removed from that of the writer of Xth Genesis), the pan- 
Hellenic extension it had acquired about the fifth century b. o., when Herodotus and 
Thucydides flourished : having previously been restricted to a district and town of 
Thessaly. But, adds Grote, no sooner do we step beyond the " first Olympiad, 776 
B. c, our earliest trustworthy mark of Grecian time," than the quicksands of mythical 
legend engulph the criteria by which the relationship of facts can alone be decided. 
Thus, to the Judaic compiler of Xth Genesis, lUN, Ionia, would seem to have been the 
parent of ELiSaH, Elis, or Hellas. On the contrary, Grecian tradition reverses the 
order ; and Ionia, in Asia Minor, becomes an affiliation of Hellas, about 1050 years b c. 
There is no Sk in Greek alphabets, and consequently that articulation was foreign to 
the people. The author of Xth Genesis wrote A, L, I, S, H, in the unknown alphabet 
he used. Elishah, is not older than the Masora Rabbis. The LXX read 'EXtad. 

Either view, however, establishes a close affinity between lonians and Hellenes, or 
Eleans ; and Greeks in general, as well along the shores of the Morea as on the isles 
of the Archipelago, would adequately represent the geography of Alish ; but, in view 
of restricted knowledge (and no Sh), it seems more probable that jEoles and jEolia, 
in Asia Minor, vrere the nation and country intended by the writer of Xth Genesis.^i 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 



477 



12. tr^trnn — TRESIS — 'Tarsiiish.' 

Indo-Germanic ( ? ), or Semitic ( ? ) ; not, ' contemplation.' 

Perhaps, in endeavoring to attain the exact point of view of the author of Xtli Gen- 
esis, this is the most enigmatical problem left to modern solution ; although commen- 
tators of the present day slide over its difficulties, and range themselves under one of 
two schools : the first of which claims Tariessus on the Spanish, the second, Tarsus on 
the Cilician coast, to be the true locality. 

The question is so far important, that in it is involved the occidental limit of the 
geographical knowledge of the Hebrews at the time when Xth Genesis was compiled ; 
and, as customary, modern orthodoxy, which discovers the Chinese in the SINIM of 
Is. xlix. 12 — the Xegroes in K/taM, Ham, of Gen. x. 1 ! and the "ten lost tribes of 
Israel " in the American aborigines, contends for the widest interpretation. 

Scriptural texts require the word Tarshish to be classed under three categories : — 

A. — Tarsus, Topoj — now Tarsous, on the coast of Caramania — an ancient city on 
the river Cydnus : birth-place of Paul, and sepulchre of Julian. Between T^aESIS 
of Xth Genesis, or other passages of the text, and TaRSoS, there is no difference, philo- 
logically, except a "mater lectionis, " or vowel, which, in palseography, is vague. 
The Masoretic points, like the Greek tonic accents, are unauthoritative, beyond indicat- 
ing the traditionary phonetism of post-Christian writers in either tongue: and the 
Masora commences only six centuries after Christ. 

The amphibious adventure of Jonah, which, the Rev. Prof. Stuart says, "plainly 
savors of the miraculous," might possibly indicate the Spanish Tarlessus, as the cor- 
respondent of Tarshish during the uncertain, but recent, age at which this prophetic 
book was composed — a treatise that must not be confounded with the scientific and 
more ancient document — Xth Genesis. 

[The NaBI, ' Jonah,' rebelled against leHOaaH's command, "go to Nineveh," and 
therefore encountered the fate from which Perseus delivered Andromeda, viz. : that 
of deglutition by " a great fah," or monstrous 
eetus — the TTAaZe : which became a sempiternal 
emblem of icthyophagy, when, assuming the 
forms of Cepheus and Cassiepea, it ascended to 
the heavens, or, as Glaucus, descended to the 
sea. In 1850, a paragraph, started in the New 
York "Sunday Messenger" by Major Noah, 
went the rounds of the religious and profane 
newspapers throughout the Union. It asserted 
that the portrait of the Prophet Jonah had been 
found on the walls oi Xineveh! Here he is (Fig. 
355). 

OvavK, Oannes (of Berosus) as lOANes ; and 
Jonah, ' Jonas,' as lONAS ; both being t'-ON-cs = 
ago with Z>a^on, DAG-ON ; i.e. the " sun in pisces, 
god. The same mythe lies in Atirgalis, or Derceto, and especially in those Christian 
forgeries called the " Sibylline verses," beneath the acrostical ix&is. 

I should not hesitate, but for the above praBternatur.alities, in reading the Tarsus of 
Cilicia as the destination of the ship whereupon Jonah took his passage, and "paid the 
fare," on an obedient voyage from Joppa to Nineveh, (as a convenient route anciently, 
before s/cam-navigation, as now "ceteris paribus"), for compliance with the " tetra- 
grammaton's" behests: but he spitefully "rose up to flee unto Tarshish, from the 
presence of ADONAI"; and, in consequence, while Jonah was righteously punislied 
for his obduracy, it seems that his intention was to escape through a western, in lieu 
of proceeding in an easterly, direction ; and therefore Tarlessus of Hispania, or else- 
where so long as Jonah could realize a contrary, would appear to have been the 
country for which the vessel cleared, and wherein dwelt her consignees. — G. R. Q.l 



Fig. 355.583 




the sun' — were identified long 
incarnated in this Assyrian fish- 



478 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

B. — Tariessus, TaprncrtTos, probably a Phoenician emporium, whether among the 
Tariessil in the vicinity of the present Cadiz, or at some other point within the Medi- 
terranean, lay unquestionably in Spain. Hither Solomon and Hiram dispatched their 
commercial navies (1 Kings x. 22 ; 2 Chron. ix. 21) ; and thence, about the time of 
the Babylonish captivity [Ezekiel xxvii. 12; Jeremiah x. 9), silver, tin, iron, and lead, 
■were imported, through Tyre, into the Levant. The presence of silver, tin, and lead, 
upon Egyptian mummies of every age back to the XVIIIth dynasty, establishes, 
beyond dispute, epochas far earlier than those of any Hebrew writers, Moses in- 
clusive, for relations of trade between the Nile and whatever western regions 
probably Spain, whence those articles were introduced : so, no doubts on relative anti 
quity need arise upon Iberian Tariessus. It corresponds perfectly to Tarshish in later 
parts of Hebrew annals. But there is a third element in the discussion, unknown to 
Anglo-Saxon divinity, which it is due to our contemporary Michel-Angelo Lanci, Pro- 
fessor of Sacred Philology at the Vatican, not to overlook. 

C. — Tarsis does not proceed from Tur-sus ; but from the old Semitic root rasas, pre- 
served in Arabic, meaning 'to wet,' 'to lave.' With the primeval feminine article t 
prefixed to it, Tarshish means 'land laved by the sea,' that is, the sea-shore; and, in 
consequence, " vessels of Tarshish " often signifies coasters, irrespectively of any geogra- 
phical attribution. For example — we should read, "thou breakest the coasting- 
vessels" (not ships of a place called Tarshish,) "with an east-wind." (Ps. xlviii. 7.) 
Again, " The kings of maritime states (Tarshish) and of inland regions (lim) shall pre- 
sent offerings." (Ps. Ixxii. 10.) And finally, not to digress here on that most prolific 
theme, the mistranslations consecrated in King James's Version, compare " Sheba and 
Dedan, and the merchants of Tarshish, with all the young lions ( ! ) thereof" — [Ezek. 
xxxviii. 13) — with Land's Inaiii. Italian rendering: "The inhabitants of the strong 
places of terra-firma, Saba and Dedan, and the maritime merchandizers and their colo- 
nists will say to thee " — {Gli abitaiori de' forti luoghi di terra ferma, Saba e Dedan, e i 
mercaianti marittimi e i loro coloni diranno a te.) 

This derivation of Tarshish, from Tl-rasaa, bears upon the geographical inquiry so far 
as concerns the marine position of a territory to which the name is applied. 

The following passages are note-worthy in our discussion : — 

1st. — (2 Chron. xx. 36.) Jehoshaphat "joined himself with him (Ahaziah) to make 
ships to go to Tarshish ; and they made the ships at Ulsion-gaber." Now, this arsenal 
lay near Elath, on the Elanitic arm of the Red Sea, not far from Akaba; and there- 
fore, in those days, the Jews were not likely to have intended a circumnavigation of 
Africa to reach Tariessus in Spain ! Nor is it probable that, after building galleys at 
enormous cost on the Red Sea, the Hebrews contemplated transportation backwards 
over the Isthmus to launch them again on the Mediterranean. 

2d. — (1 Kings xxii. 48.) But we learn that "Jehoshaphat made ships of Tarshish 
to go to Oj>hir for gold: but they went not; for the ships were broken at Etsion-gaber." 
What other construction but " coasting voyages" will suit Tarshish, in the former pass- 
age? What other than "coasting vessels" could go by sea from Akaba to Ophir (on 
the Persian Gulf, as we shall see,) in the latter? 

Here, then, without question, Tarshish refers to " coasters," or "maritime merchan- 
dizers," sailing down the Red Sea towards India, and not to Spain. 

3d. — (2 Chron. ix. 21.) " For the king's (Solomon) ships went to Tarshish with the 
servants of Huram ; every three years once came (back) the ships of Tarshish, bringing 
gold and silver, SAiN-HaBIM {teeth, of elephants ?), KUPAIM (apes), and TAKIIM 
(peacocks?)." The parallel passage 1 Kings x. 22, enumerates the same articles, but 
has "fleet of Tarshish." So, "coasting vessels," and not a locality, seems intended by 
both writers. This is confirmed by Gesenius, who says that "a ship of Tarshish" meant 
" any large merchant vessel in general." 

All the articles named, with one exception, might have been imported equally well 
from the African coast of the Gates of Hercules, opposite to the Spanish Tariessus, as 



HEBRETV NOMENCLATURE. 479 

from Southern Arabia, Ophir, &c. ; because elephants abounded in Barbary, even in 
Roman times ; while "Apes-h.i\\" at Gibraltar, even now corresponds to the opposite 
Atlantic range, where apes are as common as African baboons in Arabia ; whence the 
latter are brought now-a-days to Cairo. 

But the exception excludes Spain, and all Northern Africa. The singular TiK, 
pointed Thuk, like its homonyme Taobk, and Taobs, in Arabic, Turkish, &c., is con- 
sidered to mean 'peacock.' If so — and there is no actual impossibility that such a 
" rara avis" should have been brought via Arabia by the coasting trade — India is the 
country of peacocks ; and therefore these birds were not procurable at Tarlessus, in 
Spain, 1000 years b. c. 

Peacocks are not impossible ; but a new reading is submitted, equally destructive 
of Spanish Tartessii in these texts. 

It is certain that cocks and hens (the common fowl), as well as geese, are never men- 
tioned in the canonical writings of the Hebrews. Nor fowls in authentic works of 
Homer ; nor by Herodotus. The Pharaonic Egyptians knew not the common fowl ; 
using geese, ducks, and these birds' eggs, instead. But one instance of possibly a 
" cock's head," and that a stuflFed specimen, occurs on Nilotic monuments. It is in the 
" Grand Procession" of tributes to Thotmes III., as Pickering first indicated. Etruscan 
vases, being of later manufacture, are no exception to the rule that the common fowl 
had not reached Europe, or Asia west and north of the Euphrates, or Africa, before 
the conquests of the Achemaenians, b. c. 540, downwards. It is also positive, that the 
centres of creation for this bird are Indo-Chinese and Australasian ; and that, like 
peacocks, they had to be imported into Arabia from India. Now, in Arabic, a cock is 
called ' Dfeyk,' DjK. Stripped of the modern Blasora, the Hebrew word is TtK, or 
DtK. May not the common fowl, in lieu of peacock, be alluded to in the above pass- 
ages ? It is as probable as pheasant, proposed by others ; and about the same ages 
(B. c. 1110) white pheasants, probably from Caffraria, were received at the court of 
Tching-wang, in China; according to Pauthier. 

Bochart, following Eusebius's Oapac!; tf ou 'iSijptj — the Iberians of Spain — and the 
generality of English commentators, fix upon Tartessus as the equivalent for Tarshish 
of Xth Genesis. Continental orientalists of our day lean towards the Cilician Tharsis, 
Tarsus; upon the earlier authority of Josephus, and of Jonathan, the Chaldee para- 
phrast. And, without dogmatizing in the least upon either view, the order in which 
Ionic affiliations succeed each other — JEolia, Tarshish, Kittim the Cyprians, and Rho- 
danim the Rhodians — coupled with the geographical proximity of Rhodes and Cyprus 
to Tarsous, on the Caramanian coast, seems confirmatory of those opinions which 
select Tarsus, in Cilicia, as the locality indicated by the writer of Xth Genesis for 
Takshish. There is no difficulty with regard to the antiquity of Cilician Tarsous ; 
because Mr. Birch read, long ago, " This is the vile slave from Tarsus of the sea," 
inscribed in hieroglyphics, during the thirteenth century b. c, over a captive of 
Ramses III.589 

13. D'nD — KTtlhl — ' KiTTiM ' ; plural of KiTt. 

Language uncertain. Not, ' they that bruise,' or gold ; nor, 'hidden," &c. 

Three Mediterranean countries have been supposed by commentators to be figured 
by the various etymons of this word: Italy, Macedonia, and Cyprus; besides many 
"islands." The first, resting solely upon the fanciful analogies of Kcna, in Latium, 
and KtTOf, a river near Cumce, although supported by the erudition of Bochart, may 
now be dismissed without ceremony. 

Kittim, as Mojceticz, after Alexander's conquests had made Macedonia renowned, is 
the acceptation in which it appears in two latest books of the Hebrews — Daniel (xi. 
30) and 1 Maccabees (i. 1) ; equally canonical in archajology. 

The books belonging mainly to the period between Alexander (b. c. 330) and the 
Babylonish captivity — say, from Hilkiah's high-priesthood, about b. c. G30, down- 



480 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

■wards — give to Killim a wider extension than can well be deduced from Xth Genesis ; 
for Jeremiah (ii. 10) and Ezekiel (xxvii. 6) speak of the states or "isles ot Kittim : " 
the latter with reference to works in ivor>/ thence imported. Greece was celebrated 
for chryselephantine manufactures, certainly in the 30th Olympiad, 660 b. c, and per- 
haps before. 

In the Hebrew text of the doubtful parts of Isaiah (Ixvi. 19), Tarshish (Tarsus), 
Phul (probably Va,m-phjlia), Lud (Lydia), Thubal (P.aphlagonia), Javan (Ionia), and 
Kittim, are grouped together ; hence their proximity is inferable. 

Josephus adopts the Oriental form of personification when he relates that "Kethimus 
possessed the island of Kelldma, which now is called Cyprus ; and from this, by the 
Hebrews, all islands and maritime places are termed Kethim." 

Hence, modern researches unite upon the island of Cyprus as the centre-point of 
probabilities — Citium, ;^inor rroXis, of Ptolemy, a city in Cyprus, now JSJiti; and the 
Phoenician Citiaci, applied by Cicero : justifying the adoption. Confirmed, moreover, 
by Boeckh's Greek inscriptions, wherein TIJ tO'H, a ' man of KIT?,' is explained by 
KiTttuf ; a Kiiian, or Cypriote. 

But the true position of Kiiium, as Cyprus, is now fixed by "coins of the anonym- 
ous kings of Cittium ; " no less than by a cuneatic inscription of the time of the Assy- 
rian king Sargon (recently found at Larnica, and conveyed to Berlin), which carries 
the name back to the eighth century b. c. Egyptian monuments, elucidated by Birch, 
enable us to behold it again in hieroglyphics of the thirteenth century b. c, where the 
" Chief of the Khita, as a living captive," surmounts one of the prisoners of Piamses III. 
Nor is this our earliest record; because the KeFa, portrayed in the "Grand Proces- 
sion" of Thotmes III. [supra, p. 159, Fig. 82], are said to come "from the isles in 
the sea," i. e. Cyprus ; and, again, " Khefa (Cyprus), Khita (Kettisei)," stands registered 
in the sculptures of Amunoph III., at Soleb. So the people, and their island, are as 
old as the XVIIIth dynasty, or the sixteenth century b. c. 

The inhabitants of Cyprus in particular, and of the adjacent coasts and islands in 
general, are undoubtedly the KiTilM (Cypriots) of the later projector of Xth Genesis — 
a conclusion ratified by their propinquity to the nation immediately succeeding.590 

14, D'J"n — DDNIM — ' DoDANiM ' ; plural of Dodan. 

Between 'Dodanim of Xth Genesis, and 'R.odanim of 1 Chron. i. 7, a literal discordance, 
produced by the error of some unknown transcriber, leaves the decision for posterity 
(as Cardinal Wiseman declares in respect to 1 Tim. iii. 16) to "rest on what judgment 
it can form amid so many conflicting statements ! " Who, from the text alone, can tell 
whether we must read 'R.odanim in Xth Genesis, or Dodanim in 1 Chronicles ? In con- 
sequence, conjecture has had full scope; and Bochart's ingenious assimilation of the 
river Rhodanus, Rhone, has been seized upon by a standard Anglican divine (Bishop 
Patrick, to wit), who beholds in France the country of the Rodanim ! " Our old chron- 
iclers," says Champollion-Figeac, " equally robust etymologists as able critics, do they 
not found the realm of France by Francus, one of the sons of Hector, saved expressly 
from the sack of Troy ! " The Hungarians caused Attila to descend from Nimrod in a 
straight line ; the Danes, from the Danai issuing from Dodona, crossed the Danube, to 
which they gave their name, and finally settled in the country they named Danemark ! 

Dodanim possesses advocates ; and of course Dodona, in Epirus, site of Grtecia's most 
ancient oracle, at once suggests that the Dodoncei must be the people intended. Nor, 
except its remoteness from the neighborhood of other proper names whose geography 
is tolerably positive, can a negation be absolutely demonstrated. 

However, the Samaritan Pentateuch, reading Rhodians where the LXX have Pii^ioi, 
aifords a preponderating vote in favor of the R. And, other conditions being equal, 
this fixes attention on the isle of Rhodes; by excluding the possibilities of D. Its 
early Grecian occupancy; its location between Cyprus and JEolia; and their common 
affiliation from Ionia; support the view that Ro^of, the roseate island of the Rhodians, 
was the habitat of the Genesiacal Rodanim.ssi 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 481 

HAMiDiE, or Swarthy Races. 
on ♦i3 — BEI-KBI — " Affiliations of Ham." — 'Gen. x. 6. 
15. tJ^O — KUS — 'Cdsh.' 

By the LXX, and in the Vulgate, this word, -whenever translated, is made to figure 
under the Greek form of kiOioma, JEthiopia. Through Cruden's Concordance, it appears 
that Cush is transcribed in King James's Version as if in the primary Hebrew Text the 
name had occurred only five times : whereas, if we restore to its relative passages in 
the Text the original KUS, in every instance where in our version we find its supposed 
equivalents, ' Ethiopia,^ 'Ethiopian,' 'Ethiopians,' it will be perceived that Cush is re- 
peated, (5-(-34=) thirty-nine times in the canonical Hebrew Scriptures. 

It may occur to a simple believer in plenary inspiration to inquire, why, and upon 
■what principle of logic or philology, the translators of our authorized version — "By Her 
Majesty's special command — appointed to be read in Churches" — took upon them- 
selves the suppression of the Hebrew word KUSA thirty-four times, and its preserva- 
tion only five ? How happens it, that strict uniformity was not adopted ; and that they 
did not either substitute Ethiopia all the way through, or preserve the original Kush 
in every instance ; according to the consistent method of Cahen, in his much more 
accurate translation ? To answer such queries is beyond human power, because the 
aforesaid translators did not know themselves : but some explanation may be found in 
the fact that, little versed in Hebrew literature, the fifty-four revisers, in 1603, followed 
the versions, and not the Text ; as our Part III. thoroughly establishes. 

Investigation must first be directed towards the Hebrew triliteral KUS. Its trans- 
lation by the Greek word Ethiopia is a secondary inquiry. t^D, KCJS, are its radicals ; 
and must have been its components, at whatever time, and in whatever alphabet, ante- 
rior to the Hebrew square-letter (not invented until the third century after c), the Xth 
chapter of Genesis was first written. The diacritical points, added by the Masoretes 
after the sixth century of our era, make iti sound KUSA ; whilst, as regards its ori- 
ginal Hebrew phonetism, the terminal Sh is (Clialdaically) likely, and we adopt it in 
the form KUSA. 

What did KUSA signify, in the mind of the compiler of Xth Genesis ? There is not 
om per mil of our contemporary divinity-students who will not glibly reply — " Ethi- 
pia, to be sure — Africa, above Egypt " ! 

[ Five years have passed since the authors of the present volume denounced such 
answer to be simply ridiculous (J. C. N. : Biblical and Physical History of Man, 1849, 
pp. 138-146;— G. R. G. : Otia JEgyptiaca, 1849, pp. 16, 133-4). Between replies so 
diametrically opposed there can be no reconciliation. One of the two must be abso- 
lutely false. Among the many, however, who have felt themselves called upon to con- 
travene our assertions, not having hitherto met with one person really acquainted with 
the Hebrew alphabet, we may be excused by Hebraists from recognizing as "Biblical 
authorities" those teachers who (even the articulations of x, 3, J, being to them un- 
known) are yet ignorant of the A, B, C, of Scriptural language, meanings, and history. 

It was the authors' intention, when projecting " Types of Mankind," to publish 
an investigation of Ethiopian questions, sufiBciently copious and radical as to leave 
few deductions ungrounded ; and their MSS. were prepared accordingly : but, so 
much extra space has been occupied by Part I., that "copy," to the extent of some 
200 of these pages, must be suppressed for the present. The reader will, in conse- 
quence, be lenient enough to accept dry references, in lieu of logical argument. If 
"truth" be the object of his search, we feel confident that our bibliographical indices 
will at any rate place such reader on the easiest route of verification. — G. R. G.] 

Bochart's words show that we were not the first, by more tlian 1000 years, to claim 

61 



482 THE xth chaptee of genesis. 

"Arabia" for KUSA, instead of "Ethiopia." " Chus alii ^thiopiam, alii Arabiam 
explicant. Priorem interpretationem prseter Hebrseos fere quotquot sint, etiam Grseci 
sequuntur, et vulgatus interpres, et Philo, et Josephus, et Eusebius, et Hieronymus, et 
Eustathius in Hexosmeron, et author Chronici Alexandrini, et chorus patrum vniuersus. 
Arabs etiam nuper editus qui hie habet lyDD 7X Abasenorum seu Abissinorum terrain, 
id est ^thiopiam. Posteriorem h veteribus, quod sciam, solus Jonathan, in cujus para- 
phrasi Gen. x. 6, pro Hebrseo Chus est X''^^J^ Arabia. ... Ex iis quaa hactenus a 
nobis disputata sunt, credo constare luce clarius Chusasos in iis locis habitasse quse 
supra indicauimus, nimirum supra ^gyptum ad Rubri maris sinum intimum, in parte 
Arabice FeircBce et Felicis." 

Circumscribed -within a few pages, our part limits itself to the production of such 
atoms of new data as have been attained since Bochart's day : beginning with the 
four rivers of Eden. 

"The name of the second river, Gihon; that which encompasseth aU the land of 
KUSA" [Gen. ii. 13) — part of the Jehovistic, and consequently later document — may 
be dismissed from the discussion ; because, relating to ante-diluviari epochas, its 
geography is unknown. If there ever was an universal Deluge, all land-marks were 
necessarily obliterated. If there was not, as some geologists now maintain, the Bere- 
shith (from Gen. i. 1 to Gen. vi. 9, rabbinical division) ceases to contain history; and, 
when not accepted in the allegorical sense maintained by learned Christian fathers, 
must be abandoned, by science, to thaumaturgical ingenuity ; while the KUSA of Gen. 
ii. remains to be sought for " near the isle Utopia of Thomas Morus. Utopia ! 
expressive name! — invented by the satirical Rabelais (Pantagruel), and afterwards 
applied by the great Chancellor of England (Sir Thomas More) to the beautiful land 
(Oceana) of which he dreamed — this Greek noun seems made expressly to indicate the 
sole degree of latitude under which the poetic marvels of the grand Atalantic island 
(and of the four rivers in Eden) could have ever been produced. It has been 
believed," continues Martin, the ablest critic upon Plato, "that it [the river Gihon^ 
might be recognized in the New World. No : it belongs to another world, which exists 
not within the domain of space, but in that of fancy." 

In the geographical nomenclature of Xth Genesis, KUSA is the " son of Kham ;" a 
name applied to Egypt and her colonial aflSliations : of which some are African, and 
others, such as Canaanites, indisputably Asiatic. To which continent did the Hebrews 
refer the name KUSA ? 

In 1657, Walton, the upright and most proficient compiler of Biblia Polyglotta, 
inveighed against the notion that KUSA could be the African " ^Ethiopia;" citing the 
best scholars of his day to the same effect. So, again, Beroaldus, Bochart, and 
Patrick, following the Targum of Jonathan, the Chaldee paraphrast — third to eighth 
century after Christ — render KUSA by Arabia, on the subjoined, among other 
grounds : — 

1st. Moses' wife is termed a KUSAeara {Num. xii. 13). Tsipora was a daughter of 
Jethro, the Cohen (priest) of Midian {Ezod. ii. 16, 21 ; iii. 1) ; and Midianites being 
Arabians, here KUSA is Arabia. No other wife is given to Moses in the Pentateuch ; 
nor can any supernaturalist so torture the plain words of its text as to prove, to a 
man of common sense, that Moses ever visited Ethiopia above Egypt. The Abb^ 
Glaire, Doyen de la Sorbonne, whose two volumes — models of erudition and style 
that protestant divines would do well to imitate — lie before us, never resorts to such 
pitiful subterfuges. 

2d. " I will make the land of Mitzraim a waste of wastes, from the tower of Syene 
even unto the frontier of KUSA " [Ezek. xxix. 10). Syene being Assouan, at the first 
cataract, on the border-line of (Ethiopia) Nubia and Egypt, the writer cannot mean 
"from Ethiopia to Ethiopia," but from Syene to KUSA, beyond the Isthmus of Suez, 
on the north-eastern frontier of Lower Egypt, and consequently here indicates 
Arabia. 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 483 

Modern researches furnish more critical light. In the first place, Dr. Wells sustains, 
and, to a certain extent, demonstrates, that the word KUSA defers exclusively to the 
Asiatic "Ethiopia," and never to African localities; summing up his reasonings with, 
"the nation of Cush did first settle in Arabia; and the word is, generally, to be so 
understood in Scripture." In the second, believers in the unitij of all mankind's 
descent from " Noah and his three sons," must concede that Nimrod, and many other 
affiliations of KUSA, settled in Assyrian vicinities ; even if offshoots did afterwards 
cross through Arabia into Africa, and there, owing to " eflFects of climate," originate 
Nigrilian races ; beginning with the comparatively high-caste Berber, and descending 
down to the lowest grade of Bosjesman — always along a sliding scale of deterioration, 
from the valley of the Nile to the Cape of Good Hope — where, unfortunately, 200 
jears of occupancy have not yet transmuted Dutch Boers into animals different from 
those left behind them in Holland and Flanders. 

The text most triumphantly quoted to prove the African hypothesis is Jerem. xiii. 
23. — " Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ?" A glance at the 
Hebrew shows that here, as in other instances, the fifty-four revisers of King James's 
version blindly copied the LXX, or the Vulgate; because "Can the KUSAeare change 
his skin" leaves the question vague until the real application of KUSA be determined. 
The same proclivity leads many divines to cite another text, from the so-called " Song 
of Solomon," in behalf of their negrophile theories. — " I (am) black, but comely. . . . 
Look not upon me, because I (am) black, because the sun hath looked upon me : my 
mother's children were angry with me ; they made me keeper of the vineyards ; (but) 
mine own vineyard have I not kept." {Cant. i. 5, 6.) The absence of notes of inter- 
rogation in Hebrew palasography, coupled with the philological inanity of modern 
translators of this ancient erotic ballad, perpetuates a delusion, removeable by 
Land's rendering: — "I (am) browned, but comely. . . . Look not [disparagingly] 
upon me that I (am) browned [" fosca" = tawny, dark], because the sun has tanned 
me : the sons of my mother [i. e. my step-brothers] becoming free to dispose of me 
[according to Oriental usage], posted me (as) custodian of vines; my own vine, have 
I not guarded [taken care of] it?" Besides, as it has been remarked on the above 
interrogatory of Jeremiah, — " If Cush means a Negro, then we have revelation to 
prove that climate will not change a Negro into a white man ; if it means an Arab 
(dark) Caucasian, then it will not change a white man into a Negro!" — Indeed, the 
ultra-high-church orthodoxy of a living English divine, and profound, whilst fantastic, 
Orient.ilist, unhesitatingly endorses this critical view. — "Among the great land-marks 
of national descent, none, it may safely be affirmed, are surer, or more permanent, than 
those physical varieties of form, countenance, and color, which distinguish from each 
other the various races of mankind. ... In Arabia, one of the earliest seats of post- 
diluvian colonization ; a country rarely violated, and never occupied, by a foreign 
conqueror; and peopled, in all ages, by the same primitive tribes, . . . peculiarity of 
form and feature may be justly received, in any specific or authentic example, as evi- 
dence of identity of origin, little, if at all, short of demonstration. This principle 
we are enabled, by Scripture, to apply as an index to the Arab tribes descended from 
Cush, and especially to the posterity of his first-born, Seba." 

If wc had penned the above paragraph ourselves, we could not have embodied more 
forcibly Morton's decisive opinions on those "primordial organic forms," which are 
perpetuated to this day, as the Rev. Charles Forster, B. D., justly remarks, among 
" the various races of mankind." 

After the citation of " Can the Cushite change his skin ?" the geographer of Arabia 
proceeds: — "This indelible characteristic of race would seem to identify with the 
families of Cush the inhsibitants of the southern coast" of Arabia. "Now, since the 
Cushites generally were distinguished by the darkness of their skin, and the Sebaim 
(Isa. xlv. 14), particularly, were noted for the procerity of their stature, if we find, 
in Arabia or its vicinity, a race uniting both distinctive marks, the probability cer- 



484 THE Xth chapter of genesis. 

tainly is not a low one, that, in that race, we recover a portion of the family of Seba." 
In testimony whereof, the reverend author quotes Burckhardt's description of the Do- 
waser tribe of Arabs — " very tall men, and almost black " — as well as passages from 
Chesney, Niebuhr and Wellsted, corroborating the dark complexion observed by these 
authoritative travellers among Bfedawees of the Persian Gulf; to whom we could add 
multitudes, were they needed. 

Having indicated to the reader sufficient sources to substantiate the existence at this 
day, in Southern Arabia, of tribes dark enough to justify Jeremiah's simile (xiii. 23), we 
might proceed at once to the identification of KUSA in its geographical affiliations. 
Inasmuch, however, as one of the objects of the present work is to bring the archaeo- 
logical and ethnographical facts contained in Hebrew literature from out of a deplorable 
mysticism into the domain of science, there are other scriptural passages that claim 
priority of analysis. 

1st. Isaiah (xi. 11) — " from Assyria, and from Egypt, and from Pathros, and from 
KUSA, and from Elam, and from Shinar, and from Hamath, and from the islands of 
the sea." Circumscribed within the geographical limits to be established for the He- 
brew writers. Southern Arabia is here the equivalent of KUSA, because, otherwise, an 
immense peninsula, very familiar to them, would be omitted. 

2d. Isaiah (xviii. •!, 2) — the prophet in Palestine here apostrophises Egypt. We 
have given Rosellini's rendering in Part III., and need merely now remark that " The 
rivers of KUSA" have no relation to the Nile, nor to " Ethiopia" above Egypt, but are 
the torrens Mgypti, the "streamlets of Mizraim" — the Besor, Corys, now " Wadee el- 
Arish ; " the winter-brook, or Seyl, which divides Palestine from Egypt at Rhinocorura. 
Indeed, this is, and has ever been, the boundary-line ; the extremest West ; beyond 
which, towards Africa, the word KUS/i never passes, in the geography of the earlier 
Hebrews : and, from that occidental line, it stretches backwards to the Euphrates and 
its lower territories south-east of Syria. The term " earlier " Hebrews is used ad- 
visedly, to distinguish those parts of their literature that belong to times preceding the 
Captivity, from others composed during and after, when KUSA may have possessed a 
less restricted sense. 

The most formidable objection to the Asiatic restriction of KUSA would seem to 
originate from 2 Chronicles (xiv. 9, 12 ; xvi. 8), where the rout of " Zerah the KUShean," 
with a million of combatants, by Asa, is described — events attributed to the year 
941 B. c. But this has been ably overthrown by Wells, sustained by the later work of 
Forster; who shows that Gerar, whither Zerah the KUSAeara fled, "lay on the 
border of the Amalekites and Ishmaelites, between the kingdom of Judah and the 
wildernesses of Shur and Paran ; " and, consequently, the scene lies in Arabia, and 
Zerah was some marauding potentate, probably Shlykh of a powerful Arab horde, 
whose foray was repelled into the " land of KUSA," Southern Arabia, whence he came. 
Saracus, moreover, (the classical transcription of Zerak-ws,) was a proper name among 
Kushean dynasties descended from Nimrod, and also in Arabian traditions. To the 
Egyptologist, in consequence, the now-preposterous identification of Zerah the KUSAeare 
with OSORKON (as oSoRKon, or SRK), second king of the XXIId dynasty of Bu- 
bastites, has long ceased to be of interest, because this text has no relation to Egyptian, 
any more to "Ethiopian," events. 

The narrow circle of geography comprehended by all ancient nations situate around 
the Mediterranean as late as the Persian period, in the sixth century b. c, to which the 
Hebrews form no exception, forbids any such deduction as Jewish acquaintance with 
Nigritia. That analogy and comparison of the literal texts do not require KUSA to 
be sought out of South-western Asia in general, and Arabia in particvdar, in any Scrip- 
tural passages, could be shown text by text, did space allow. The " onus probandi" 
of the contrary may now be left to "le theologien" — for, as Letronne philosophically 
observed, " ici le role de I'hagiographe commence ; celui de Tarchgologue finit." "Lo 
theologien," neatly declares Cahen, " en traduisant, ne perd jamais de vue son ^glise. 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 485 

son temple, sa synagogue ; born^ par cet horizon, il allonge, raccourci, taille, entre- 
taille, contretaille, les pensdes de son auteur, jusqu' a ce qu'elles aient la dimension 
voulue pour entrer dans I'enceinte sacr^e. Tel est le faire du thiologien ; nous ne le 
blUmons pas ; mats ce rC est pas le notre." 

The reader, who may be pleased to verify the exactitude of the following results, will 
be enabled to do so through the references appended to this condensation of a com- 
plete chapter of our work, which lack of room compels us to curtail. 

In hieroglyphics coeval with the Xllth dynasty at least, or 2200 years b. c, an 
African nation, situate immediately south of Egypt, always bore the following desig- 
nation, in one of many dialectic forms — as 
Fig. 3o6.592 „ ^^^j^ barbarian country" ; or spelt KAS/i, KeS7(, 

X :: — ^y ^'^ K KiSh, or KSh ; with or without the terminal I. 

[ .1 1 . I The human portraits, wherever accompany- 

ing this name on the monuments, are invari- 
W ^ I ably Africans, but more generally of the dark 

— country, barbarian, mahogany-colored Nubian than of the jet-black 
Negro type. 

We contend that this proper name, which, indigenous to African Nubia, was ascribed 
by the ancient Egyptians to Nubians alone, has no relation (except through fanciful 
resemblances, produced in modern times, through corrupt vocalizations of Rabbis on 
the one hand, and of Copts on the other,) to the Hebrew word KUS, conventionally 
pronounced Kush, which, to the Jews, meant " Southern Arabia," and no country or 
nation out of Asia. 

To render this clear, one must commence with a query — When, and how, was the 
Old Testament translated into Coptic? Quatremfere, sustained by the old Coptologists, 
claims, " que la Bible avait 6t6 traduite sur le texte Mbreu en langue Egyptienne." De 
Wette and the Hebrew exegetists aver, that " the origin of these versions (Memphitic 
and Sahidie) is probably to be referred to the end of the third and the beginning of the 
fourth century ; for at that time Christianity seems first to have been extended to the 
Egyptian provinces [it had not even then reached the temple of Osiris at Phite]. Both 
follow the Alexandrian version, but it is doubtful which of the two is the oldest." 

The question is somewhat important, inasmuch as upon it hinges whether the Copts 
followed the LXX's Greek mistranslation of Kiiio-ria, or the original Hebrew word KUS. 
There can be little doubt that such translators imitated the Alexandrian Version, and 
not the Text ; and substituted JElhaush and Koush for " .Ethiopia." Champollion gives 
P-KA-N-NGHOOSH, NEGOOSH, and ETHAUSH, from various Coptic topographical 
MSS., as synonymes for the Greek A.iSiona, the Arabic el-IJabesh (Abyssinia), and the 
vulgar Ethiopia ; while Lenormant states — " the Coptic books employ the same ex- 
pression (Kousch) that is frequently met with in its altered form, Ethosch." Peyron 
and Parthey establish the same fact ; but Land's deeper philology traces Ethaosh into 
two Semitic radicals, heet == 'form,' and abes = ' to-be-black." 

ChampoUion's Grammaire, Dictionnaire, and Notices Descriptives, prove that the great 
master, whose discoveries were made through Coptic, always transcribes the ancient 
hieroglyphical KSA by the modern Coptic form of Kouech, or Khoosh. Hence, it has 
been universally taken for granted that ChampoUion's Coptic transcript of the old hiero- 
glyphical African name of KiSA is identical with the Hebrew Asiatic KUS — that both 
are comprehended under the Greek maltranslation of "Ethiopia" by the LXX — and 
thus Arabs and Nubians, the Arabian Peninsula and the Upper Nile, Hamitic and 
Semitic distinct roots, have become jumbled up into " confusion worse confounded ! " 

Now, it so happens that the old hieroglyphical KSA is never written with a medial 
' «,' which is a radical " mater lectionis" in the Hebrew kUs — a strong point of dis- 
similarity to begin with. On the former word. Birch had critically remarked — " The 
term Kash is a fluctuating and uncertain territorial appellation : it is supposed to be 
the Kush of Scripture, the Tliosh or Elhosh of the Copts, which, after all, is merely 



486 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

'the frontier.'" We have already \_siipra, pp. 256-9] furnished abundant extracts 
from Mr. Birch's more recent definitions of KS/i's localities above Egypt. 

But, in addition to the perplexing diflBculties of archaic Egyptian and Hebrew names, 
and the anachronisms of modern philologers, there is a third element of medley, on 
which it behooves us to say a few words : viz., Ethiopia, and Ethiopians. Indeed, it is 
the prevalence of misconceptions upon the latter which lies at the bottom of mistakes 
concerning the former. 

Already in a. d. ]657, the scholarship of Walton protested against " Ethiopian" de- 
lusions, with a citation from Waser — " Grseci ^Ihiopiam deducunt ab ai-Jw cremo, uro, 
et S^l', h-^ai, fades, aspectus, quia a solis vicinitate ita uruntur et torrentur, ut atro sint 
colore." Hence it is immediately perceived that Ethiopian, meaning simply a ' sun- 
hurned-face,'" possessed at one time a generic application to the color of the human 
skin, and not an attribution to one specific geographical locality. During Homeric ages, 
by Ai9ii5\I/, the fair-skinned Hellenes merely meant a foreigner darker than themselves; 
and, by AWidina (the existence even of true Negro races being then utterly unknown to 
the Greeks) early Grecian geographers understood (not our modern "Ethiopia" above 
Egypt) the countries of all swarthy Asiatic and Barbaresque nations — Persians, Assy- 
rians, Syrians, Arabs, Phoenicians, Ganaanites, Jews, Egyptians, Carthaginians, and 
Libyans — especially those situate along the coast of the Mediterranean from the 
Orontes to Joppa. 

This fact has been established beyond all controversy by the vast erudition of a 
Letronne, a Raoul-Kochette, and a Lenormant.sss Its etymological truth can be verified 
in any Greek lexicon ; while it is adopted, although not with sufficient archseological 
rigor, in the popular cyclopsedias of Anthon and Kitto. 

Want of space alone compels us to suppress many pages of extracts from the three 
first-named savans; through which it would become demonstrated that AWidmi, in all 
writers down to the fifth century b. c, meant nothing more than "visages brul6s"; 
that is, " sun-bumt-faces." By way of example, take Memnon, who by Hesiod is termed 
Al^U-Kiav liaai\ria, and by Homer, the most beautiful of men. Pausanias, Strabo, Di- 
odorus, ^schylus, and Herodotus, affirm that he was an Asiatic demigod, probably 
from Shusan, or Chuzistan, on the confines of Persia. Now, Hesiod never meant that 
modern interpreters should understand that Memnon was " king of the Ethiopians" — 
of our Ethiopia above Egypt I The poet wrote that Memnon was "king of the burnt- 
faces;" that is, his followers were a dark-skinned people, such as the CusAiVe- Arabians 
are on Persian confines to this day. It is the same in Homer's "Eastern and Western 
^Ethiopians" — again the same in Herodotus' s Ethiopians, enrolled in the Persian army 
of Xerxes ; some of whom were Asiatics, and others Africans — and, not to enumerate 
instances by the dozen, it is the same in jElian's Indians (Hindoos), whom he terms 
./Ethiopians also. In all these cases, the writers meant " snn-burned-faces" of the so- 
called " Caucasian" type : and it is but the inanity of modern litterateurs which ascribes 
any of the above ^Ethiopians to countries south of Egypt. 

However, the time came, (after the Persian conquest, b. c. 525, and hardly before 
Ptolemaic days,) that Greek geographers, having discovered that there was a race 
"nigro nigrior" whose habitat lay south of Egypt, began to restrict jEthiopia and 
.^Ethiopians to the mahogany-colored Nubians and to the jet-black Negroes ; and it is 
in this, the later specific, not in the older generic, sense, that scientific geographers 
understand a name which, without such reservation, is as vague as Indians (East and 
West Indies, and American aborigines !) ; as Scythian (from the Himalaya to the Bal- 
tic !) ; or, as that wretched term " Caucasian." 

Now, it was during the prevalence of such geographical misconceptions — when Africa 
meant little more than Carthaginian and Cyrenaic territories along the face of Barbary ; 
■vihe-D. Asia signified Asia Minor — in the interval between Eratosthenes the first scien- 
tific geographer, and Strabo the second — whilst Hindostan was termed Ethiopia, or 
tiicc-ucrsa — pending the notions that the Nile and the Indus were one and the same 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 487 

stream ; and that a circumambient ocean surrounded what little of a fiat and sta- 
tionary earth was known to Alexandrian science: — during such, and hundreds of 
similar cosmographic.al views since proved to be false, it was, we repeat, that the Jews 
of Alexandria, (having forgotten not only their parental Hebrew, but even the Chaldee 
dialect subsequently acquired through the Captivity,) caused the books of the Old 
Testament to be translated into Greek ; in the form preserved to us under the mystic 
No. LXX, and by us consecrated as the Sepiuagint : translations fluctuating in date 
between b. c.260, and u. c. 130. 

Books of different origins, translated at different epochas, and by different persons, 
necessarily teem with imperfections ; nor can uniformity be expected from literary 
labors under those circumstances, and in such uncritical times. Geographical criticism 
was certainly not a paramount object with any of these "uninspired" translators. 
They never foresaw archaeological discussions that occur now, 2000 years after their 
day, in a language not formed for 1500 years later, by a distinct people, (whose infan- 
tine traditions attain not their Alexandrine lifetimes,) and on a Continent (6000 miles 
from Alexandria) whose existence was still undreamed of, even sixteen centuries after 
the original Septuagint MSS. were completed. In consequence, some of the Hellenizing 
Jews, or Judaizing Hellenes, when they met with the Hebrew word KUSA, simply 
transcribed it into Greek characters as Koiis, KJiC, or KSIS ; others translated KUSA by 
AiOtoma — a word at that time equally applicable, etymologically in the sense of 
' sun-burned faces,' no less than geographically, to India, Persia, Arabia, and the Nu- 
bias, indifferently to its Asiatic or African association. And this explains why, after 
2000 years, the imaginary sanctity of Hebrew and Greek words, accidentally preserved 
in recent MSS., or through Latin and other re-translations, and despite innumerable 
recensions, enables us yet to admire in King James's version the English transcript of 
Cush only five times, and its Alexandrian substitute, Ethiopia, some thirty-four [ubi 
supra] ; at the same time that, in the far elder and original Hebrew Text (copies of 
which, only about 800 years old, have come down to us), Providence permits our 
counting the triliteral KUSA in about forty different places. 

Under these circumstances (notoriously accessible to anybody who can read Eng- 
lish), to quote the Sepiuagint authoritatively on doubtful relations of "Ethiopia," as if 
it had applied to Africa exclusively at the time when this Greek literary work was in 
progress, may be exceedingly praiseworthy on the part of professional hagiographers, 
but, archseologically, is "vox, et praeterea nihil," leaving the radical issue untouched. 

But there is yet one more rock of confusion to be indicated, upon which the adopters 
of Wilford's Puranic delusions, Faber's fantastic reconciliations, and Delafield's Ame- 
rican extravaganzas, have always split. It occurs when, through disregard of phi- 
lology and palaeography, they prefix an S, or other sibilant, to the Hebrew KIJSA; 
and, reading SKUCH, Scuthi, Xi'vdai, &c., make this patriarch the father of Scythians, 
Sac(e, Saxons, Scotchmen, and even of American Indians ! One blushes to treat such 
absurdities seriously in a. d. 1853. Nevertheless, the disease is inveterate with many 
writers "a qui il ne manque rien que la critique;" and it behooves us to note our 
"caveat," because, as Bishop Taylor says, "it is impossible to make people under- 
stand their ignorance ; for it requires knowledge to perceive it, and therefore he that 
can perceive it hath it not." 

A dry recapitulation of the results of studies, that could not be presented in full 
under half this volume, together with references through which the reader may verify 
exactness, is all that the authors can now offer on the hicroglyphical KSA, the Hebrew 
KUS, and Greek AWi67:ta. 

1st. That the KeSA were African aborigines — probably sinailar to the Bardbera of 
the present day ; but were not NAHSI, Negroes, 

2d. That their habitat, from the XVIIth dynasty downwards, was closer to Egypt 
than that of any other Africans — probably Lower Nubia, because the KeSA are the 
first people encountered in Egyptian expeditions above Philae. 



488 THE Xth chapter of genesis. 

3d. That their name, still preserved at Tutzis in Kish, was never KuSA, but KeSA, 
Kish, or Kash. 

[Lower Nubia, nearest to Egypt, would seem to have been the residence of the Kish, 
or KeSA, anciently ; just as we find a similar people, the Bar&bera (who present 
striking similarities), there now. A curious little fact comes in opportunely to sup- 
port this position. The ruins of the ancient town of Tuizis, or Tusis, the military 
station " Dodecaschoeni," are identified in the modern Gerf Hussbyn. A Coptic 
papyrus, found there in 1813, established that its former name was Thosh ; and the 
similarity of this word with "Ethaush," the Coptic form of " Ethiopia," or Koush 
[ubi supra], was long ago pointed out by Wilkinson, who ascertained, moreover, that 
the present Nubian name of Tutzis is Kish.] 

4th. That this appellative, KeSh, in hieroglyphics, refers to a special Nubian people, 
without the slightest relation, linguistically, geographically, or anthropologically, to 
Tirhaka, beyond the fact that, like his pharaonic predecessors, he conquered and ruled 
over them \_supra, p. 264, Fig. 186.] 

5th. That the African KeSA of the hieroglyphics are totally distinct from the Asiatic 
KUSA of the Hebrew writers, and are never implied by the latter in this term. 

6th. That the confusion, still prevalent on this subject, proceeds from an insufficient 
examination of old Hebrew ethnic geography on the one hand, and of Egyptian 
records on the other, after starting with a fundamental error as to the Greek word 
".Ethiopia." 

7th. That KUSA of Xth Genesis denotes Arabia in its widest sense, and Arabian 
tribes of dark complexion. 

8th. That, except perhaps in two or three doubtful instances, in the later biblical 
books, where geographical precision is sacrificed to poetic license, the biblical word 
KUSA never crosses the Red Sea into Africa : and, even if it be sometimes coupled by 
a conjunction to Phut, and to Lud, it never embraces those races we term Negro — 
the context, in every case, being susceptible of more rational exegesis. 

9th. That KUSA in Hebrew is radically distinct from the Nubian KeSA of hiero- 
glyphics, as well as from the Kish of our present day. 

10th. That KUSA is not SkuAoi, Skuth, or Scot ! does not include Scythic, Indo- 
Germanic, Tartar, Mongolian, or other races outlying the boundary of ancient Hebrew 
geography. 

11th. That, excepting as regards its application to Asiatic tribes of dark complexion, 
KUSA cannot be rendered by AiflioTrta, in the sense in which this Greek word was used 
during Ptolemaic times at Alexandria, and by ourselves, without leading to equivoque ; 
but, if we restore to "Ethiopia" its old Homeric meaning of " swi-burnt-faced- 
people," there is no doubt that the KUSA, mentioned in parallel ages by Hebrew 
writers, were sometimes included among the Eastern, i. e. Asiatic, Ethiopians of Hesiod, 
Homer, and Herodotus. 

12th. That, in archaic anthropology, Ethiopian is as vague an adjective (without 
specific warning, on the author's part, of the meaning he attaches to it) as Scythian, 
Indian, or Caucasian, and therefore had better be avoided by ethnographers. 

13th. That the Coptic KHOUSH, and Thaush, or Ethosh, belong to post-Christian 
days, and represent "Ethiopia" in the corrupt sense in which the Hebrew name KUSA 
was already understood by the Hellenistic Jews called the LXX, and by Josephus. 
The former word, meaning dark, was naturally applied by Egyptian (Copts) Jacobites 
to African families and localities above the first cataract of the Nile ; the latter, 
meaning ^'- ih.^ frontier," and also (through dialectic mutations of K and TA), being a 
homonyme of KHOUSA, was a natural transcript of " Ethiopia; " a name which, from 
similarity of sound as much as from identity, in Coptic days, of association with 
Africa above Egypt, had been previously given to the Nubias by Alexandrian writers. 

14th. Finally, that, unless words and names are restricted to the acceptation in 
which they were used by each writer in his own age, the natural history of humanity, 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 489 

greatly dependent as it is upon liistorical phenomena, can never rise to the level of a 
posidve science ; and that sublime sentence, "the proper study of mankind is njan," 
mouthed by rote without perceptions of its lofty import, and still overlaid by theo- 
logical clap-trap, will never reach practical realization. 

To us, therefore, KUSA of Xth Genesis means Asia geographically, Arabia topo- 
graphically, and the dark Arabs ethnologically. We pass on to classify KUShean afBli- 
ations, in hopes that they will justify our () priori assumptions.59* 

KUSA as Arabian. 

We have shown in the foregoing resume that, amid geographical personifications of 
the Hebrews, KUSA was Asiatic generally, no less than Assyrian and Arabian espe- 
pecially. In consequence, it seems rational to seek for KVShean origins among Arabic 
traditions, and Arab localities. 

And here it is that the Recherches Nouvelles of Volney take precedence over all those 
made during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. Volney : " Un des hommes 
les plus p6n4trants de ce sifecle. ... Si, parmi nous, Volney a profits des Merits de 
Richard Simon, ce n'est pas parceque Volney 6tait imbu des principes de I'^cole ma- 
t^rialiste, mais a cause de I'instinct scientifique qu'il poss^dait profond^ment et qui, 
dans ses Merits, s'est souvent fait jour, en d^pit meme de ses pr^jug^s philosophiques." 
Orthodoxy can find no fault with the words of Lenormant, whose views are eminently 
catholic, even in archiieology. We gladly follow his example, when taking departure, 
in Arabian inquiries, from Volney. Nevertheless, since the peace of 1815, multitudes 
of scientific Europeans, profoundly versed in Arabic lore through arduous studies, 
or far more adventurous travels, have given to Arabian researches a propulsion similar 
to that received, since 1822, by Egyptian, and, since 1843, by Assyrian. Primus inter 
pares among the above, whether in the cabinet or on the road, ranks M. Fulgence 
Fresnel. Than his opinion French and German scholarship at this day recognizes 
none higher : because, in addition to a mind disciplined by thirty years of devotion to 
this speciality, no man, in Arabian investigations, has yet enjoyed M. Fresnel's facili- 
ties of actual observation. We select him, then, as our standard authority on KUSA, 
and Cushites : supporting it by the concurrence of distinguished Orientalists to whom 
his publications are familiar. 

The arbitrary Ptolemaic repartition of the Peninsula into Happij, Desert, and Pe- 
ircean Arabia, has long ago been abandoned by geographers. To the Arabs these 
foreign divisions were unknown. Into the varied districts designated by such alien 
names, old Arab tradition recognizes the introduction of three races, forming three 
distinct nationalities ; whose several origins being lost in the night of time, Moham- 
medan writers have appropriated, through the Koran, Hebrew genealogies in the absence 
of history ; so that it is now impossible to separate much of the exotic from the autoc- 
thonous. These three divers stocks of primitive Arabian nations, i. e., SRaB, Western 
men — according to Ebn-Dihhiyah, followed by Fresnel and Jomard — were, 

1st. The ARBA, or Akibah, Arabs par excellence — subdivided into nine tribes, 
claiming descent from Ikam (Aram of Oen. x. 23), son of Shem : from whom the semi- 
Egyptian, semi-Hebrew, Ishmael is said to have learned Arabic ! 

2d. The MOUTA'ARIBA, naturalized and not pure Arabs; whose genealogies 
ascend to Q^viitan [Joktan of Gen. x. 25), son of Heber, son of Salah, son of Arphaxad, 
son of Shem. 

3d. The MOUSTAARIBA, still less pure Arabs ; descendants of Ishmael, son of 
Abraham and ijagar. 

These, in general, are reputed to be the surviving Arabs ; in contradistinction to the 
lost tribes of Ad, Thamood, &c. &c., destroyed for their impieties, between the times 
of " the prophet Hood " (Heber of Gen. x. 24) and Abraham. " But the spirit of that 
entire table {Gen. x.), in which names of people, cities, and lands, are personified, 

62 



490 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

leads us to conclude," says Gesenius, "that Eeber was not an historical, but only a 
mythical personage, whose name was first formed from that of the people. This was, 
doubtless, the case with Ion, Dorus, and ^olus." 

None of the above nations, however, attribute their descent to an Hamidc affiliation 
through KUSA ; and Hyde sustains that the Cushites migrated from ChusistUn, or Su- 
siana, to the shores of the Euphrates and Persian Gulf ; whence it is probable their 
oiFshoots spread over Southern Arabia, and eventually crossed the Red Sea, in common 
with Arabs of the Semitic stock, into Abyssinia and other Upper Nilotic provinces. 

With the Ishmaeliiish tribes of Arabia, as they are not included in Xth Genesis, our 
inquiries have little to do. Their distribution has been worked up, as completely as 
the subject admits, by Forster; although the attentive comparisons of Fresnel result 
in but nine or ten nominal identifications of Arab tribes mentioned in the Bible, while 
above forty biblical tribes are wanting in the lists of the Arabs. The purely Semitish 
families of Xth Genesis are allotted their own places in our Essay. To determine 
KUS/i«7e occupation of Arabia is our object, now that, except as " sun-burned-faces," 
they had no relation to African "Ethiopia," at the remote age of our historical 
horizon. 

No one will dispute that, in the idea of the writer of Xlth Genesis, the affiliations 
of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, catalogued in the Xth, assembled, when " the whole earth 
was of one language," on the plain of Shinar {Gen. xi. 1, 2), whence they were dis- 
persed by miraculous interposition. Among the number was KUS^, the father of 
NiMROD ; and consequently Asia, on the banks of the Euphrates, was the primitive 
starting-place of himself and children, viewed as men. Conceding to orthodoxy their 
departure thence towards Africa, Arabia was inevitably their road and halting-place. 
The only differences between debaters are questions of time : our view being that 
the KUSAaa?!s remained there for indefinite ages, and that their African emigrations 
were partial, as well as chronologically recent ; to be demonstrated, anon, by the 
Arabian concentration of their several descendants. 

The many scriptural citations of our preceding remarks establish that KUSAte were 
still in Arabia at a far later period : a notable instance being Zeeah the Cushite, in the 
time of Asa ; to place whom in Africa, because the Lublm and Cushlm are united in 
2 Chron. xvi. 8, when the Cushlm alone are recorded in the historical narrative (2 Chron. 
xiv. 8-14), merely to accumulate proofs that no confidence can be given to either account 
at all, is, to say the least, incautious. The 'KVBheans were yet in Arabia, at the time of 
Jeremiah's (xiii. 23) interrogatory, "Can the CasAcara change his skin?" which con- 
trast, we have shown, applies to the dark Arabian tribes, abounding in Arabia then as 
now. But, lest our application should be considered dubious, this fact must be con- 
templated from a more philosophic point of view. 

It is acknowledged by the highest ethnological students of our generation, Prichard, 
De Brotonne, Jacquinot, Bodichon, Pauthier, and others, that wherever in Austral- 
Asiatic latitudes, Hindostan for example, tradition yet pierces through the gloom of 
time, the dark, or black, families of mankind (specimens of whom also survive there to 
our day) have invariably preceded colonizations by the Whites, ov higher castes. It is 
also claimed by Kenrick, Bunsen, De Brotonne, and Lenormant, that the grea,t Hamitic 
migration westwards through Arabia antedates the Semitic: in other words, that 
KVShites were settled in Southern Arabia prior to the arrival of Djourhomida, Jok- 
tanidce, ov Abrahamidoe — Semitish tribes, like the Hebrews, of fairer complexion. The 
new doctrines advanced in this volume [supra, Chapter VI.] relative to the improving 
gradations of type, in humanity's scale, when we consider each family of mankind, one 
by one, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Caucasian mountains, show how a dark 
group of men ought to present itself in Arabia, as the immediate Asiatic successors of 
the swarthy Egyptians : Egypt-'^ro-^&r, according to ancient opinions, now corroborated 
by zoological facts, being far more Asiatic than African in its natural history and phe- 
nomena. What group answers all these conditions but the one to which, from imme- 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 491 

morial time, the name of KUS/j has been appropriately referred ? Even as late as the 
fifth century after Christ, Syrian authors, cited by Assemani, designated Himyarite 
Arabs by the name of KWQhiles. 

And this brings us to the point where Fresnel's discoveries establish the entity of a 
fourth group of " Arabs," distinct from Semitish families, dating in Southern Arabia 
from ante-historical ages to the present hour. 

Carsten Niebuhr, in 1763, first announced to Europe the positive existence in South- 
ern Arabia of inscriptions -which old Arab authors had characterized as Musnad, 
' propped up,' and had considered anterior in age to Islam, no less than to the present 
Neskee and its parent the Ciiphie writing of Mohammed's day. De Sacy, 1805, with 
his usual acumen, investigated the subject; Seetzen, 1810; Gesenius, 1819; Kopp, 
1822 ; and Hupfeld, 1825 ; chiefly from Elhiopic (Abyssinian) data, advanced its study ; 
until Wellsted, 1834, and Crittenden, (officers attached to the East India Company's 
surveys,) discovered inscriptions of the highest interest, cut in the old Himyaritic 
alphabet, at Hisn GhorUb, &c. 

The learned critique of our friend Prof. AV. W. Turner would greatly simplify an expo- 
sitory task, could we herein digress upon these Himyaritic inscriptions, the earliest 
date of which falls far below the Christian era. To his scathing refusal of " one par- 
ticle of sympathy for Mr. Forster " viewed as translator (!) of the Eiimjariiic, we beg 
leave to add ours in respect to this gentleman's more recent " Sinaic Inscriptions — Voice 
of Israel from the Rocks of Sinai" ; and to apply Turner's just strictures to both of 
the Rev. Mr. Forster's fabrications. " His wholly false and inconclusive method of 
deciphering the inscriptions, the bombastic strain in which he dilates on his achieve- 
ments, and above all the disingenuous artifices by which he seeks to disguise the hoUow- 
ness of his pretensions, render his performance [whether Himyaritic, or Sinaic, or, 
worse than either, his last pseudo-/itero^Zyjt)/«caZ .'] deserving of all the ridicule and 
censure it has met with." It is sufficient now to mention, that Hunt's refutation also 
lies before us ; together with the Recherches sur Us Inscriptions Himyariques de San'd, 
Khariba, Mareb, &c., through which Fresnel's claim to the resuscitation of ancient 
Himyar is universally acknowledged. 

M. Fresnel's IVth and ^th Letters to ih^ Journal Asiatique, " Djiddah, Jan. and 
Feb. 1838," give a sprightly account of his rencontre with a "piratical grammarian" 
yclept Moukhsin ; through whose and other fortuitous aids, he constructed the voca- 
bulary of a still living tongue, spoken at Zhafar and llirbctt, in Southern Arabia ; 
which speech, now unintelligible to Semitic Arabs, is called Ehkili by native speakers, 
and Mahri, or GhrAwi, by surrounding tribes. This extraordinary language, whose exist- 
ence was unsuspected until 1838 by modern philologers, possesses thirty-four to thirty- 
five consonant articulations, six pure vowels, and as many nasal — approximately, some 
forty-seven difi'erent sounds ; among which three are utterly inexpressible in any Eu- 
ropean alphabet ; and one is altogether too inhuman for any man but a true Zhafarite to 
enunciate ! Of the twenty-eight articulations current during Mohammed's time in the 
Hedjas, two have become superfluous in the vernacular Arabic [Ddrig) of Cairo ; never- 
theless the old Arabic alphabet of twenty-eight articulations is too poor, by nine- 
teen phonetics, for tribes living at Mirbat and Zhafar ! 

[They completely destroy, Fresnel states, "la symgtrie du visage." Even Moukhsin 
thouglit the facial contortion ridiculous; though he told M. A. d'Abbadie that none of 
his tribe pronounced three of those letters on the left side of the mouth. " Pour rendre 
le son du __y il faut chercher a prononcer un Z, en portant I'extremit^ de la langue 
sous les molaires supgrieures du cot6 droit " — such is " Himyaritic euphony " ! Having 
humbly endeavored, " in auld lang syne " at Cairo, to imitate my friend M. Fresnel's 
attempts to rival Moukbsin's mode of oral articulation, I was, and still am, at a loss to 
define the agonies of its intonation, otherwise than by reprinting how, "while (this 
letter) somewhat resembles the ' LL ' of the Welsh, (it) can be articulated only on the 
right side of the mouth — being something between 'LLW,' a whistle and a spit! " — 
G. R. G.] 



492 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

Gesenius had divided Semitish languages, classified as they are too vaguely, into 
three main branches : — 

1st. The Aramcean, spoken in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia. This is again 
divided into East and West Aramaean ; that is, the Chaldee and Syriac. 

2d. The Canaaniiish, or Hebrew, spoken in Palestine and Phoenicia. Of this the 
Punic is a descendant. 

3d. The Arabic, of which the ^thiopic is a parallel branch. The Samaritan is a 
mixture of the Hebrew and Aram»an. 

To the above, Fresnel's discoveries add a fourth: viz., the "Ehkfeelee" of the inha- 
bitants of Mirbat and Zhafar ; one which he considers among the richest and most 
ancient in the world — -allied to the Ethiopic, but more archaic; preserved in Arabia 
by a peculiar family (long cut off from the rest of mankind by wild B^dawees of 
the Semitic stock, with whom, it is said, the Zhafarites never intermarry) — descended 
probably from the Homerita ; in whose name classical annalists have preserved to us 
the original word Himyar (Arabic^, Ahmar), ' the rerf-men,' as the distinguishing title 
of the once-great Himyariies of Saba and Mariaba. 

" He who enters Zhafar Himyarizes," is an ancient Arab proverb, which shows that 
the Zhafarites were different, in some striking peculiarities, from Semitish tribes, and 
that visitors were constrained "to speak the language of the country ; " as unintel- 
ligible even now to Ishmaelite and .Joktanide Arabs as the Basque is to Frenchmen or 
Spaniards. Now, this tongue and the tribes that speak it, are considered by M. Fresnel 
to be the true relics of KUSA; owing as much to the abundance of words foreign 
to Arabic contained in its dialects, as to the singular characteristics of the speakers 
themselves ; whose antiquity at Zhafar reaches beyond all history. The daring of 
Dr. Arnaud, (who, at Fresnel's instigation, penetrated where no European ever reached 
previously to 1844, and copied multitudes of Himyaritic inscriptions on the ruined 
edifices of Sana, Khariba, and Mareb,) has confirmed, in all important respects, the 
existence of these human vestigies of KVShites in their earliest Arabian homestead 
"even unto this day": and the men, their language and monuments, having now been 
found, our results on Xth Genesis may be finally tabulated as follows : — 

1st. That by KUS^ the Hebrew chorographer mea,nt,dark tribes of Southern Arabia, 
who probably inhabited that section of the peninsula prior to immigrations of strictly 
Semitish Arabs. They are the Homerilce of Greek and Roman writers ; Himyariies of 
Arab history ; remnants of whom, speaking Ehkili, still residing at Mirbat and Zhafar, 
are living witnesses of the indelibility of primordial types. 

2d. That other compilers of Scripture corroborate this view, and prove that in He- 
brew geography the KUSMm — bounded at the extreme west by the "rivers of Cush" 
on the Isthmus of Suez — spread across the peninsula to the banks of the Euphrates ; 
perhaps eastwardly to Chuzisthn and Susiana. Their settlements, as Forster has shown 
with commendable felicity, lay dotted around the Arabian coasts of the Red Sea and 
Persian Gulf; separated originally from the intrusive Joktanidn, (as the writer of 
Gen. X. accurately remarks, v. 30), by a line drawn from " llesha, as thou goest unto 
Sephar " — the former being the Zames Mons in Central Arabia of Ptolemy the geo- 
grapher; the latter, Mount Sephar, at the extreme south-west of the peninsula, where 
in Ptolemy's time dwelt the Sapharita; and where at Zhafar, Fresnel's researches 
(unquoted by Forster) prove their Ehkili descendants to live still. 

3d. That before future hagiographers place KUSA in Africa, as the Hebrew name 
for Nigritian races (of whom Cush, scripturally and physically, is no more the father 
than Abraham himself), it might be well, perhaps, if they re-read their " Bibles " with 
a little attention ; and not perversely close their eyes to the new lights that Oriental 
science is continually shedding upon an ancient code which, Lanci emphatically and 
truthfully observes, "is the more honored and revered as thought dives into it to 
illustrate and comprehend it." 

As Southern Arabia, and as dark (himyar, ' red ') Arabian tribes, KUSA takes his 
rightful position once more in Xth Genesis. ^^^ 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 493 

16. OnVD — MTsTflM — ' Mizraim.' 

Semitic ; but certainly not the Hebrew 'tribulation,' &c. 

As it stands, is the plural of MT«R. AVith the Masoretic points, added since the 
sixth century after Christ, it is a dual, Mitsraim, meaning the two MTsRs. In the 
singular, MTjUR, it is the name (by modern natives referred also to the city of Cairo,) 
through which Egypt is designated in the form Muss'r, not merely by her present 
Arabicized people, but by all Oriental nations : and there being no dispute as to the 
application of MTsUR by Semitic races to the land of Egypt, from the present hour 
back to the remotest period for which we possess records, our genesiacal purposes 
would be served sufficiently on reading Egypt for MTsRalm, were it not for foolish 
rabbinical notions, vulgarly current, that, misunderstanding the principle of Oriental 
personifications, still treat of "Mizraim" in Xth Genesis as if he had been really a man, 
"son of Ham," another individual! One might as reasonably maintain that all the 
Russias, or the " two Russias," mean a human being actually resident in Muscovy ! 
Pandering to no such historical falsehoods, we briefly set the reader on the "royal 
road" to their refutation. 

The earliest personification of Matzur, the singular of MT«RIM, is not in the Bible, 
but in Sancouiathon ; a very ancient Phoenician writer, who flourished (none will dis- 
pute) some time before Philo Byblius, about the second century after c, translated into 
Greek such fragments of his works as reach our day through Athenaeus, Porphyry, Eu- 
sebius, and other transcribers. Whether Sancouiathon be a mythe, as some maintain, 
or whether such a person really lived and wrote between St. Martin's adopted era, 
1400 B. c, and Philo Byblius's age, is indifferent; so long as it remains historical, 
that, under the name "Sancouiathon," we possess some exuvice of Phoenician tradi- 
tions antedating Christian harmonizings, that cannot have been written alphabetically, 
according to the laws of palaeography, earlier than the seventh to tenth century b. c, 
nor later historically than the second century after the Christian era. We have no 
hypothesis to sustain beyond establishing, through these fragments, that " Misor " was 
the ancestor of the Egyptian god Thoth, Jlermes-Trismegistus (Her-Mes = ' begotten 
of Horus') of the Greeks ; and consequently, that this Grteco-Phoenician legend is our 
most valid authority for making a man out of the "■ivio Egypts" — Upper and Lower 
— personified in Xth Genesis by commentators as Mitzraim. 

The context of Ps. cv. 23, (and wherever else in canonical Hebrew records the sin- 
gular form MTsUR occurs,) suffices to prove that, by MTsUR, each Jewish writer meant 
Egypt as a country. If the singular number, MTsUR, in Hebrew grammar and history, 
signifies merely a geographical localit}', upon what principle can the dual or plural 
forms of the same word constitute a man ? 

Among the multitude of appellatives given to Egypt by other foreigners, the present 
name Muss'r reappears in the Phoenician Muapo — suspected to be an error of copyist 
for Musra — of Stephanus Byzantinus ; in the Uccrpaia of George the Syncellus ; iu 
the Messredj of the Persian " Boundehesch-Pahlevi " ; and so on backwards to the 
Persepolitan cuneiform inscriptions of Darius, carved at Behist<in early in the fifth 
century b. c, where it is orthographed M ' u d r a y a. Two centuries earlier, the name 
MASR, or Madr (also Mesrahouan), is chiselled in Assyrian cuneatics on the thresholds 
of Khorsabad, among the conquests of Asarhaddon, between B. c. 709 and 6G7 ; and it 
may exist perhaps on older sculptures of the ninth century b. c, discovered by Rawlinson. 

Albeit, 700 years b. c. are ample for our object; inasmuch as they prove that a 
singular form o/ the name JIuss'r existed in Asia, in days parallel with, and probably 
anterior to, those passages in the Hebrew Text where MTsUR is its homonyme. Its 
dual or plural representative in Xth Genesis, MT«RIM, is either a later amplification, 
or meaning simply the Muss'rites, people of Muss'r, Egypt, excludes the supernatural 
idea that Mizraim was a man. 

In this concrete sense of Egyptians, we find the correspondent of Mizraim in the 



494 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

mearpawi of Josephus, and of the Syncellus; but the latter uses it in bis preface to a 
document, the Old Chronicle, which every scholar repudiates in some mode more or 
less decisive. Those who now pretend to accept the Old Chronicle, or the Lalerculits, 
as genuine Egyptian, slur over Letronne's blighting criticisms. The hand of Judaizing 
Christian imposture stands out undisguisedly in the other portion of the Syncellus's 
chrouography — where he commences his "Laterculus" with Mtarpaiii o kui Mr;vns — 
Mestraim (for Mizraim) the same as Menes ! That the first Pharaoh of Egypt, Menes, 
should be metamorphosed into MTsRIM, the Egyptians, of Xth Genesis, by a harmoniz- 
ing monk of Byzantium some 800 years after Christ, and at least 4500 after the death 
of Menes, is not extraordinary, when one remembers the pious frauds of a school in 
which the Syncellus was neither the first nor the last ornament ; but that writers in 
our day should reason from such and similar Greek-church literary juggleries, that 
Mitsraim of Xth Genesis was a man, instead of an Oriental personification of Egypt, 
merely proves such writers to possess, as Bunsen has it, "little learning, or less 
honesty." Our note 59^ indicates volume and page wherein complete destruction of 
TO naXaiof ;^povtK(J>', ' the Chronicle of the old times, or events,' may be found ; and we 
are content to follow in the wake of Letronne, Biot, Matter, Barucchi, Bockh, Bunsen, 
Raoul-Kochette, Lepsius, Kenrick, Alfred Maury, &c. — all of whom, more or less 
earnestly, reject the Old Chronicle, uniting with Bunsen's condemnation of it and 
" similia, quas hominis sunt Christiani, parum docti, at impudentissimi." 

All Grecian antiquity, from Homer to Strabo, has designated Egypt by names in 
which no form of Mitsraim plays a part ; nor can it be yet said that any true equiva- 
lent for the Semitic Muss'r has been discovered amid the numberless appellatives given 
to their own country by Egyptian hierogrammates. Leaving aside old fanciful analo- 
gies that might be retwisted out of Champollion's Grammaire and Dictionnaire, Dr. 
Hinck's ingenious TO-MuTeRI, ' Land of the two Egypts,' fell beneath the knife of 
Mr. Davyd W. Nash, who substituted TO-MuEE-KHAFTO, ' the beloved land of the 
two Egypts.' Syncellus's " Mestraeans " was supposed by Lenormant to be a compound 
word — MES-n-RE, 'son of the sun': but, 1st, this has not been found as a proper 
name in hieroglyphics ; and, 2dly, the word yitarpaia is but a modern Greek transcriber's 
corruption (not of an Egyptian name, but) of the Hebrew and foreign word Mitsra-im. 
Mr. Birch's " Merter (Mitzraim), is red under thy sandals," is the nearest approxima- 
tion to Muss'r hitherto suggested; and saves discussion here of the various Hebraical 
solutions proposed by Rosellini, Portal, or Lanci ; some of which would admirably 
explain why the Hebreivs gave to Egypt the name of MTsRIM, but none of which prove 
that the Egyptian natives ever recognized such foreign designation — any nearer, phi- 
lologieally, than "Americus Vespucius" might, by some etymological gladiator, be 
wrenched out of our " Uncle Sam." We return, therefore, as in so many other 
instances, to Champollion's fiat of forty years ago: viz., that Muss'r, MTsUR, and 
MTSRIM, in all their forms, were probably alien to the denizens of the Nile, but 
were names given to Egypt and Egyptians by Semitic populations. 

But one query remains. In the original idea of the writer of Xth Genesis, was 
MTsRIM a dual or a plural ? The surviving punctuated Text (written or printed in 
the post-Christian square-letter) reads, dualistically, Mitsra'im ; which would correspond 
perfectly to the Pharaonic division into ^'two Egypts," Upper and Lower — preserved 
still in the Saeid and Bahrelyeh of the modern Fellaheen. We would submit, notwith- 
standing, that the Masorete diacritical marks float between a. c. 506, and the eleventh 
century (age of the earliest MSS. extant) ; and therefore such minute contingencies as a 
dual or a plural become, archa3ologictilly speaking, rather problematical. For ourselves, 
we think the plural form, Mitsrim, most natural — 1st, because it is the Hebrew literal 
expression without the later and superfluous points ; and, 2d, because the plural 
MiTsRiM, as the Israelitish name for Egyptians, amply satisfied all chorographic and 
ethnological exigencies whensoever Xth Genesis was projected. 

" Misrajim," Bochart declared 200 years ago, " non est nomen hominis. Id non 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 495 

patitur forma dualis"; Tvherefore, denying that there ever was a wan called " Miz- 
raim," we read simplj', for MiTiRIM — Ihe Egyptians fi'^"! 

17. £315 — P/illT — ' Phut.' 

Hamitic ; not the Hebrew ' fat,' ' despicable,' &c. ! 

That this is Barbary — i. e., the African coast along the Mediterranean west of 
Egypt — no one doubts. DiflFerences of opinion here resolve themselves into mere 
conjectures as to space. 

The most salient feature of Phul, observable in Xth Genesis, is that this personifica- 
tion has no children — i.e., colonies, or affiliations; which, coupled with the vague 
demarcations of Phut in other Scriptural passages {Nahum iii. 9), shows that to the 
Hebrews this name meant generally North-western Africa ; embracing families of man 
too remote to be described. The word has since spread very extensively over Africa, 
\i Foule, Fouta-ToTO, i^ou/a-Bondou, Fouta-D^aMon, &c., names of Fellatah States and 
tribes, be its derivatives ; as Fd.?, the kingdom of Fez, is, without question ; nomin- 
ally replacing the Ecffio PhiUensis of Jerome's time ; Ptolemy's city of Fouiis ; and 
Pliny's river Phuth flowing in Mauritania, the country which Josephus considers the 
equivalent of Phut. Indeed, there is no lack of old names, throughout the Moghreb, 
(part of which containing " Putca urbs. Phut flumen, Phthia portus, Pythis extrema," 
was anciently called Futeya), like Phthamphii, Phthcmphuti, Phautusii, &c., to establish 
Phut's existence at all recorded ages, close to the Louhim, Lehahim, and similar Libyan 
designations in Xth Genesis. 

Bunsen reads Phut as Mauritania ; considering that the river Phut of Pliny is equi- 
valent to the Punt of hieroglyphics ; the n or m left out, as in Moph for Memphis, 
or Shishak for Sheshonk. Birch holds the hieroglyphical sign (which ascends in anti- 
quity to the earliest monuments) to mean the " nwe bows. This word has been read 
Peti, and supposed to be the Scriptural Phut, the Libyans or Moors ; but it must be 
observed that the hieroglyphical word Peti is always applied to a large unstrung bow, 
in ethnic names." Upon the cuneatic sculptures of Assyria, and among the conquests 
of Asarhaddon, De Saulcy has read — ■' Populum Pout, hos et gentes foederatas." 

As "FheT-kah," or bow-country, or as "NiPAT — countries," determined by nine 
bows, this name for the last quarter of a century has been identified with Phut, (or 
rather, comfounded with the NiP/iaiaT — true representatives of the Naphlukhim of 
Gen. X. 13,) in Egyptian sculptures of every epoch; and, without doubt, refers, in 
hieroglyphics, to Libyan families oi Amazirghs, ShiHouhs, &c., that under the present 
general denomination of Berbers stretch westwards from Lower Egypt to the Atlantic. 

Deferring some critical minutice until we reach the Naphtukhim, our opinion on Phut 
is, that iu Xth Genesis it means those countries now called Barbary ; while in other 
biblical texts it covers Hamitic affiliations along the Mediterranean face of Africa; to 
the exclusion t)f the more inland Negro races, by Hebrew chroniclers unmentioned.^ss 



18. |j;jD — KNAd:N' — ' Canaan.' 



Hamitic; not the Hebrew 'merchant,' 'tribulation,' &c. 

Upon no terrestrial personification in Xth Genesis, except Cusn and Nimeod, has 
more theory been piled upon hypothesis, than in respect to this luckless cognomen 
and the historical nations that bore it. 

Assuming that the Jehovistic document of Genesis IXth was penned by the same in- 
dividuality who 'compiled the chart of Genesis Xth, orthodox commentators, from the 
Rabbis and Fathers down to the uninspired annotators of our own generation, sorely 
vex themselves with Noah's inebriate malediction — "accursed be Kanaan. Let him 
be «BD-/BDIM, slave of slaves, to his brethren" — (Gen. ix. 25) — whereas, in the Text 
itself, Ham the father, not Kaxaan the son, was the graceless oflFender. In Hesiod's 



496 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

Greek version of the same Cbaldsean mythe, hapless Olpavds, Coelus, had infinitely more 
serious reasons for swearing at his unnatural son Kpdroj, Saturnus; -while, as Cahen 
has duly noted on the Noachian curse, "this is the fourth malediction that one 
encounters in Genesis : the first being against a snake, the second against the earth, 
and the third against Cain." 

Setting forth thence with a moral non-seqmiur, commentators next attempt to justify 
a supposititious extermination of the guiltless grandson's innocent posterity, recorded 
by " writer 2d " — " but of the cities of these people (the Canaanites), which leHOuaH 
thy God gives thee for heritage, thou shalt spare nothing alive that breathes " [Deut. 
XX. 16). Yet, despite this and similar omnipotent injunctions to obliterate poor 
KNAaN, we find "writer 3d" (Josh. xv. 63) attesting how "the children of Judah 
could not drive out " the Canaanites from Israel's holiest abode, Jerusalem, even " unto 
this day !" A fact explained by "writer 4th" {Jud. i. 19, 21), " because (the Canaanites) 
had chariots of iron" ; at the same time that "writer 5th" (2 Sam. v. 7, 8, 9) bears 
witness that one band of Canaanites maintained the stronghold of Mt. Zion, Jebus, 
down to the reign of David. Even then, unscrupulously heroic as that monarch was, 
he was consti-ained, through political exigencies, chronicled by "writer 6th" [2 Sam. 
xxiv. 18, 24), to buy from a Canaanitish land-holder, "Aravna, the Jebusite," the 
identical "threshing floor" on the site of which Solomon, according to "writer 7th" 
(2 Chron. iii. 1, 3), erected a little paganish temple (smaller than its duplicate at 
Hierapolis) that, although only 90 feet long by 30 front, is estimated to have cost 
about 4000 millions of dollars — United States' currency. 

Other sticklers for plenary inspiration who, in direct contravention of the plain 
words of Genesis IXth (favoring the notion that Ham, and not his son Canaan, was 
accursed), contend that, in consequence of such malediction. Ham became the pro- 
genitor of black [Negro) races, may be set aside as entirely ignorant of Scripture. 
Followers of the learned Dr. Cartwright's " Canaan identified with the Ethiopian " may 
be pleased to refer to the fac- simile portrait [supra, p. 127, Fig. 19] for con- 
firmation of a doctrine which has the double misfortune of being physiologically and 
historically impossible, as well as wholly anti-biblical. 

We appeal to the sober author of Xth Genesis for relief from such mental aberra- 
tions. His chorography (constructed some time after Joshua the son of Nun, or Nau, 
had expelled such Canaanitish tribes as survived massacre, or tolerated under the con- 
quei'or's yoke, along Israel's roads of march from Mount Sinai to Palestine) attests, 
ex post facto, that already in his time "the families of the KNAaNI (had been) dis- 
persed." (Gen. X. 18.) Large bodies of these people emigrated to Libya, where their 
names, traditions, and tongues, exist to this day. Procopius, in the sixth century a. c, 
mentions an inscription wherein P/iantaaws recorded their flight into Africa, "from 
before the face of the brigand Joshua son of Naue : " and in the fourth century, St. 
Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, relates how, in his diocese, " Our rustics, being asked 
whence they were, responded, Punically, Chanani." Now, it is a fact as certain as 
any in history, that the Punic-Carthaginians, their parents the Phoenicians, the Ca- 
naanites and the Hebrews, spoke one and the same tongue, but with slight idiomatic 
provincialisms of difi^erence. " The term 'Hebrew language ' does not occur in the Old 
Testament," says Gesenius, "though it must have been common when part of it was 
written. Instead of this name, the language is usually termed the language of Canaan 
(Isa. xix. 18)." So far, indeed, from Hebrew, as philological science nowadays under- 
stands the term, deserving honors, owing to its supposititious antiquity, as the "lingua 
sancta" of Paradise (according to Usher, exactly b. c. 4002-3!), it is positive that 
Abraham, grandfather of Israel, when he emigrated from " Ur of the Chaldees," spoke, 
not in Hebrew, but, like his Mesopotamian tribe, in an Aramcean dialect. Israel's de- 
scendants, forgetting their mother-tongue, adopted afterwards, in Palestine, the speech' 
of KNAaN; and, calling it "Hebrew," unwittingly sanctified the language of the 
" slave of slaves," instead of that of the true Abrahamidce ! During the Captivity, the 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 497 

Jeivs again forgot Kanaanitish " Hebrew." Eetempered by some seventy years' sojourn 
in the Euphratic regions of their primitive origin, they brought back with them a later 
idiom of that Chaldosan language which, modified by about 1500 years of time, was a 
lineal descendant of the pristine speech of Abraham, son of Terah, son of Nahor, son 
of Serag, son of Reu, son of Peleg; son (that is, affiliation) ot Eber — not a man, but 
the geographical personification symbolized in Xth Genesis (21) by EBR, eber; a 
name which, like its Greek form, uir-tp, and its Latinized equivalent, Iberian, originally 
meant simply " the yonder land ; " that is to say, Palestine ; a country west of and 
beyond the river Euphrates ! " Hebrews," as the foreign corruption of EBR, signifies 
nothing more than men from or of the other side — the Yondercrs. 

Every effort, therefore, made by orthodox Rabbis, Doctors, or Moolahs, Jewish, 
Christian, or Muslim, to enhance the antiquity and holiness of the tongue they call 
Hebrew, only renders more venerable " the language of KNAilN" : and thus, by exalt- 
ing as theologians do, unintentionally, but positively, the " slave of slaves" above the 
chosen master, they enable the retributive justice of science to make inhumanity and 
superstition vindicate, in our nineteenth century, the memory of a much-injured 
people, who called themselves KNAaNI from ante-historical times down to a period 
far more modern than the Christian era. 

The unceasing proclivity of the Israelites to adopt Canaanitish customs and worship, 
to intermarry with Canaanitish females, to dwell in peace with or among them — despite 
denunciations attributed to Moses and the Prophets — no less than the existence of 
Canaanites everywhere in Palestine after the Christian era : these facts (evident to 
every possessor of a "Concordance of the Old and New Testaments") merely prove 
the strong natural affinities of language and of physical organism common to both 
families. Nay, apart from supernaturalistic caprice, the only satisfactory mode of 
justifying such vehement declamations of hatred towards KNAaN, found in the writings 
of Hebrew reformers, is to acknowledge frankly, that human nature, rebelling against 
these homicidal proscriptions, often rendered them nugatory in practice. 

Of the eleven affiliations of KNAiJN, only five, the Hethites, Yehousites, Emorites, Guir- 
gasites, and Hivites, were established within the petty territory of Palestine. Add to 
these the Canaanites (possibly descendants of another KNAaN) and the P'-erizites, who 
were merely peasants ; and we have the seven peoples which the Hebrews were 
enjoined to expel. (Deut. vii. 1 ; Josh. iii. 10.) The desire was stronger than the 
deed, for the Jews never entirely drove the Canaanites out, even of Jerusalem. 

By classical historians, the KNAaNI were known under the general name of ^oinKcg, 
Phoenicians ; and the LXX often substitute the latter name where the Hebrew Text 
reads Kanaaniies. Herodotus and later authors assure us, that the Phoenicians came 
originally from the Persian Gulf; and the Kanaani, therefore, would not be indigenous 
to Palestine; but, nevertheless, they were " already in the land" [Gen. xii. 5) at the 
advent of the Abrahamidce, and we regard them as autocthones. 

Eusebius quotes Sanconiathon and his translator, Philo Byblius, for the fact that the 
Phoenicians called their country Xva, a contraction of KNAaN. On Phoenician coins 
the city of Laodicea is called mother of Kanaan. Older than numismatic record, more 
ancient than Hebrew annalists (Moses not excepted), more positively authentic than 
any source to which archaeology can appeal, are the Egyptian monuments of Sethei- 
Meneptha I. and Ramses II. ; whereup&n KANANA-Za?irf is frequently mentioned among 
conquered Asiatic nations, from the seventeenth — sixteenth century b. c. downwards. 
And it may assuage pruriency in those who fancy the KNASNI to have been African 
"iEthiopians," (though as " ann-burned-faces " they were certainly Asiatic,) to take an- 
other look at our portrait of a Canaanite, copied from sculptures anterior to the century 
in which the'Mosaic Lawgiver is erroneously believed to have written the book called 
Genesis — a portrait, wherein the features establish that (apart from Canaan's priority of 
speech in the Hcbraical "lingua sancta," as, eventually, "beatorum in coelis") the inex- 

63 



498 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

tiDguishable laws of type prove the KNAaNI, as history also testifies, to belong to the 
same zoological province of creation, though to a lower gradation of type, as the Abra- 
hamidae. Indeed, the root of KNa meaning 'low,' and that of Abram, 'high,' one 
may perceive the real cause of early antipathy between the Canaanites and the Abra- 
hamidcB to lie in mutual repugnances between the indigenous "low-lander" and the 
intrusive "high-lander." 

Palestine, in its widest geographical, no less than in its restricted rabbinical sense, 
is written history's cradle, and natural history's birth-place, for KNASN.599 

nD ♦:D — BOT-KIJSA — " Affiliations of Kush." 
19. ^<3D — SBA — 'Sbba.' 

Perplexities are here occasioned by palEeographical and phonetic differences between 
the letters S, SA, and Ss. 

Four separate nations or places, as Bochart reminds us, are mentioned in Genesis 
by names transcribed through Seba or Sheba : viz. — 

A. — Genesis x. 7 — N3D — SBA, or Seba, affiliation of KUSA. 

B. — " X. 7 — xncv — SsBA, or Sheba, affiliation of KVSh through Raamah. 

C. — " X. 28 — xa'kJ' — S.5BA, or Sheba, affiliation of SAeM through Joktan. 
J). — " XXV. 3 — N3K' — SsBA, or /S/ie6a, affiliation of SAeM through Abraham. 

On these discrepancies Fresnel has wisely noted, that post-Mohammedan Arabs have 
likewise forged genealogies to match some of those in Xth Genesis ; at the same time 
that different Hebrew annalists often contradict themselves, no less than current Ara- 
bian traditions. Various are attempts at reconciliation, to be consulted under our 
references to Volney, Lenormant, Munk, Jomard, and Be Wette ; but, upon the whole, 
Forster's appear to be the most successful, viewed geographically. To us, neverthe- 
less, the only apparent difference between the four above-cited names is, that one (A. ) 
begins with the letter sameq, S ; and the other three (B., C, D.) with sheen, Sh ; that 
is, according to the Masorete points added to the modern square-letter manuscripts after 
the sixth century ; because, those stripped away, sheen remains Sseen, or Ss. 

Abraham's grandchild, through Ketoura, the fourth SABA (D.), is excluded from 
Xth Genesis, and, therefore, appertains not to our researches ; except when noticing 
the confusion he produces in Arabian genealogies. Nor, for similar reasons, do we 
speculate on which of the four names might apply to the unknown region whence jour- 
neyed Solomon's "Queen of Sheba" ; whom Josephus makes sovereign of Egypt and 
Ethiopia ; and whom the Abyssinians have ever claimed as their own ; her illegitimate 
son, by Solomon, being the legendary progenitor of all their kings. The gifts which 
this "illustrious inquirer after truth " made to King Solomon (1 Kings x. 10 ; 2 Chron. 
ix. 9) — estimated at $2,917,080, of U. S. coinage; besides any quantity of spices and 
precious stones — are enlarged upon by Forster, who considers this lady to have been 
"Queen of Yemen" in Southern Arabia. Indeed, "the offerings of the Queen of 
Sheba " are believed, by Mr. Wathen, to have enabled Rhamsinitus to build " the inde- 
structible masses of the pyramids " of Egypt. Hoskins, of course, appoints this ubiquit- 
ous dame Queen of African Meroe : but Fresnel, commenting upon inscriptions brought 
by Dr. Arnaud from the Haram-Bilkis — a great elliptical temple, considered to be the 
"Sanctuary of the Queen of Sheba" — seems to have determined her Yemenite locality, 
as well as the name Ji-Abaakah ; by which, representing a form of Venus, she became 
subsequently deified by the Sabseans. Oriental tradition has consecrated, elsewhere, 
the voyages of princesses, about the same period that Shcba's queen and King Solomon 
interchanged affectionate courtesies. So struck, indeed, were the Jesuit missionaries 
with the resemblance between the journey made, about 1000 b. c, by "a princess 
named Si-wang-mou, the Mother of the Western king (who afterwards went to China, 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 499 

bearing presents to King Mou-wang") and Solomon's "queen of Sheba," that these 
pietists supposed the Chinese account to be a mere travesty of the Hebrew books of 
Kings or C/iroiiieles ' The era ; many of the presents ; the miraculous facilities of 
transportation over similar immense distances ; and the manner in which the " Mother 
of the Western King and Mou-wang abandoned themselves, even at the end, to all the 
delights of joy and songs," curiously correspond. Still more singularly; — the Chinese 
book, in which these parallelisms are recorded, is called Chi-i (i. e. collection of what 
is neglected) — a name identical with the Hebrew Dibri haiamim, and the Greek Para- 
lipomena (things left out) : in which latter volume, under our English designation of 
" Chronicles," the queen of Sheba's visit was registered, like the Chinese story, by far 
later sci'ibes, until copies became multiplied ad infinitum, through the blessing of 
moveable types. 

Deeming, in common with the highest biblical exegetists of our age, Solomon's 
" queen of Sheia " to be less historical than Mou-wang's, we are fain to leave her out 
of the argument ; no less than Josephus's opinion that African Meroe was intended by 
any " Saba " of Xth Genesis. Which doubts submitted, let us remember how Pliny 
assures us that the Sabceans stretched from sea to sea ; that is, from the Persian to the 
Arabian Gulf: and, inasmuch as four distinct nations of Arabia are recorded under 
the iippellative Seba, Sheba, Sseba, or Saba, it is uncertain whether any one of them 
can be specially identified at this day. Nevertheless, they are all circumscribed by 
the " Gezeeret-el-Arab," or Isle of the Arabs ; and Seba (A.), the first of Genesis Xth, 
as a KUSAe7e afifiliation, belongs to the himyar (red), or (fa7-i--skinned race; — not im- 
probably now represented by the tribes at Mirbdl and Zhafar, who still speak the old 
Ehkielee tongue. 

No objections militate against Forster's skilfully elaborated conclusion, "that the 
Seba or Sebaim of the Old Testament, and the Sabi or Asabi of (Ptolemy) the Alex- 
andrine, denote one and the same people; " and that " the tract of country between 
Cape Mussendom and the mountains of Sciorm was originally the seat of Cushite 
colonies ; " because, as Forster's maps and reasonings establish. Cape Mussendom was 
styled, by Ptolemy, " the promontory of the Asabi," near which now lies the town of 
C&scan {Cushaii of Hebrew writers) ; and a littoral termed, by Pliny, "the shore of 
Ham," Liltus Hammceum, now Maham [Ma-K^aM ? place of Ham] ; adjacent to which 
is a WHdee-Ham, Valley of Ham ; prove that, all around this centre, many local names, 
commemorative of KUSAiVe settlements, even yet exist. 

Not to dogmatize, we conceive that Oman, province of Southern Arabia, suflSces 
for the pristine habitat of our Seba (A.).600 

20. rh'^n — KAUILH — ' Havilah. 

Two ITavilahs, both spelt exactly the same way, one KUShite (v. 7), and the other 
Jokianide (v. 29), occurring in Xth Genesis, their separation is difficult : without 
harassing ourselves about the third — "Land of K/iUILH," in Gen. ii. 11 — which, 
being ante-diluvian, concerns not human history. 

Here again Forster is an excellent guide, because he does little more than copy 
Bochart. Assigning to the Joktanide Havilah the several districts bearing this name 
in Yemen, he naturally seeks for the KV^hite Havilah about the Persian Gulf, fixing 
upon the Bahreyn islands as the pivot of inquii-y ; one of which still retains its original 
name, Aval. " In order to illustrate the ancient from the modern variations of the 
proper name Havilah, we must begin," he sensibly observes, " by removing the dis- 
guise thrown over it, in our English "version of the Bible, by its being there spelled 
according to the Rabbinical pronunciation. The Hebrew word, written Havilah by 
adoption of the points, without points would read Huile, or Hauile;" and thereby its 
identity with the Huaela of Ptolemy; the Huala of Niebuhr; the Aval, Aaal, Huale, 



500 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

Khan, Khalt, Khaul, Khaukhi, of modern Arabic, becomes transparent to general 
readers. 

Thus, enlarging Bochart's ingenious comparisons, the EiAdr of the LXX; the Cha- 
blasii of Dionysius (Periegetcs) ; the EblUman mountains of Ptolemy, -still called Aij,al; 
the Chaulothei of Erastosthenes, and the Chaldcei of Pliny; become resolved, by Forster, 
into the powerful tribe of the Beni-Khliled : -whose encampments dot the Peninsula 
from Damascus to the Straits of Bab-el-mandeb ; from Mekka, on the Arabian coast, 
round to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia ; often on sites where some remembrance 
of their parental Haviliie appellatiyes is traditionally preserved "unto this day." 

" Se non fe vero, almeno 6 ben trovato " : and, in the present state of knowledge on 
Central Arabia — wonderfully small, our nineteenth century considered — if Carlyle's 
"hammer of Thor" might, perhaps, demolish Forster's picturesque edifice, we doubt 
that Thor himself could erect a substitute more solid. 

Albeit, ethnology may well be content when Arabia, and especially the shores and 
islands of the Persian Gulf, preserve so many reminiscences of three " Havilahs ; " 
among which, through closest application of the " doctrine of chances," some local 
habitation must still exist for the name and lineage of a KUSAiie Khauilah.soi 

21. nn2D — SBT^H— 'Sabtah.' * 

What may have been the origin of the word Saba, which, simple or compound, has 
been preserved in Arabia by Hamitic and Semitic affiliations, from primordial times to 
the present, there appears to be no means now of ascertaining. Gesenius derives 
Sabaism from Tsaba, the heavenly 'host' ; which, as concerns the root Saba, appears 
somewhat ex post facto. Arab migration carried this name into Abyssinia, if the Saba; 
of Strabo be now represented by a town called £ssab ; so too Josephus imagines Meroe 
to have been called Saba, previously to its adoption of the name of Cambyses's sister ; 
but Lepsius's Meroite discoveries prove the whole story to be fabulous. Bochart, cau- 
tiously, traced Sabatha, Sobota, of Pliny, through Sophtha, an island in the Persian 
Gulf, to the MassahathoB on Median frontiers. Pliny, however, says "Atrami/ce quorum 
caput (So6o<aZe LX templa muris includens " ; which fixes this city towards Hadramaut. 
Of the three Arabian sites where nominal remains of Sabtah are now traceable, Vol- 
ney's adoption of Bochart's index seems most appropriate: that of Ptolemy's city, 
2a0-Sa, Saphlha, Sabbaiha-meiropolis, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, in the province 
of Bahrfeyn ; where the Saab Arabs roam at present, as Forster's maps confirm. 

" The Homeritse," states the great hydrographer Jomard, " the Hadramitse, the Cha- 
tramotitsB, the Sabsei, the Sapharitse, the Omanitse, the MaranitEe, the Miniiei, the 
Thamudeni, lived where nowadays even are the people of Eemyar, the people of Ha- 
dramaut, the people of Saba (or Mariaba), the people of Dhafdr, the people of Oman, 
those of Mahrah, those of Mina, of Thamoud, and manj' other peoples, of which the 
name, any more than the existence, does not appear to have suflTered from time." And 
it will manifest the pains now bestowed by Orientalists to discover these Arabian . 
localities, to add Fresnel's successes : — " The famous emporiwn of Kana is decidedly 
identified with Hisn-Ghorab " — and " the town of Kharibet, discovered by M. Arnaud, 
is the last term of (^lius Callus's) Roman expedition [Caripeia)." 

Though we cannot yet place our finger on the exact spot, there is no reason for seek- 
ing Sabtah elsewhere than among KVShiie affiliations colonized on the Persian Gulf. 
If not found already, the place and its tribes will soon be recovered by the zeal of 
Arabian explorers. ^"2 

22. no;^") — RAaMII — 'Eaamah.' 

Bochart's acuteness had settled upon Pty/zo of the LXX ; Rhegama of Ptolemy ; Reg- 
mapolis and Kolpos-Regma in Staph. Byzantinus. This name is said by Strabo to sig- 



HEBRETV NOMENCLATURE, 



501 



nify ' straits ' ; ■which meaning singularlj' corresponds to the narrow entrance of the 
Persian Gulf, on the Arabian side of which Forster's maps fix Raamah, and its two 
colonies Sheba and Dcdan ; already grouped together by Ezekiel (xxvii. 20-22). 

The inland province of Mahrah preserves the phonetic elements of Raamah ; and 
there it is that, at Mirbat and ZhafCir, Fresnel's discoveries of the Ehkielee tongue, called 
also Makree, establish the existence of a people, distinct from Semitish Arabs : sur- 
vivors of the old Hirayarite {red) stock : the <forA--skinned Arabians of KV&hite lineage, 
represented by the swarthy DowHsir tribes, as reported by Burckhardt and AVellsted. 

These people -were called JShaminitce and Rhubanitm by Roman authors ; and Ramss, 
an Arab port just inside the Persian Gulf, perfectly answers to the site of Raamah 
catalogued among KUShiie personifications in Xth Genesis. 60^ 

23. Nin^D — SBTeKA — < Sabtechah.' 

" Sablaka is thrown by Josephus into Abyssinian Eihiopia ; by Bochart, into the 
Persic Carmania, under pretext of resembling Samydahe: these two hypotheses seem 
to us vague and without proofs. Sabtaka has no known trace." So far Volney. 

Yet Bochart's suggestion of b for m offers no paloeographic difficulties; and if 
Samedake could be identified, SaBeTAKe might be Sabteka, situate in Kerman, near 
the Persian Gulf. 

"The Sabaiica Regio of the ancients, a district apparently in the neighborhood of 
the Shat-al-Arab, is the only probable vestige I can discover," says Forster, " of the 
name or settlements of Sabtecha." 

For our purposes, this excellent indication is sufficient. Personifying some locality 
or people of KUSAi/e origin, probably near the mouth of the Euphrates, the choro- 
graphic genealogist of Xth Genesis fixes Sabteka among Arabians of swarthy hue-^"* 



24. ^y^ — SsBA — ' Sheba.' " Affiliation of Raamah." 

[Our SjBA second (B.), zihi supra. "] 

We have already stated the difficulties of distinguishing which of four Arabian SBAs 
— KUSAiVs, Yokianide, and Ketourite or Jokshanide — are assignable now to the chart 
of Xth Genesis, moi-e than twenty-seven centuries subsequently to its projection ; but 
each one, by every process of reasoning upon facts, is circumscribed within Arabian 
denominations. If, on^the one hand, time has rendered minute dissections nugatory, 
on the other it spares us the trouble of seeking elsewhere for historical lights. 

Oflfshoots of Raamah, " Sheba and Dedan" stand contiguously, not only in Xth Gen- 
esis, but in Ezekiel (xxxviii. 13), and belong to the same neighborhoods; whilst Isaiah's 
KUSA and S«BA " {xliii. 3), united by a conjunction, serves to fix Seba among the dark- 
skinned Arabs, where the compiler of Xth Genesis bad traced this name's genealogical 
a.ffinities. But, at whatever age (probably Esdraic; i. e., after return from captivity) 
the fragmentary documents now called " Genesis " were put together, " a sort of spirit 
of investigation and combination was also at work. We are indebted to this," con- 
tinues De Wette, " for the genealogical and ethnographical accounts contained in the 
Pentateuch. They are designed in sober earnest, and are not without some historical 
foundation, but are rather the result of fancy and conjecture than of genuine historical 
investigation. To test the accuracy of the table of Genesis Xth, compare the following 
passages " : — 



Genesis X. 
7. "The sons of KUSA, Seba, and 
Havilah, and Sabtah, and Raamah, and 
Sabtecha. And the sons of Raamah ; 
Sheba and Dedan." 



Genesis XXV. 
2. "Abraham [descendant of S/ie^I] 
took a wife . . . Ketoarah ; and she bare 
him Zimran and Jokshan, Medan, and 
Midian, and Islibak, and Shuah : and 
JoESUAX begat Sheba and Dcdan." 



502 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

Now, both texts conceutrate " Sheba and Dedan" in Arabia. Nevertheless, the un- 
ostentatious care evidently bestowed upon his chorography by the practical compiler 
of Xth Genesis, favors his superior accuracy, and therefore we take his "Sheba and 
Dedan " to be the true colonial settlements of KUSA. 

This is corroborated by Ezekiel (xxvii. 22) — " The merchants of Sheba and Raamah, 
they were thy merchants: they occupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices:" not 
merely referring to the rich productions of incense, myrrh, gums, and aromatics, 
raised in and exported from this part of Arabia then as now, but also to spiceries of 
India and its islands passing in transit through Sabcean hands : which, in Joseph's 
time [Gen. xxxvii. 25), were conveyed by inland caravan-portage to Gilead, whence 
Ishmaelilcs "with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh," carried them to 
Egypt ; and which " maritime merchandisers," under the name of Tarshish, had con- 
signed to the Eoyal Firm of "Solomon, Hyram, & Co." by "coasters" up the Red 
Sea ; and dispatched via Petra through this house's factors at Etsion-gaber : (cost of 
transhipments, freights, camel-hire, insurances, interests, brokerages, commissions, and 
graUages, no less than amount of shares or profits, to us unknown). 

Forster skilfully compares the Plinean account of .ffiiius Gallus's expedition, " in 
the words of Gallus himself; the passage being, to all appearance, an extract from the 
report of that general to his master Augustus :" — " Sabceos, ditissimos sylvarum ferti- 
litate odorifera, auri metallis, agrorum riguis, mellis ceroque proventu :" and more- 
over relates how, " On his arrival before Marsuabse, the capital of the Rhamanitae, 
JElius Gallus, the Roman geographer informs us, learned from his prisoners that he 
was within two days' march of the spice country :" the very productions for which 
the Prophet of the Captivity had given celebrity to "Sheba and Raamah." 

Hence, the geographer of Arabia succeeds in identifying the Saba of Raamah among 
the " Sabcei, yfith their capital Mar-Suaba or Sabe ; whose locality is preserved and 
determined, in its modern topography, by the town of Sabbia, in the district of Sabie;" 
mapped by him towards the southwestern extremity of the " Isle of the Arabs." 

" A highly valuable confirmation of the identity of the modern province of Sabie, 
and of its ancient inhabitants, the Rhamanite Sabseans, with the Cushite Raamah and 
Sheba, arises on our first reference to the ' Description de I'Arabie ' [Carsten Nie- 
buhr's] ; where we find, in the Djebal, another Sabbia, a large town or village, seated 
in a district retaining, to this day, the patriarchal name of Bent KhUsi, or the sons of 
Cush. Another district, of the same name, Beni Keis, is )*iticed by our author in the 
Tehama. In the former district occurs a village named Beit el Khusi [house of the 
KUSAj<«.] a third small district connects the name of Cush with that of his son 
Raamah ; namely, that of Beni Khusi, in the province or department of Rama. The 
city of Kusma, south of Rama, M. Niebuhr rightly conjectures to have derived its 
name and origin from Cush : a conjecture which receives strong light and confirma- 
tion from a remote quarter, in the corresponding denomination of Dooat el Kusma, a 
harbor of the ancient Havilah, near the head of the Persian Gulf; the acknowledged 
site of the earliest Cushite settlements" — i. e., of the true KUSA?m of all Israelitish 
chroniclers ; affiliated from the personification KUS/i, by which name the compiler of 
Xth Genesis figured those swarthy races that dwelt ab initio exactly where they do 
now, viz : in Southern, Arabia. 

More conclusive determinations, in primordial ethnology, than in this case of Sheba 
(B.), it wo\ild be hard to discover. 605 



25. pi — DDiT — ' Dedan.' 



Leaving aside nice discriminations between the duplex Shebas and Dedans, the one 
Hamitic and the other Semitic, we remark that, being a junior colony to Sheba, in Rha- 
manite affiliations, this Dedan, through analogy, might be fixed in Arabia, as we have 
seen in the preceding name, even without the precise words of Isaiah (xxi. 13) : — "In 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 503 

the woodlands of Arabia shall ye lodge, ye travelling companies of DDNIM," Deda- 
niam : which obviates the necessity foi- seeking out of the Peninsula. 

But the precise location of the geographical son of Raamah, and brother of the pre- 
ceding Sheba, is fixed at the city and district of Dadena, just outside Cape Mussendom, 
on the Indian Ocean ; and taking its natural station among KUSHiVe tribes of Southern 
Arabia does not necessitate further research.^06 

With the exception of Nimrod (to be discussed as the next name), who, none will 
dissent, belonging to Assyrian history, can have no possible relation to African theo- 
ries, here closes the genesiacal catalogue of KUS/i;<e affiliations. 

The educated reader who has followed us through Hebraical, Greek, Roman, Coptic 
and hieroglyphical sources, has now beheld every " Ethiopian" postulate on KUSA 
fall, one by one, beneath the knife of historical criticism. As one of the present authors 
indicated, ten years ago, and as both partially confirmed at a subsequent date by their 
several researches, the KHSihites of Xth Genesis could have been then, as they are 
now, once for all, glued permanently to Arabia : whence to detach them again wiU be 
a vain effort, should the reader be pleased to wield in their defence the weapons herein 
tendered him. That the present tii-esome undertaking was needed, the reader can 
satisfy himself by opening any English Commentary on Scripture ; and almost every 
English wi'iter but Forster ; who, following Bochart, has consistently vindicated the 
Arabian claims of Kusli, to the exclusion of African fables : whilst henceforward the 
Ethnographer may calmly pursue his inquiries without necessarily exclaiming, when he 
stumbles upon the mistranslation "^Ethiopia" in King James' version, 

" Hie nigtr est ; hunc tu, Komane, caveto." 

[To my learned predecessors in EUSAiVe inquiries, who have uttered opinions with- 
out first employing archaeological processes similar to those herein submitted respect- 
fully to their consideration, I beg leave to quote Letronne: — "One regrets to see 
erudite and ingenious men, of zeal and perseverance most laudable, thus waste their 
time in pursuit of such vain chimseras, in allowing themselves to be led astray by 
assimilations the most whimsical and the most arbitrary. One might say, in truth, 
that, for them, AVinckelmann and Yisconti had never appeared on earth, so much do 
they deviate from the reserved and prudent method of these heroes of archeology ; 
who, not pretending to know in antiquity but that which it is possible to explain 
through the aid of authentic monuments and of certain testimonies, knew how to stop, 
the moment they felt the ground fail beneath their tread. It is thereby that they 
arrived at so many positive results, and not at simple 'jeux d' esprit ' or of erudition, 
that cannot sustain an instant's serious examination. Our new archaeologists proceed 
quite otherwise : they take a monument perfectly obscure [like ^Ethiopia] ; they com- 
pare it with a second, with a third, and again with others that are not less so ; and, 
when they have placed side by side all these obscurities, they pleasantly figure to them- 
selves that they have created light. Upon a first conjecture, they place a second, a 
third, and a fourth. Then, upon this conjecture, at the fourth generation, they erect 
an edifice, sometimes of appearance sufficiently goodly, because it is the work of archi- 
tects who possess talent and imagination. This edifice may even endure, so long as 
nobody thinks of poking it with the tip of a finger ; but the moment that criticism 
condescends to notice it, she has but to whiff thereon, and down it tumbles like a 
castle of cards." 

To "nos adversaires," as the Abb^ Glaire facetiously has it — viz: the biblical 
dunces in the United States, whose zeal in opposing the long-pondered, long-published 
views of Morton, Agassiz, Nott, Van Amringe, myself and others, has been more re- 
markable than literary courtesy, I now turn round for my own part, (after shattering 
their anti-Scriptural KUS/iiVe illusions in regard to Africa and Nigritian families, for 
ever), and beg each individuality to accept the following citation ; the more pertinent as 



504 THE Xin CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 

it emanates from one of themselves : — " But I confess that /have some considerable 
dread of the indiscreet friends of religion, /tremble," wrote the Rev. Sydney Smith, 
" at that respectable imbecility -which shufiies away the plainest truths, and thinks the 
strongest of all causes wants the weakest of all aids. / shudder at the consequences 
of fixing the great proofs of religion upon any other basis, than that of the widest in- 
vestigation, and the most honest statement of facts. [Auree parole, 'golden words,' as 
Lanci would say], /allow such nervous and timid friends to religion to be the best 
and most pious of men ; but a bad defender of religion is so much the more pernicious 
person in the whole community, that /most humbly hope such friends will evince their 
zeal for*religion, by ceasing to defend it ; and remember that not every man is quali- 
fied to be the advocate of a.cause in which the mediocrity of his understanding may 
possibly compromise the dearest and must alFecting interests of society." And if, in 
consequence, I discard theit Cushile suppositions, I can only excuse myself in the 
. words of Strauss : — " Les th^ologiens trouveront sans doute que I'absence de ces sup- 
positions dans mon livre est peu chrgtienne ; moi (je) trouve que la presence de ces 
suppositions dans les leurs est peu scientifique." — G. R. G.] 

27. no J — NMRD — ' iTiMROD.' 

Before us stands the sixth and last aflBliation of KTJSA — to whom the writer of Xth 
Genesis devotes more space than to any other personification secondary to the parental 
"Shem, Ham, and Japhet" — inasmuch as five of the modern and arbitrary divi- 
sions of the text, called verses, are especially set apart for Nimrod and his derivations. 
Hence we may infer that, in the mind of that writer, Nimrod's honor and glory were 
inherent elements. Now, the associations, the names of cities attributed to Nimrod, the 
language spoken in diflFerent dialects throughout the Mesopotamian vicinities of their 
several locations, and their geographical assemblage in Babylonia and Assyria : — these 
considerations, we repeat, even were other histories silent, would lead archaeology to 
suspect strong Chaldaian biases on the part of the compiler of Xth Genesis ; and would 
increase the probabilities, to be enlarged upon ere we close this discussion, that Xth 
Genesis is either a transcript of an older Babylonian composition, or else was compiled 
by some Hebrew imbued, like Daniel for example, with " the learning and tongue of 
the Chaldeans." 

Such, primS, facie, would be the archaeologist's deduction when, disengaging himself 
from prejudices, no less than from traditions of comparatively recent origin, he had 
sought to evolve facts from the letter of Xth Genesis itself: especially when to this text 
he adds the only other passage, (except, of course, the abridged parallel in 1 Chron. i. 
10), in which Nimrod's name occurs throughout the canonical books, (viz: Blicahy. 
6) ; wherein " the land of Assyria . . . and the land of Nimrod " are Chaldaic 
synonj'mes for the same country. 

But, when once the inquirer steps beyond these simple and natural limitations, what 
pyramids of falsehood and misconception intervene to prevent clear understanding of 
the words of Xth Genesis ? and how baseless the fabrications upon which these pyra- 
mids rest ! 

A "mighty hunter," whose imaginary deeds in venerie are still proverbial with mo- 
dern " Nimrods," founds the grandest cities. The traditionary builder of a metropo- 
lis called Babel — BAB-EL, " gate of the Sun" ; like the Ottoman " Sublime Porte" 
or the " Celestial Gates" of Chinese autocracy — " presto" becomes constructor of the 
" Tower of Babel;" when, so far as the letter of Genesis Xth and Xlth be concerned, 
neither Nimrod, nor' his innocent father KUS/;, (save as two individuals out of " the 
whole earth," Gen. xi. 1), were more guilty in such impiety than KUSA's grandfather 
NOAH, who " lived after the flood three hundred and fifty years ; " or than anybody else 
of the seventy-one or two persons — fathers, sons, grand-children, great grand-chil- 
dren, uncles, brothers, cousins, and what not — whose cognomina are enumerated in 
Xth Genesis. 



HEBRETV NOMENCLATURE. 505 

Cramped within the factitious limits of biblical computation, English writers in 
particular, following neither Scripture nor true history, but the Rabbis; and unable 
to reconcile supposed Noachic orthodoxy with the sudden rise of so-called " idolati-y," 
have seized, with rapturous eagerness, upon the earliest writer who is conjectured to 
have known anything more on the subject than we do ourselves; and these authorities 
behold in Josephus's Greco-Judaic hallucinations a clew to the enigma. 

"It is vain we know that Nimrod became mighty, even to a proverb, if the nature 
and means of his elevation cannot be understood ; or that Babylon was the beginning 
of his kingdom, unless we can find the means of learning for what purposes, and upon 
what principles, that city was established," reasons, somewhat illogically, the unknown 
author oi four very scarce octavo volumes on this speciality,^'''' in which we abortively 
hunted for vt.facl: so that, never having encountered any orthodox commentary on 
Nimrod in which principles of historical criticism were not more or less disregarded, 
we are reduced to the necessity of attempting to examine for ourselves : notwith- 
standing that the subjoined " views will doubtless excite astonishment in some, and 
displeasure in those who," avers Godfrey Higgins, the great Celtic antiquary, " while 
they deny infallibility to the Pope, write, speak, and act, as if they possessed that 
attribute." 

To begin. Let us frankly disavow partialities, in the words which His Eminence, 
Cardinal Wiseman, aptly borrows from the great Adelung : — "Ich habe keine Lieblings- 
meinung, keine Hypothese zum Grunde zu legen. Ich lelte nicht alle Sprachen von 
Einer her. Noah's Arche ist mir eine verschlossene Burg, und Babylon's Schutt bleibt 
vor mir vollig in seiner Ruhe." 

Through the common Oriental mutation of B for M, the word NJMRD, of the Hebrew 
Text, becomes Nf'A'wi? in the LXX, and NelipiiSris in Josephus. Is it a modern or a prime- 
val name ? Cuneiform researches, so far as we yet know, have thrown no monumental 
light on the subject : but hieroglyphical do. Two Pharaonic princes of the XXIId 
dj'nasty — between b. c. 936 and 860 — bore this appellative: one, son of Osoekon 
II., spells his name NIMROT; the other, son of Takeloth II., NMURT : and, Mr. 
Birch observes: — "As the Egyptians had no D, but employed the same homophone 
of the T to express this sound in foreign names, this name is unequivocally the Assy- 
rian Nimroud, IIDJ, the NcfSfnaSris of the Septuagint, a word now known to signify Lord 
in the Assyrian, and unlikely to have been introduced into an Egyptian dynasty, except 
through intermarriage with an Assyrian house." Subsequent researches have not 
merely corroborated Mr. Birch's views on the intimate alliances between Egypt and 
Assyria, during the XXIId dynasty, but Rawlinson and Layard have established that 
cuneatic writings, and many other arts of Nineveh and Babylon, are long posterior to 
Egyptian hieroglyphics, and were the natural sequences of Egyptian tuition. 

Monumental evidence, then, coetaneous in registration with the events recorded, 
carries the name NMRD, at a single bound, from its currency in parlance among the 
present natives of Assyria (as applied to places, such as Nimroud, Birs Nimroud, 
Nimroud-dagh, &c. &c.), back to the tenth century b. c, in hieroglyphics: — an age 
anterior, probably, to that of the Hebrew compiler, or translator, of Xth Genesis ; but, 
while this fact corroborates his accuracy, it serves to sweep away sundry rabbinical 
and other cobwebs that hang between our generation and the primeval origin of the 
uord itself. 

AVhat did NMRD, originally, mean ? No reply can be accepted that does not, in a 
question involving such vast ramiiications, first classify its components adverbially, 
under distinct heads : — 

Ist. Philologically : — We know not why the translation "Lord" results from arrow- 
headed investigations, and therefore relinquish discussion, on that ground, to such 
cuneatic philologues as Rawlinson, Hincks, De Saulcy, and others of the new school. 

It may at once be acknowledged that Oriental traditions, of which the Thalmudic 

64 



506 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

Mishna and Guemaras of the present Israelites are but one rill out of many streams, 
concur in representing Nimrod as every thing haughty, tyrannical, and impious ; but 
nothing can be produced to justify these gratuitous assumptions, earlier in date than 
Josephus ; who merely hands us the rabbinical notions of his day (first century after 
Christ), -when he calls Nc/SpuJEs the leader of those who strove to erect " Babel's 
tower;" and, as such, that he rebelled against Divine Providence. Now, before specu- 
lating, in opposition to the express words of Genesis Xth and Xlth, what may have 
been NMRD's performances on th.at deplorable occasion, it ought to be first shown 
that the fragment termed " Genesis Xlth, ver. 1-9," possesses real claims to be consi- 
dered historical. This being as much out of our power as of any body else at the 
present day, Josephus's modern views upon NMRD's primordial rebellion serve merely 
to illustrate the proneness of the human mind to explain the impossible by inventing 
the marvellous. So we lay them aside, beyond the only historical fact resulting from 
Josephus, viz : that, in his age, NMRD was reputed to have been a rebel. 

Such being the unique source whence flow all later theories upon KUSA's heresies, 
and his son's enormities, we descend the main stream as we find it continued, " even 
unto this day," by the Rabbis: — "According to the Talmud (tr. Chagiga, ch. ii.), the 
name NMRD, Nimrod, is derived from MRD, marad, to rebel, because its writers sup- 
pose that he induced mankind to rebel against God. This, however, Ebn Ezra 
does not seem willing to admit, but says — 'Seek not a cause for every (Scriptural) 
name, where none is expressly mentioned ; ' on which his commentator (Ohel Joseph, 
in loco) remarks, ' if the name of Nimrod is derived from the cause stated in the 
Talmud, it ought to have been, not 'NMRD, . Mmrod, but MMRD, Mamred.' R-ut, 
according to Simones ( Onomast. Y. T. p. 472), the name Nimrod is composed of 
NIN, ojfspring, and MRD, rebellion; so that NIN-MRD means filius rcbellionis. 
A portion of the name NIN survived in Ninus, under which appellation he is known 
to historians as the builder of Nineveh. . . . He began to be a mighty one in the earth 
{Gen. X. 8). ' Setting himself up against the Omnipotent, and seducing mankind from 
their allegiance to the Lord.' (Rashi.) The sacred historian intends here to point out 
to us the first beginning of those movements and convulsions in society, which led to 
the formation of states and dominions, especially to that of royalty [ ! ]. And, inas- 
much as these movements led to the overthrow of the previous state of things, the 
name of the man by whom these changes were first introduced, NMRD, Nimrod, from 
MRD, Marad, to rebel, is peculiarly expressive." 608 

There is — excuse the phrase ! — a verdant lucidity about this series of non-sequiturs 
that justifies our tedious extract. In it we perceive the chain of evidence, as law3'ers 
would say, through which Christian commentators obtain their first notions upon 
NMRD — "evidence" upon which each confounder erects his own favorite tower of 
BBL, confusion. " Nous en convenons," concedes the Abb6 Glaire ; " we agree that the 
fable of the Titans has some relation to the history of the tower of Babel ; but may 
not one conclude from it that the Greek poets wished to imitate the legislator of the 
Jews, and surpass (ench^rir sur) the veracity and simplicity of his recital ? " 

But, suppose somebody happened to entertain the idea that NMRD may not be 
derivable from the Canaanitish root MRD at all ; what, if such case were proved, 
becomes of Nimrod's rebellions propensities ? 

To ascertain this possibility, a philologist must rise above the level of rabbinical 
hermeneutics. 

We have seen that the word NMRD was a proper name among pharaonico-Assyrian 
individuals in the tenth century b. c. —an age anterior to most if not to all parts of 
Hebrew literature extant in our day. This bisyllabic quadriliteral (ceasing to remain 
any longer mere Hebrew) merges into the vast circumference of Shemitish tongues, of 
which Arabic is the most copious representative. 

Now, foremost amid living Semitic lexicographers, stands Michel-Angelo Lanci, and 
Ms views are supported by students equally authoritative in their several specialities. 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 507 

The substance of tlicir rcsearclies is: — that the primeval speech -whence all Semitish 
tongues have sprung was, aboriginally, monosyllahic in its articulations, and there- 
fore at most hilileral in its alphabetical expression ; whereas, at the present day, these 
languages, Hebrew and Arabic essentially, are dissyllabic and iriliteral. " As vowel 
sounds," holds a supreme authority, Rawlinson, " are now admitted to be of secondary 
development, and of no real consequence in testing the element of speech, the roots of 
which are almost universally biliteral ; the Babylonian and Assyrian [in which lan- 
guages NMRD's name originated] being found in a more primitive state than any of 
the Semitic dialects of Asia open to our research [must be older] ; inasmuch as the roots 
ai-e free from the subsidiary element which, in Hebrew, Arama;an, and Arabic, has 
caused the iriliteral to be regarded as the true base, and the biliteral as the defective 
one." Above one hundred examples ai'C given by Lanci ; proving how those words 
which rabbinical scholars suppose to be primordial Hebrew radicals, (i. e. of three 
letters), are but a secondary formation along the scale of linguistic chronology ; because 
suffixes, prefixes, or medial elements, have become superposed, or interplaced, upon or 
within a pristine monosyllable. There was, then, a time before the period when the 
law of iriliUrals became formed; and while on the one hand the Hebrew tongue pre- 
serves abundant monosyllabic religuice of that remoter age, on the other, the prepon- 
derance of bisyllabic roots in Jewish literature establishes that such literature arose 
after the law of trililerals had already become prevalent. This later age oscillates, it is 
true, between 700 b. c, and some centuries previously; but cannot, by incontrovertible 
ratiocination upon historical data, be carried bacli to Mosaic days — fourteenth 
century b. c. — a linguistic point in which all Oriental philologers of the new school 
coincide. 

2(f. Archaologically. — NMRD, therefore, older on Egyptian monuments than any He- 
brew wi'itings that have come down to us, was already, in the tenth century b. c, a 
matured importation from its native Assyria ; where, doubtless, this proper name had 
existed long previously: being distinguished by the, probably- C/iaW(eu?j, projector of 
the chart of Xth Genesis, as the earliest traditionary founder of very ancient cities. 
To explain by a tri-literal verb, MRD, itself susceptible of reduction into an earlier 
monosvWa6Ze,thequadriliteralbi-syllabic proper name NMRD, although not absolutely 
impossible, presents many chances of involving its advocates in anachronisms ; and 
most certainly would never have occurred to modern Orientalists, had it not been for 
the rabbinical legend current in Josephus's days, which, thousands of years after 
NMRD's age, and hundi-eds later than Xth Genesis, endeavored to reconcile Assyrian 
mythes with a Hierosolymite doctrine of genesaical origins. We have seen above, that 
the derivation of NMRD from MRD, to rebel, is considered speculative even by Tal- 
mudists themselves ; and, with Gesenius's Thesaurus, the writer (G. R. G.) would un- 
dertake, upon legitimate principles of Semitic palajography, — such as the commonest 
mutations of D for N ; B for M ; L for R ; T, T/t, S, or SA, for D, &c. — to draw a 
dozen, or more, happier, and quite as orthodox, significations for NMRD, Hebraically, 
than that ungrammatically twisted from MRD, which talies little or no account of 
the protogramme N. 

Hear Land's more reasonable etymology. We give it regretfully, because without 
the ingenious arguments by which the Professor defends it in his Paralipomeni, and 
coupled with all the reservations due to philological intricacies of this archaic nature. 
The word NMRD is nonsense when wrung out from the verb MRD, to rebel. It is a 
compound of two distinct monosyllables, NM and RD. The former proceeds from the 
radical, preserved in Arabic, NeM, "to spread a good odor:" the latter from RwD, 
"to be responsible." NiMRoD means, Semitically (whether such was its pristine 
Assyrian acceptation or not), ^^hc-whose-royal-actions-correspond-lo-ihe-good-odor {of his 
fame)." 

But, difficulties cease not here ! In King James's version, as in all its MS. ances- 
tors back to the LXX (where yiyus Kwriy^s, a hunting-giant, is its wondrous para- 



508 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

phrase), the next verse ((?e«. x. 9) states that NMRD was a "mighty hunter!" 
Upon this translation hang chiliads of commentaries. Leaving them in suspension, 
■we again present Lanci's etymologies. 

The Hebrew word TsID (translated hunter) is not in this case derivable from Said, 
a huntsman ; but comes from the Arabian verb WSD ; instead of Arabic^ SUD, He- 
braicfe TsUD, to hunt. Now, WaSaD means " to he firm," to possess consistency and 
stability ; which quality, applied to the vast domains assigned in Xth Genesis to Nimrod, 
makes the words GiBoR-T«ID mean ^' great-i7i-landed-tenements" ; and not " vigorous 
in the chase." 

What of Assyrian mythology, on the question of Nimrod, may become exhumed 
eventually through cuneiform researches, it is useless yet to speculate upon. In the pre- 
sent state of science, Lanci's exegesis, grammatically as to Hebrew, philologically 
as to Semitish tongues, and far more sensibly in connection with the probable meaning 
of the writer of Xth Genesis, stands of itself, quite as well as, if not better than, the 
modern rabbinical notion of a "hunter." [Always ready for my own part to surren- 
der any hypothesis the moment its irrationality is proven, I submit (for what I con- 
ceive to have been one of the intentions of the compiler of Xth Genesis) the following 
retranslation of his sentences, accompanied by notes to some extent justificatory. — 
G. R. G.] 

The personage who wrote Xth Genesis is unknown. The language he adopted was 
Catiaanitish, afterwards called " Hebrew." The age in which he flourished is obscure : 
the alphabet used by him still more so. His individual biases, beyond a supposable 
Chaldaic tendency, enter, as respects ourselves, into the vast family of human conjec- 
tures. The media through which this document, Xth Genesis, has been handed down, 
are, in a scientific point of view, suspicious. The vicissitudes (even when restricted 
to the Hebrew Text) through which the original manuscript has passed, in order to 
reach our eye in printed copies of King James's version, are not few : because, the 
oldest Hebrew manuscripts of Xth Genesis now extant do not antedate the tenth century 
A. c. ; the Masorete diacritical marks, upon which orthodox commentaries mainly 
repose, were not invented before 506 a. c, nor perfected until some 800 years ago; 
and, finally, the Ashouri, square-letter, character of present Hebrew MSS. cannot pos- 
sibly ascend to the second century of our era. It will therefore be conceded that, 
before the personal ideas of the first editor of Xth Genesis could have reached our 
individualities, some elements of uncertainty intervene ; independently of errors of 
transcribers and of translators, from Hebrew into Alexandi-ian Greek ; from both of 
these languages into Latin ; from the three, in unknown quantities, into English : all 
conditions of doubt that cannot, nowadays, archseologically (and neither hagiogra- 
phically nor evangelically) speaking, be altogether dodged. Upon such historical con- 
siderations, we opine, the algebraical chances of mistakes, in respect to Xth Genesis, 
are rather more numerous than those of exactitude in interpretation: albeit, He- 
braically, the subjoined attempt at an English restoration can withstand ci'iticism quite 
as well as, according to St. Paul, " Jannes and Jambres withstood Moses." 

3d. Biblically. — Genesis X. 

Vei-se 8. "And KUSA begat NMRD {'N'em-'Rvd = hc-u-hose-royal-actions-eorres/iond- 
to-the-good-odor of his fame) ; he first began to be mighty upon earth : " 

Ver. 9. " He was a great-landed-proprietor before (the face of ) leHOuaH; whence 
the saying — 'like NMRD, great-landed-proprietor before (the face of) leHOuaH:' " 

Ver. 10. " And the beginning of his realm was BaBeL ; and AReK, and AKaD, and 
KaLNeH, in the land of S/aNAoR." 

Yer. 11. "From this land he himself (NMRD understood) went forth [to) AS/(UR 
(^Assyria), and built NINUeH and ReKAoBoTi-AalR and KaLaKA." 

Ver. 12. "And ReSeN between NINUeH and between KaLaKA; (he) she (Nineveh 
understood) the great city." 

[The text, in verse 11, is ambiguous. It may be read, as in King James's version, 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 509 

" Out of that land went forth Ashur ;" but such rendering leaves out an essential 
member of the phrase, the word IIHUA, 'he himself,' before the verb "went forth," 
which can only refer to the antecedent Nimrod. On the other hand, as the literal 
text has "went forth Ashur," the preposition to must be interpolated; but not alto- 
gether arbitrarily, because learned Hebraists aver that this preposition is omitted in 
Kum. xxxiv. 4, and in Deul. iii. 1, and yet its interpolation is obligatory to make sense. 

Indift'erent to either reading, I will merely mention that three new and distinct 
translations of Genesis, by eminent Hebraists (Glaire's, Cahen's, and De Sola's), read, 
"Nimrod went to Ashur (Assyria)" — that this last vindicates such explanation by 
unanswerable arguments, while most of them quote high scholarship in its favor ; and, 
finally, that the Hebraical profundity of " N. M.," who defends this view in Kitto's 
Cydojxedia, is of more Germanic hue, and consequently deeper in Hebrew, if not per- 
haps in "geological" lore, than that of "J. P. S.," who opposes it. Non nostrum 
tantas componerc litcs: which future cuneiform discoveries alone can settle. — G. R. G.] 

The probable ideas of the constructor of Xth Genesis on NMRD, may now be 
summed up : — 

1st. That Nimrod was an affiliation of K^aM (Egypt?), swarthy, or red, race of man- 
kind, through KVShife, Arabian, lineage. 

2d. That, unlike every other proper name, after " Shem, Ham, and Japheth," in Xth 
Genesis, each of which is a geographico-ethnological personification, NMRD is au 
indicidual ; the only one in the whole chapter. Whether an actual hero, or a mytho- 
logical personage, cannot be gathered from the text. 

3d. That, whether "great in the chase" or not, neither Nimrod's name nor his 
deeds, nor any thing in Scripture, justifies our assumption that the writer of Xth 
Genesis did not entertain high respect for Nimrod's memory : on the contrary, 

4th. This writer distinguishes NMRD from all his geographical compeers, as pro- 
minent " before leHOuaH." 

5th. That Nimrod vias positively the earliest "great-landed-proprietor" known to 
the writer of Xth Genesis; who ascribes to NMRD the foundation of eight of the 
proudest cities along the Euphrates and Tigris — Babel, JErech, Accad, Clialne, Nineveh, 
Rehoboth-A'ir, Kalah, and Resen. 

Cth. And, finally, that the practical writer of Xth Genesis is innocent of the sin of 
causing those incomprehensible delusions about NMRD, which, commencing with Jose- 
plius's hypotheses, only 1800 years ago, pervade all biblical literature at the present 
day. 

Two inferences might, however, be drawn from the said writer's peculiarities: — 
One, that the document, being Jehovistic, belongs to a later age than that immediately 
after Joshua ; earlier than which, as shown further on, the mention of Canaanitish 
expulsions renders it archoeologically impossible to place the writer: — the other is, 
that the writer not only was better informed upon Babylonish traditions than (to judge 
by his silence) upon those of other countries, but that he derived pleasure from the 
elevation of the former above the rest. Would not this imply Chaldcean authorship ? 

Now, whether Nimrod was originally a demigod, a hero, or a "hunting-giant;" 
whether, under such appellative, lie associations with Ninus, Belus, or Orion ; or 
(were we to "travel out of the record," what we should first examine), whether he 
was not another form of the Assyrian Hercules, to be added to those so skilfully illus- 
trated by Raoul-Rochette — these are speculations foreign to our subject, and we refrain 
from their present obtrusion. 

The compiler of Xth Genesis, whose meaning we strive to comprehend, was satisfied 
to ascHbe to NMRD the foundation of four Babylonish and four Assyrian cities ; and, 
although the positions of some of these eight are not yet so positively fixed as might 
be desired, they group together in Mesopotamian vicinities ; and thus the last affilia- 
tion of KUS/i becomes placed in Asia — further removed from African " Ethiopia " than 
the whole, or any, of his geographical brethren. 'J'^'J 



510 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

"Affiliations of the MTsEIM," or Egyptians. 
2T. oniS — LUDIM — ' LuDiM.' 

We have already seen that Mitsra'im, read according to the Masorete punctuation, is 
a dual referable to the "Two Egypts," Upper and Lower; but, stript of the points 
which, after all, are but recent and arbitrary embellishments, that MTsBzw is a plural, 
meaning the Miss'riies, or the Egyptians. 

The writer of Xth Genesis, therefore, in his system of ethnic geography, deemed 
these personified ofF-shoots from Egypt to be so many colonies or emigrations from that 
principal stock ; and as such, we perceive that he suffixes to each name the plural ter- 
mination IM ; thereby testifying that he never foresaw modern assumptions in King 
James's version, that the LUDs, the A«NM^, the LHBs, &c., should have been men; 
one yclept Lud, another Anam, and so forth. 

As grand-children of KAeM (Ram), the hoary ithyphallic divinity of Egypt, these 
outstreams class themselves under the generic denomination of Hamitic families; and 
their habitats ought naturally to be sought for in regions contiguous to their ascribed 
focus of primitive radiations : without disregarding either, that the writer of Xth 
Genesis, by making them cousins of Palestinic Kanaanites, and of Arabian KUSAi'to 
(all issues from the same Ilamiie source), never supposed that they were, or could ever 
become, Nigriiian races: upon which last "Type of Mankind" he, as well as every 
other writer in the Old Testament, observes tlie same judicious silence manifested 
throughout the Text towards Tungouses, Esquimaux, Caribs, Patagonians, Papuans, 
Oceanians, Malays, Chinese, and other human races ; the discovery of whose terrestrial 
existence appertains to centuries posterior to the closure of the Hebrew canon, Xth 
Genesis inclusive, at some period not earlier than Alexander the Great, b. c. 332 ; nor 
posterior to b. c. 130, when the LXX translations were probably complete at Alex- 
andria. 

Hence, to judge by existing nomenclatures of tribes and places, LUD appears both 
on the Asiatic and Libyan flanks of lower Egypt. Thus, on the Syrian frontier, a few 
miles east of Yaffa, lay the site of Loud, Lydda, Diospolis ; inhi^bited afterwards by 
Benjamites. So also Arnhico-Berber traditions comprise the LaOVTah among Sabian 
tribes of Yemen, reputed to have immigrated into Barbary. But, whether as exotics 
or terrcegeniti, it is on the Libyan side of the Nile, prolonged on the southwestern litto- 
ral of the Mediterranean to the Atlantic — districts cut off through the absence of 
camels during primordial ages and by Saharan wastes, from contact with Nigritian fami- 
lies of remote austral latitudes — that the LUBim have left memorials of ancient 
occupancy. 

Michfelis long ago corrected Bochart, and suggested the probabilities that the Luday, 
situate near the river Laud, in Tingitana, were the Liidim : latterly confirmed by 
Graberg de Hemso ; who shows that the Oluti, Oloii, Louat, exist among Amazirgh 
tribes in those Mauritanian neighborhoods to this day ; still admitting, too, the na- 
tional prefix ail, "sons of," to their names (like Mac, Fitz, 0', Ap, among ourselves), 
as they did of yore, when the Carthaginian Amon registered in his Periplus the Ait-o- 
LUD, "sons of Lud," or Ailoloii; resident in the same Barbaresque vicinities where 
the Ludayas of Spanish writers are now succeeded by the Beni-liOVT). There is no 
lack of vestiges of primeval LUDs to be met with in the very regions where analogy 
would lead us to look for them ; and it is surprising that high authorities have alto- 
gether overlooked the facts. 

[My former " Excursus (in Olia JEgyptiaca') on the origin of some of the Berber 
tribes of Nubia and Libya," suggested a ventilation of some disregarded ethnological 
data, preparatory to that of Xth Genesis, which, after five years' suspension, I am 
now endeavoring to accomplish. I then submitted authorities on two grand divisions 
of Barbaresques — a noun not derived from Barbari, barbarians, but from the aborigi- 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE, 511 

nal Afncan name of BRBR — the Shilloiilis, and the T-Amcizirgh or Amazirgh-T : both 
readily traceable through the JIazices, Macii, &c., of Latin authors, back to the Ma^ut? 
of Herodotus. — G. R. G.] 

To render perspicuous the 7iew we take of Barbaresque anthropology, it would be 
necessary to enlai'gc here upon generalities before scrutinizing each genesiacal name 
in detail ; but space being wanting, we must curtail our MS. investigations. 

Two human families, the ShiUotihs and the Mazirr/hs, now called Berbers, have 
lain, either aboriginally or from antiquity beyond record, scattered from the Cyre- 
naica and oases west of Egypt, athwart the northwest face of Africa to the Moghreb- 
el-Aksa, or extremest west, of Marocchine territories on the Atlantic; and formerly even 
to the Guanches, now extinct in the Canary Isles. Estimated by Griiberg de Hemso at 
four millions of population in Morocco alone, these Berber families present diflFerences 
as well as resemblances comparable to those visible between the French and the Belgians : 
they speak dialects of the old "lingua Atalantica," subdivided into Berber and Shilha ; 
and intermarrying rarely between themselves, have also imbibed little or no alien 
blood through amalgamation with others. 

Anciently they occupied exclusively that Atalantic zone of oases, littoral or inland, 
which lies between the Sahara deserts and the Mediterranean ; now called Barbary ; 
" Land of Berbers," Berberia : and the remoteness of their residence along that tract 
so far surpasses historical negation, that geology alone may decide whether the Ber- 
bers can have witnessed Those epochas when the now-arid Sahara was an inland sea. 
In any case, we may suppose that, in proportion as its salt-lacustrine barriers to com- 
munication with Nigritian plateaux became desiccated, the Berber tribes, driven from 
the coast by Punic, Kanaanitish, Greek, Egyptian, and other early invaders, spread 
themselves southwards ; and, whilst their former invaders have been replaced by 
successive Roman, Vandal, Saracenic, Ottoman, and French establishments, that they 
themselves gradually crossed the Sahara ; and now, under the name of Tuaricks, some 
oflFshoots of this main Atalantic stock, modified by the facilities such passage has 
afforded them of possessing Xegresses in their hareems, roam along both banks of the 
Niger and around Lake Tchad. 

But the southerly expansion of Berber families, except in partial and conjectural 
instances, is bounded chronologically by one great fact, overlooked though it be by 
most writers ; which is, that, until the camel was introduced into Barbary from Arabia, 
the Saharan wilderness presented obstacles to nomadism almost insurmountable. Now, 
the camel was not imported into Barbary until Ptolemaic times. Mentioned in hiero- 
glyphics only as a foreigner, and never used by the Pharaonic Egyptians, the eai-liest 
historical appearance of camels in Africa dates in the first century b. c. The vulgar 
notion of camel-diflfusion over Barbary before the Ptolemies, is nowadays archaaologi- 
cally erroneous. 61" 

It therefore follows that, whenever Xth Genesis was compiled, the Barbaresque 
affiliations of the MTsRim could not have penetrated to the latitude oi Negro races, 
south of the Sahara, by any other route than up the Nile — Negroes never having 
existed, in a state of nature, north of the limit of tropical rains. This long journey 
was not undertaken by the powerful MTsRh/j themselves much before the Xllth 
dynasty, about b. c. 2300 : so that the LUD>ra, for example, like all their uncivilized 
brethren, driven away from the Nile by the Egyptians ; restricted from southerly pro- 
gress by the Sahara and the absence of camels, from northerly by the Mediterranean 
and the ab.sence of ships {Berber habits being the reverse of nautical, and Tyrian pri- 
vateersmen hovering on those, coasts) ; were, down to Ptolemy Soter, b. c. 320 (as the 
utmost antiquity), confined in their nomadisms within Bai-bary between Egypt and the 
Atlantic littoral of Morocco. The lowest historical age possible for the compilation 
of Xth Genesis attains to the Esdraic school — the earliest (if the document be Chaldaic) 
may antedate Ezra by some centui-ies : but, logically, the more remote the antiauity 



512 THE XxH CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 

claimed for this ethnic geographical chart, the less possible, physically, becomes 
intercourse between Berber tribes (athwart the Sahara and without camels) and the 
true Negro races of Central Africa. 

Content with offering this dilemma, we pass onwards, and remark, that the Berbers 
were generically termed 3/auri by the Romans, and Moors by " moyen age" writers; 
•whilst, if we adopt Egypt as the geographical pivot of eccentric radiations, we shall 
find, that these Mauritanian Berbers on the west are to the Egyptians what we have 
shown the Arabian Kushites to be on the east, viz., " gentes subfusci coloris " ; tEthio- 
piANS, in its Homeric sense of sun-burned-faces. All of them were possibly distinguished 
by the red color on Nilotic, monuments ; and the term Hamitic would be, genesiacally, 
ethnologically, and geographically, the best designation for these races ; were it not for 
modern Negro theories, which ignorance and charlatanism have foisted upon that 
mystified name we now spell " Ham." " One almost blushes," Agassiz has sarcas- 
tically observed, "to state, that the Fathers of the Church, in Northern Africa, have 
even more recently been quoted as evidence of the high intellectual and moral 
developments of which the Negro race is supposed to be capable, and that the monu- 
ments of Egypt have been referred to with the same view. But, we ask, have men 
who do not know that Egypt and Northern Africa have never been inhabited by Negro 
tribes, but always by nations of the Caucasian race, any right to express an opinion 
on this question? " 

[Five years ago, Luke Burke's Ethnological Journal, and the writer's Oiia JEgyptiaca, 
pointed out several analogies between some names ortwenty-five Berber tribes men- 
tioned by Ebn Khaledoon, and various other ethnic cognomina preserved by the writer 
of Xth Genesis. The former are certainly reliable, inasmuch as Ebn Khaledoon was a 
Berber himself and the historian of his nation: who contests their common descent 
from such legendary sources as Abraham, Goliath, Amelek, Afrikis, Himyar, and other 
fabulous origins ; claiming, however, that the Berbers " descend from Keslodjim 
(Casluhim), son of Mitzraim, son of Ham." So, also, through Mohammedan har- 
monizing, we meet, in the " Rozit ul Suffa," with a similar example of pious genea- 
logical frauds — " God bestowed on Ham nine sons: Hind, Sind, ZenJ, Nowba, Kanaan, 
Kusli, Kopt, Berber, and Ilabesh .' " 

It will be seen, further on, that the Casluhim undoubtedly dwelt in Barbary when 
Xth Genesis was written, as their descendants do " unto this day ;" but it need scarcely 
be insisted upon, with the reader of these pages, that Ebn Khaledoon, an Arabicized 
Berber, no less than a most learned and conscientious Muslim, naturally felt anxious 
to connect his own pedigree with that of the genesiacal Patriarchs, to him rendered 
orthodox and respectable through the Korhi : and the fact that, overlooking the He- 
brew plural terminations, he deemed Kesloudjim (the Shillovhs !) to be a man, son of 
MiTSEAiM (the Egyptians !), another individual, indicates his literary sources; while it 
serves to illustrate what we have maintained elsewhere, viz. : that the Berbers (their own 
indigenous traditions being unrecorded) appropriated instead the language and reli- 
gious ideas of their civilizers, the Arabs ; who certainly, when the Koran was com- 
posed, had never taken Berber origins into consideration. 

Nevertheless, this sentimental bias of Ebn Khaledoon does not touch the archaeo- 
logical fact gained from his pages that, in his time, the LAOUTE are recorded, as one 
of twenty-five Berber tribes then inhabiting Barbary. 

"Six hundred lineages of Berbers" — the enumeration of Marmol and of Leo Afri- 
canus — resolved themselves, about the fifteenth century of our era, into five main 
stems ; who, already imbued with longings after Islamite respectabilities, said that 
their progenitors were Sabseans of Yemen : at the same time Leo adds the noteworthy 
remark, ^^ subfusci coloris stmt." The same quintuple division reappears in the " quinque- 
gentani Barbari" of Roman writers of the fourth centui-y ; which is important, because 
it establishes an identical quinary repartition of Berbers prior to Mohammedan impres- 
sions ; and, although it does not contradict, this fact renders it less likely that pagans or 



HEBREW NOMENCLATUEE. 513 

semi-Christians should have leaned towards an Arabian origin, before religious motives 
for such honorary attribution existed in Berber minds. To trace whence Barbari, or 
Berbers, from about 1400 years ago, through the " Misulani Sabarbares, Massylii " of 
Pliny ; the Sabouboures of Ptolemy ; and possibly, in some instances, the Baebaroi 
of Strabo, Diodorus, and Herodotus : to resolve the Zilia, Zitca, Zelis, Salinsi, Zilzacice, 
Matsyli, Xilohes, into the Ua<saai\iPvci ^ AMKZIQ: -Libyans, or the Masscesylli into 
AMAZIG-Shillouhs ; and then to deduce the Amaziryhs of the present day from the 
Mafutf of Herodotus, b. c. 430 : — these are tasks which, following chiefly Castiglione, 
have been already executed. 

History, philology, and analogy unite, therefore, in establishing that the T-Ama- 
zirghs, or real Berbers, distinct in that day from Asiatics or Negroes, existed, about 
the fifth century b. c, in their own land of Berberia, now called Barbary. With the 
exception of their having embraced Islam ; exchanged the bow, for which they were 
celebrated long before that age, for the musket ; added the camel to the horse ; and 
appropriated Arabic words to make up for deficiencies in their native vocabulary ; the 
Berbers of Mt. Atlas are precisely the same people now that they were twenty-five 
centuries ago ; dwelling in the same spots, speaking the same tongues, and called by 
the same names, as we shall see presently. 

We are now prepared to accept an opinion pronouncd by a man of science emi- 
nently qualified to judge ; which, coupled with Forster's att'^s tation [supra, p. 483] of 
the indelibility oi color as a criterion of type, when we recall how all Berbers "sub- 
fusci coloris sunt," ought to possess sufficient weight. 

There is but one veritably indigenous race in Barbary, says Bodichon; viz., the GiE- 
TULIAN : — " Ainsi, Atlantes, Atarantes, Lotophages, Occidentaux, Troglodytes, 
Maurusiens, Maures, Pharusiens, Garamantes, Aug61iens, Psylles, Libyens, meme 
Canariens, et toute cette multitude de peuples a qui les anciens donnent I'Afrique sep- 
tentrionale pour patrie, se confondent en une seule et meme race, la GETULIENNE." 
The Arabs, foreigners in Barbary, call the present descendants of this race " Berbers 
and Kabyles." Indeed, as tillers of the soil, i. e., as h^man animals brought into 
direct contact with the earth of Barbary (rank with exhalations so mortiferous, even 
now, to Europeans), no type of humanity could have outlived, not to say nourished 
amid, the climatic and geological conditions of Atalantic Africa, but a few furlongs 
from the sea-beach, except the Gcetulian. For proofs, read Dr. Boudin's Lettres sur 
I'Algerie. 

Cut oflf from escape on the west by the ocean ; on the north by the Mediterranean ; 
on the south by the Sahara (once a sea also), and, until the Christian era, by the ab- 
sence of camels; and on the east by the MTsRIM; these " quinquegentani Berberi" 
liave survived the extinction of the elephant, together with the depressions of temper- 
ature consequent upon the destruction of their primeval forests : and, repugnant 
through natural constitution to any alien institutions but those of the Kor&n (con- 
strued after their own liberal fashion), they remain now, what they were at their 
unknown era of creation, Goetulians, and nothing else. 

Inquire of history. 

Phoenicia planted her standards at the Carthaginian ports she occupied: Greece 
built her strongholds on the littoral of the Cyrenaica : Rome, prostrating all, sent her 
eagles further into Africa than any Europeans: Persia inscribed her westernmost 
tablet at Tripoli : Byzantium, after Belisarius's triumph, has been obliterated, even in 
name : Vandals, massacred in detail, or extinguished by climate more murderous to 
white races than Numidian arrows, have vanished, physiologically, like other heteroge- 
neous fore'igners on the sea-board : Ottoman and Frank invaders still surround their tem- 
porary havens with bastions strongest towards the mainland ; and French prowess over 
the Berber race is confined to the latter's preparations for the next razzia. The Saracens 
alone, themselves "gentes subfusci coloris;" apostles of a genial polygamous religion ; 



514 THE Xth CHAPTEK OF GENESIS. 

speaking dialects of a tongue long familiar to Berheric ears through anterior Punic 
intercourse : — the Arabs, I repeat, cognate with the Berbers in nomadic restlessness 
and social habits, have ridden oyer the Goetulians, through them, and around them : 
but whilst from the first hour, a. d. 644, that the lances of Islam penetrated into Ber- 
beria, the wise policy of its Arabian votaries associated the native Berbers in spoils and 
benefits mutually agreeable ; the Arab himself, after twelve centuries of Barbaresque 
sojourn, has become far more Berberized as a MOGHRABEE than the Berbers have 
been Arabicized. And (asks the reader) what is the " ultima ratio " of all these suc- 
cessive influences upon mankind's Atlantic type ? 

Merely this : — that wherever the Gastuliaii has not (he has in Morocco) revindicated 
his national supremacy, he rather tolerates Arab encampments in the domains of his 
birth-right, than hospitably welcomes Arabian presence by practical fusion. "Mo- 
hammed" is their moral bond of Barbaresque unity — their common battle-cry. 
Implacable detestation of Turks and Frenchmen is the only chord of sympathy between 
Abd-el-Kader {slave of the Puissant), the heroic and betrayed Shemite, and that mulatto- 
cross between Arabico-Berbers and Negresses, exhibited in a beastly individuality 
called "the Emperor of Morocco." Hatred to aliens — to anybody but one of them- 
selves, a Berber — is still the banner of GcetuUan instincts. 

If, then, Gsetulian populations cannot have originated through imaginary importa- 
tions of Negroes from the interior of Africa, nor from imaginary colonizations of white 
races from Europe, whence came they ? 

History being impartially silent, oui- alternative lies between Arabian immigrations 
as one possibility, and the autocthonous creation of Berbers for Barbary as the other. 
My own inquiries lend no support to the scientific probabilities of the former contin- 
gency. The latter it is not my province to discuss. — G. R. G.] 

Viewing, therefore, Gceiulian families as " une race apart," we proceed to ascertain 
their relation to the chart of Xth Genesis. 

Their present name is Berbers in Mauritania, and Shillouhs towards the Cyrenaica. 

In Ebn Khaledoon's " History of the Berbers," we have already noticed that one 
tribe of this race was called LAOUTE, or Laouteh. Cutting off the Arabic plural 
termination, there remains LAOUT ; which, reduced to its simplest expression, vowels 
being vague, is LUT, or LUD ; an appellative, as we have shown, traceable in Barba- 
resque nomenclatures at all times, back to where history is lost. 

In Xth Genesis, the eldest-born of the alEliations of the MTsRm (or Egyptians), 
and who, therefore, in the idea of the writer, issued first and went furthest from the 
supposed parental hive, are the LUDIM. Removing the Hebrew plural sufiSx IM, 
there remains LUD. All commentators unite in deeming Barbary the geographical 
sphere of these emigrations. 

To have shown that the Laouteh, LUDs, of Ebn Khaledoon, can be no others than 
the Ludim, LUDs, of Xth Genesis, is likewise to prove that Gcetulian families are 
included in that ancient system of geography, and that the LUDIM probably occupied 
Mauritania. A conclusion which our inquiries into the habitats of their fraternal 
affiliations will fortify. In the meanwhile, we rejoice to learn from Griiberg de Hemso 
that the Liidaya tribe still furnishes the Sultan's body-guard in Morocco, and that 
their river Tagassa is yet called Laud and Thaluda; at the same time, that it is satis- 
factory to find such scholarship as Quatremfere's sustaining how, " Dans les Loudes de 
Moise, je reconnais la grande nation des Lewata, la plus puissante des tribus de race 
Berbfere ;" and thus ratifying our views upon the LUDlm of Xth Genesis.su 

28. D'XSi;; — AaNMIM — 'Anamim.' 

Of course, this is a tribe which (plural termination IM cut off) was called AuNM. 
Viewed as Adnams the analogies falter, unless we adopt Bochart's speculative idea, 
that the Semitic word for sheep, GNM, be the root of this name. The iVunj-idians, 



HEBREW NOMENCLA'rURE. 515 

Nomndes, have also furnished comparisons ; which vre dispute not, because it is in 
Barbary that commentators locate the people called ANMb«. 

Referring the reader to the " causes of verbal obscurity " in Oriental names, ably 
set forth by Forster and De Saulcy, there are few literal permutations more frequent 
than those of M and N : and hence it has been long remarked, that ANM is but an 
anagrammatic form of AMN. Under such view, the AMN-5m become at once Amo- 
nians ; and, from the ancient worshippers of the Egyptian deity A'M'^-Kneph, or 
NUM, at the " Oasis of Ammon " (now Seewah) ; through the Nasamonilis, Nasamoncs ; 
to the Amonians, or the Garamanles, whether on the river Cinyphus near Tripoli, or 
on the Gir ; the transition is more rapid than the results may appear precise. 

Castiglione gives solid reasons why the Macce-Ammonii, or Macce-Amnii, should refer 
to Amazirgh-Ammonians ; which term he supposes became in Greek mouths Mes- 
animoncs, and thence Kas-ammones. Hence, the ANMJm would naturally take their 
places among Berber tribes next to the LCDs, their kinsfolk. 

The Nasamones of Herodotus and of later writers, read by Birch A'a/isu-Amonians 
(A'c;7ro-Amonians ?), were a very roving predatory race ; who carried their name all 
over Bai'bary : but, without insisting iipon any one family in whose name AMN is a 
component, it is for objectors, after perusing what follows, to show that the Barba- 
resque Anamim of Xth Genesis, cannot be represented by some offshoot of the Gwtii- 
lian stem yet stretching between the Sahara and the Mediterranean. 

For ourselves, while descrying the Anamim in the Berber tribe of '^ Unine," cata- 
logued by Ebn Khaledoon, we suggest that AaNM may underlie both the words " Nasa- 
mones " and " Numidians ; " and this for a reason that no Orientalist acquainted with 
hieroglyphical permutations will disregard. Bunsen, following Ewald, proposed to 
read the name GUB, Chub [which nation Ezekiel (xxx. 5) associates with " KUS/i, and 
Phut (Barbary) and Ludim (the Ludai/as, as shown above, No. 27) and all the mingled 
people,"] as if such name had been written gNUB ; and thence to apply it to Nubia — a 
country, we have proved, altogether unmentioned by Hebrew writers. Volney had 
perceived GUB in the Barbaresque Cobbii of Ptolemy, and we adopt his view as by far 
more natural, according to the context of Ezekiel. Nevertheless, Bunsen's very just 
remark of the frequent suppression of the n before g or k, in the transfer of Hamitic 
into Semitic proper names {ex. gr., Sheshonk, Shishak), allows us to behold the aNuM 
of AaNM-IM in the ot^VM-idians of classical history. If, however, with Bochart, we 
transcribe the Greek Naaaiiovcs into Hebrew letters, ?-£3X 'B'J ; NaSI AM-N, or other- 
wise NaSI-ANuM-lm ; we observe that AlfJs means "people" in Semitish tongues, and 
thereby such compound name becomes, in English, '^People of NUMjrfw ; " or else, 
"People of (the oasis of) AMoN:" in either case, the Avamhn of Xth Genesis. 

But Bochart declared that these tribes were " Solinus's Amanles, and Pliny's Ham- 
manienies, peoples beyond the Greater Syrtis ;" and, reminding us that 1 J, GaR, means 
" to inhabit," he discloses at once the famed " Garamanles near to the fountains of the 
river Cyniphus." Now, let us add that this river is still called the Gir, or Gar, by 
living descendants of these very Amanles, who once were the Berber AaMaN-IM 
alluded to by the ancient Hebrew geographer.6i''i 



29. D'3nS — LHBIM — ' Lehabim. 



The first orthodox English work we chanced to open, in quest of etymological mean- 
ings, has, " Leh.vbim, /<zmc.s ; or, which are inflamed; or, the points of a sioord !" and 
just below, " Libya, in Hebrew Lubim, the heart of the sea ; or, a nation that has a 
heart .'" 

Let us seek elsewhere. Detaching the plural IM, through which the writer of Xth 
Genesis indicates that he means a tribe, the singular number of whom is LHB, we 
realize instantaneously how ignorant of Hebrew were the forty-seven translators of 
King James's version. This maybe at once seen by their writing " Mizraim begat 
Ludim, and Anamim," &c., instead of " the Luds and the Anams" and so forth. Had 



516 THE Xth CHAPTEK OF GENESIS. 

they even suspected that IM was already a plural termination, they would not have 
doubled it by printing "Cheruhims" for Cherubs, or "Seraphims" for Seraphs! What 
should we think of the French scholarship of a person who wrote tableauxes ? 

That these people were Libyans no commentator now doubts, although Bochart dis- 
sents ; and that in LHB, the soft aspirate he, H, may be equivalent to such vowels 
as a, e, i, o, n, no palseographer will contest : nor that the LUBlwi of 2 Chron. (xii. 3 ; 
xvi. 8), of Nahum (iii. 9), and of Daniel (xx. 43), are the same as the LHBJte ; espe- 
cially in Nahum's text, where a conjunction couples them to P/ilJT ; already shown to 
have been a generic appellative for the whole of Barbary. 

Ai^iir) of the Homeric Greeks possessed a wider territorial extension than the Libya 
of the Romans ; the former signifying Barbary in general ; the latter the coast from 
Egypt to the Greater Syrtis : hence we may infer that the more precise information 
of Roman geographers rested upon better acquaintance with the localities where the 
LHBs were domiciled. T-LIBI is the homonyme in Coptic MSS ; but perhaps in a sense 
restricted to tribes on the immediate west of the Nile's alluvium ; which also suggests 
the easternmost limit of Libyan encampments. 

Among the Berber tribes enumerated by Ebn Khaledoon occur the LeWaTaH ; which 
word in Oriental palaeography is the same as LeHaB-aiah ; and its analogies with 
LeHaB-zTre are salient. Arab tradition invests the present Beni-LeWA, of Amazirgh 
stock, with sufficient correspondences to resolve all these appellatives into the 
AcvaSai, Atj3aviat, of Procopius, about the sixth century b. c. ; not forgetting the 
Languanian of Corippus. 

Any one investigating such subjects, without preconceptions, will recognise in the 
LHBs of Xth Genesis a nomadic population of Gcetulian race, and of Barbaresque 
habitats.613 

30. D'nnDJ — WPKYtKhm. — <■ ISAvwivmu: 

Before commencing analyses that arise through new resuscitations of Egyptology, 
it is desirable to remind the reader of a principle that governs our philological inqui- 
ries into 10th Genesis. Extremely simple, it is still, even where known, more or 
less disregarded by rabbinical writers. 

The genesiacal writer's classification of nations is tripartite, under the titular head- 
ings " Shem, Ham, and Japhbth ; " and his lists, therefore, embrace Semitic, Hamitic, 
and Japethic families ; corresponding [supra, pp. 85, 86] to the yellow, the red, and the 
white colors given by Egyptian ethnographers to such varieties of man as were known 
to them about the sixteenth century b. c. : but the Hebrew map excludes the Negro ; 
which race, the fourth in the quadripartite ethnography of Thebes, is, on the monu- 
ments, painted black. 

Arabian languages are necessarily represented in the proper names of nations be- 
longing to the Semitic stock; the Egyptian "sacred tongue" is the most ancient and 
reliable nucleus for those of the Hamitic; while those of the Japethic, almost a dis- 
tinct world, must belong either to the Indo- Germanic or to the Scythic class of human 
idioms. 

To suppose that the "speech oi Kanaan" (misnamed Hebrew) can answer the pur- 
pose of an " open Sessame" to the significations of all proper names in Xth Genesis, 
which the writer himself has carefully segregated from each other into three groups of 
tongues, spoken by three groups of humanity (in his day as in ours, from each other 
entirely distinct), is one of those aberrations that no educated person of our generation 
would be likely to boast of; if he reflected that, in considering Hebrew as a fitting key 
to any thing more than to one, the Semitic, of these three linguistic portals, he would 
be as great a dolt as if he sustained that English might be contained in a Chinese 
radical or in a Mandingo root. 

No philologist at the present day, when he beholds in Xth Genesis the proper 



HEBEEW NOMENCLATURE. 517 

name NPAT<K^IM, would seek for its explanation in a Hebrew vocabulary ; because a 
proper name belonging to the Hamitie group of languages ought first to be examined 
■within the sphere of its own positive domiciliations ; and it is only when these are 
wanting, or when comparative philology is the investigator's object, that speculative 
analogies of such an antique cognomen may be hunted for in the modern Arabic Qa- 
tndos, or other Shemitish lexicon. 

NPAT<KAIM is a plural, of which the singular expi-ession is NPAT<K^. ■» 

In Coptic days, according to authentic MSS., the western skirts of Lower Egypt, on 
the south of Lake Mareotis, Marea, Marioui, were called NIFAIAT ; whence, deduct- 
ing the plural prefix, NI, we obtain FAIAT as the Coptic vocalization of the hierogly- 
phical root F-T ; or PAeT, meaning a bow ; as we explained under the head PAUT. 
The occupants of these localities, along the desert ridges from Marea to Pliminhor 
(now Damanhoor) spoke a Berber dialect, and not pure Egyptian ; iu this, resembling 
the inhabitants of the nearest oasis, that of Ammon, or Seewah, who, already in the 
time of Herodotus, 430 b. c, were a mixed "colony of Egyptians and Ethiopians," 
i.e., sun-burned-fsLces ; " subfusci coloris," like all Berber derivations. We have 
settled that the preceding aflSliations of the MTsRlm occupied parts of Barbary, 
and belonged to branches of the great Gcetulian trunk. We shall see that others 
of the Hamitie brethren did so likewise. What, then, more natural than to find, 
on the western flank of MT«]l (Egypt) herself, the NIPHAIAT nomads of that race, 
speaking their national tongue, the Berber ? 

As usual, Champollion was the first to carry back the NIPHAIAT of Coptic Christian 
literature to the ancient Pharaonic monuments; confirmed by Rosellini, Peyron, &c., 
and since universally accepted by Egyptologists as designations of Libya and Libyans. 
But, without doubting in the least the Barbaresque application of the word, whether 
in its Coptic or in its hieroglyphical form, the original name Vh-T-kah sometimes 
occurs in the singular number, "Bow-country," or plural "Nine-bow-country." Now, 
the same distinction holds in Xth Genesis, where P/iUT refers to Barbary as a whole ; 
and NPAT^KAIM, in which the same radical PAT is preserved, to tribes of the same 
Hamitie stock. May we not assign "Bow-country" to Phut, and " Nine-bow-eountry" 
to the others? With this reservation, Hengstenberg is right in seizing upon Niphaiat 
as the probable representative of " Naphtuchim." It is easy to prove this identity. 
The Masorete punctuation, through which Naphtoukhim is its present phonetism, 
commands no reverence ; being merely the rabbinical intonation, in the sixth and later 
centuries after Christ, of a foreign proper name antedating them, and the writer of Xth 
Genesis himself, by unnumbered ages. All that science can now accept are the six 
letters — NPAT^KAIM. 

The hieroglyphical root is PA-T ; the later Copts added the medial vowels, and it 
became PAaiaT : to make it an Egyptian plural, the NI, or N, was prefixed, and NI- 
PAaiaT, thus formed, is simply <Ae-PAaiaT-s — the proper name, as above shown, of a 
Berber tribe on the western frontier of Lower Egypt. But, Champollion's Grammaire 
tells us how, "in the graphical system, as in the Egyptian spoken tongue, the plural 
number (of nouns) was expressed by the desinences or terminations " — OU, or U : so 
that, Egyptologically, the name must have been orthographed NI-PAaiaTU. Such 
was the word that presented itself to the researches of the compiler of Xth Genesis, 
when he classified the MTsRiVe "affiliations of KAaM, after their families, after their 
tongues, in their countries, in their nations" [Gen. x. 20). We have only to take 
the square-letters which the later Jews substituted Jbr his own (unknown) calligraphy, 
and, inserting the omitted vowels, write them below the older Egyptian form — thus, 
Ni-PAaiaTU, 1 to perceive that this diligent writer (not being conversant, 

Ni-PAaiaT^uKA-IM, j unhappily, with Nilotic syntaxis) has suffixed the Hebrew 
plural, IM, to a proper name, NIPHAIATU, that was already in its indigenous ^^«ra/ 
form when it reached the chorographic bureau of Jerusalem or Babylon. Hence the 
following conclusions : — 



518 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

1st. That Egyptian tongues and writings are older than Hebraical transformations 
of the name Niphaiaiu. 

2d. That the people Niphaiatu existed before Xth Genesis was written. 

3d. That the Hebrew chorographer must have been unacquainted with the first ele- 
ments of Ilamitic tongues ; else he could not have appended his own Semitic plural, IM, 
to a foreign name that was already pluralized by its national prefix NI, and suffix U — 
a blunder to be paralleled in English by the vulgar Cockneyism of "post-'ses" for posts. 

4th. That, as a consequence, the principle laid down at the beginning of this section, 
of examining Ilamitic, Shemitish, and Indo- Germanic names by their respective lan- 
guages, is both rational and useful. 

But, the less "inspiration" that is required for the construction of an ethnic 
chart, the more admirable becomes the human skill and knowledge which, its anti- 
quity considered, compiled such an excellent synopsis of the nations existing within 
the geographical horizon of its day. 

The long-chased families of the NiPAaiaTiU-H-(iM) have been earthed, at last, where 
Bochart indicated his " Naphtuhsei " : viz., around Mareotic provinces on the confines 
of the MTsRIM, or Egyptians. They spoke Berber dialects, like the rest of their 
Barbaresque brethren ; and may be safely assumed as ranking among the easternmost 
representatives of the great Gcetulian race. 

Nor are their vestiges wanting either in Arabic or in classical geographies. The 
twelfth tribe catalogued by Ebn Khaledoon is that of the NePAUSeH. T and S being 
palseographically identical, here is the Arabicized form of the same word, precisely ; 
with its plural termination «H, in lieu of IM. The same name reappears in the sixth 
century of our era, and therefore before Arab invasions, in the Nefvsa, ot Navusi, of the 
Latin poet Corippus. And, to back assertions with authority, one of the greatest living 
Orientalists of France, Quatremere, while commenting on this passage of Xth Genesis, 
records: " Les Naflouhis repondent, je crois, a une des tribus Berbferes, celle des 
Nafzah, ou celle des Nafousah." 6^* 



31. D'DinS — PTfRSIM — ' Pathrusim.' 

Again stands before us an Hamitic word, and again we apply to it our rules of dis- 
section ; after lopping away the excrescent Hebrew IM, and thereby restoring this 
name to its native simplicity — PT/RS. 

Orthodox lexicography reveals to an inquirer how the Pathros mentioned by Eze- 
kiel (xxix. 14; xxx. 14) means a 'mouthful of dew,' or 'persuasion,' or 'dilatation of 
ruin' ! 

The wonted acuteness of Bochart, two centuries ago, perceived ihoA Pathros, a district 
in the Thebaid, would answer very well to the exigenda of PT^RS ; and the Coptic 
researches of Champollion and Peyron established that the western side of the Nile, 
at Thebes, bore the names of Patoures (Phaturites), Tatliyrites, Pathures, a,Tid Phatrous : 
probably orthographed better by Parthey in Papithouris, because the name of Thebes, 
" P-API," as the " TAo-ReeS," south-land, is preserved in it. But with all deference, 
and without absolutely denying that the compiler of Xth Genesis may have meant 
Pathros in the Thebaid as the site of his PTiRSJm, we cannot assent to such inference, 
for the following reason : — 

"Dato il case, e non concesso," that Moses, in the fourteenth century b. c, was 
the compiler of this chart — and orthodoxy itself claims no date more ancient — the 
MTsR^m in that age, the XlXth dynasty, had been spread over the Nile's alluvium, for 
above 2000 years, " from Mligdol to the Tower of Syene," and far more australly soon 
after the Xllth dynasty. Consequently, they had left to any people but themselves 
nothing but the deserts on either flank of the alluvials to roam along. Pathros was 
merely a suburban district in the "nome" of Thebes, then at the acme of her glory; 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 519 

so thiit to construe the general meaning of Xtli Genesis into such a paraphrase as, 
" out of the iMTsR)to went forth a colony and founded Paihros, whence about the 
seventieth fraction of all humanity known to the Jews was called PT^RSJm," would 
be like saying (if for Thebes we read London, and French for Hebrew) that " out of 
the Englishmen went forth a colony and built Waterloo bridge, whence arose the grand 
nation called ^ Vaterloos.' " Besides, AVilkinson has critically noted, that Palhyris, or 
Tathyris, was so called after the goddess Athyr ; and meant " the belonging to 
ATHYR," as the protectress of the western side of Thebes. 

The obstacles to such interpretation increase just in the ratio that the compilation 
of Genesis Xth is brought down to a more historical epoch. It is evident from the 
context of the whole paragraph on the " affiliations of the MTsRJm," no less than 
from the ultra-Egyptian areas on which each one of these affiliations is naturally fixed, 
that such information as the Hebrew writer possessed on the PT^RSJm had led him to 
understand this tribe as extraneous to Egypt; and he did not locate their habitats 
in Egypt itself, because this country was already appropriated by the MTsRJm. 
Quatremere, and before him Golius, had perceived the physical impediments to the 
location of the PT^RSJw in upper Egypt : — " Les Phatrousis ont iii, assez ordinaire- 
ment, pris pour les habitants de la Th(Sbaide ; mais cette conjecture ne me parait pas 
admissible. En efiFet, Misraim ayant ^te le pfere de I'Egypte inf^rieure se trouvaient 
naturellement rang6 parmi ces descendants, sans qu'il fut necessaire d'indiquer d'une 
maniere sp^ciale les habitants de telle ou telle partie de cette contr^e. Si je ne me 
trompe, les Phatrousis du r^cit de Moise nous representent les Pharusiens, qui occu- 
paient une partie de ce qu'on nomme aujourd'hui I'Erapire de Maroc." 

This identification tallies with our views exactly. In classical geographies the 
Pharusii lie about Mauritania, east of the Autololes ; and these last are identified with 
the Berber tribes of the AIT-o-LOT, " sons of Lud ;" whom we have already proved 
to have been the genesiacal LUDzm. A Persian origin has been ascribed to the Plia- 
Tuses since the time of Sallust; but probably upon no better authority than accidental 
resemblance of the word Phars, coupled with traditions of Achajmenidan invasions of the 
Cyrenaica ; and its claims have been well contested by Lacroix. To behold the PT^SRlm 
of Xth Genesis in the Pharusians of Barbary is obnoxious to no difficulties, beyond the 
inconvenient presence of the letter Tt, " tav " in the Hebrew transcription of the name ; 
and this letter may be the old Hamitic feminine article ; which clings to Berber words 
as tenaciously as "all" does to proper names in Mexican languages. However, it 
has been shown above that these people must have resided beyond Egyptian territorial 
limits; and as one of many brethren in genesiacal personifications, the major part of 
trhom are unquestionably Barbaresgues, the PT^RSjot must lie to the west of Egypt 
also ; and every reasonable requirement seems fulfilled in the Pharusii. 

[Albeit, let me revert to a former etymology in " Otia iEgyptiaca ;" which, while it 
does not conflict with a Pharusian derivation, exemplifies how a compound Hamitic 
name has become Hebraicized : for, in Berber nomenclature, PhaA.'&usians, Ma- 
Eusians, Ma URi, and their endless Gaetulian homonymes, all inflexions preceding the 
RA, or AUR, are but demonstrative aggregations to that omnific monosyllable ; whose 
birthplace, according to D'Avezac, might lie among the " Divine AURi'te," and whose 
tomb is not yet constructed in JI/ARocco .' 

The reduction I formerly proposed of PTiRSm was this : — Pi is the universal 
Hamitic masculine article the; It may be TAo or To, Coptic and hieroglyphic for 
world; RS, the Coptic RiS and hieroglyphic RiS, meaning the south; which con- 
nectedly read PiT^oRiS, the-ivorld-south, or " the southern world." 

This is a designation appropriate enough to austral populations; and if the 
PiTtoRIS-5m of Xth Genesis be lineal "affiliations of the MTsRJm," their name must 
be resolvable into Egyptian roots. In any case, the Hebrew writer added his plural 
IM to a word already formed in Northern Africa centuries before his day. — 
G. R. G.] 



520 THE Sth chapter OF GENESIS. 

Whilst submitting the above dubious solution as preferable to any dependent npon 
a spurious Masora, we nevertheless consider the Pharusii of ancient Barbary to be the 
true PT^RSlm of Xth Genesis : confirming such opinion by two prophetic passages ; 
1st — " They of Phares (not Persians, but Pharusii) and of Lud and of Phut were in 
thine army," says Ezekiel (xxvii. 10) to the Tyrian masters of Barbary : 2dly, Isaiah 
(xi. 11) proves that he regarded Pathros to be a land entirely distinct from Egypt, 
when he wrote — "from Assyria, and from Egypt, and from PAT^uIliS, and from 
Cush," &C.615 



32. D^hSdD — KSLKABI — ' Casluhim. 



The ground here becomes less firm than that whereon we travelled in quest of the 
preceding tribes ; not merely owing to the briars planted in our way by commentators, 
but also from the ambiguity of the text of Xth Genesis itself. 

Let us commence by inquiring into the latter. King James's version, verse 14, has : 
" And Casluhim, (out of whom came Philistim,) and Caphtorim " ; the plain English 
of which is, that a man called Philistim issued from another called Casluhim. The 
commas and parentheses being the conjectural punctuation and interpolation of King 
James's translators, we restore the text to its primitive simplicity, as closely as our 
alien language permits, thus: " And (the) KSLKAIM from whom issued (the) PALSTi- 
IM and (the") KPATiRIM." Of this the plain English is, that two families, the Phil- 
istim and the Kaphtorim, issued from the family of the Kaslukhim. 

In psychological speculations, it may not be of the slightest consequence whether 
either of these families did, or both of them did not. Our English Bible, as Taylor, the 
erudite translator of Calmet, declares, after freely acknowledging its manifold miscon- 
structions, "suffices for all purposes oi piety." But in matters of archseological, and 
essentially of anthropographical science, the English Bible is less safe than any stan- 
dard translation oi Homer, Ilerodotus, Cicero, or Ccesar ; as our "Introduction to Xth 
Genesis" abundantly shows. 

The question whether the Casluhim were the progenitors of one or both families has 
amply occupied theological pens, rabbinical as well as Christian ; but we may mention 
that Rosenmiiller, Cahen, and Glaire, confirm our reading. 

Let us endeavor to ascertain the affinities of the father-siodk — the KSLKMM. 
Excepting the Abbe Mignot, followers of the few errors rather than of the many 
truths of Bochart, had discovered, until latterly, nothing more apposite than that semi- 
historical Egyptian colony of Colchians, planted by one of the Sesostridoe in a section 
of Mingrelia whence Jason brought the golden fleece. Without doubting the mythico- 
astronomical basis of the latter event, we summarily dismiss the Colchians, as a colony 
of Egypt, for the very reason given by Herodotus in proof of their extraction: viz., 
that the former people were " black in complexion, and j«oo%-haired," which every- 
body knows the MTsRIM, or Egyptians, were not. 

Now, the "Caucasian" Egyptians being impossible procreators for Negro Colchians, 
the former's "children," according to Xth Genesis, cannot have been "woolly-haired 
blacks" either; and, inasmuch as the KSLKAIM were "sons of the MTsRm," they 
cannot have been the Negroes of Colchis. So we are compelled to look elsewhere. 

Five of the affiliations of the Mitskites — the Ludlm, Aanamim, Lehablm, Nephtukhlm, 
&nd Pathrusim — having already found comfortable homes among Gastulian races in 
Barbary, it would seem unnatural if the sixth had not left some mementoes of coeval 
residence in the same regions, between the Sahara and the Mediterranean. Indeed, 
our Berber historiographer, Ebn Khaledoon, has told us [supra] that his nation 
" descends from Kesloudjtm," which name is but the Arabicized vocalization of 
KSLK/i-m. He, therefore, reputed the latter to be a Barbaresque family ; and, in 
consequence, we proceed to test their appellative by an Hamitic touchstone. 

Its protogramme K is a difficulty, but one of two explanations wOl remove it. The 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 521 

first is philological: viz., that all Orientalists know how such articulations as KAS, 
KS/j, KS, glide into one another accordingly as they are enunciated by diflFerent tribes. 
Thus, in the very name before us, that which the native Berbers and Arabs pronounce 
ShilLouh, an exotic Spaniard, Marmol, writes Xilohes. The writer of Xth Genesis, tran- 
Bcribing a foreign name in the unknown Hebrew alphabet he used, from six to blank 
centuries before the present square-letter character (in which we now have his text) was 
invented, — this Hebrew writer, we now repeat, when he placed a sameq, S, immediately 
after the kaf, K, probably meant the two letters to represent a Berber intonation of KS. 
In such case, interpolating vowels, we divide the word into KS/iiLouKA-hra, and writing 

beneath it S/iiLouH s, we instantly 

recognize the Shillouhs, one of the grand duplex divisions of Gaiulian families ; the 
other being the Berbers [ubi supra]. In the Egyptian " sacred tongue" and character, 
such hieroglyphical signs as the "sieve," or the "garden," equally represent KS and 
SH ; and if, according to orthodox interpretation, an individual yclept Caslulnm was 
really son of a man called MTsRalM, the father's vernacular and writing must have 
regulated the child's baptismal nomen. 

The second explanation is archsBological ; and although less likely, nay superfluous 
after the preceding remarks, it is submitted as another proof that the speech of the 
old MTsRIM, not having been the "lingua sancta" of Shemite families, serves to effect 
that which modern Hebrew never can aspire to: viz., a rational solution of the Ham- 
itic word KSLKA. 

" Every name determined by the sign eah ... is the proper name of a province or 
country more or less extended." This is Champollion's law of hieroglyphical writing; 
and so familiar to anybody who has read an Egyptological work, that one feels ashamed 
to pile up authorities. 

If an ancient hierogrammateus had written the name of a people called Shillouh, he 
would have spelt it SALUKA-kah ; that is, Shillov a-country ; the determinative for 
countri/ being inseparable from a geographical term. It is, then, possible that, on expor- 
tation to Jerusalem or Babylon where Xth Genesis was edited, the determinative kah 
may have become transposed from the end to the beginning of the word SALKA, in order 
to suit the Chaldaic cuneiform system of writing; in which " determinatives" always 
precede the proper name ; just as, in English, we usually say country of the Shillouhs 
in lieu of SaiLijOva-country. We have only now to suppose that a Chaldcean original, 
written in cuneiform, was transcribed by a Hebrew amanuensis into the old alphabet 
of the Jews ; and the copies of this transcription recast, about two or three hundred 
years a. c, into the modern square-letter character — all things possible, and the latter 
event certain — to perceive that the initial K may be the relic of the sign " kah," now 
incorporated into a name that (supplying the vowels) we might read KaA-SAiLuKA, 
land of the Shillouhs. To which name, inasmuch as the Hebrew writer knew that it 
referred to a people and not to a man, he added the plural determinative IM, and 
thus has handed down to us a true signification of Kasluhlm, in " country of the Shil- 
louhs." Still, we prefer the former explanation, because it is the simplest; and 
with these new lights continue the inquiry. 

The learned Swede, so long Consul-General for his own and the Sardinian govern- 
ment at Tangiers, follows Ebn Khaledoon with his personal corroborative experience, 
when he deems the Casluhlm of Xth Genesis to be no others than the Shillouhs; 
already domiciled in Barbary previously to the intrusion of the first Phoenician colo- 
nists : indeed, he favors the opinion that they are autocthones. The conclusions, 
drawn by this eminent scholar from actual Marocchine observation, derive support 
from another quarter ; nor will Orientalists question the vast profundity of Quatremere. 

In his judicious critique of Ilitzig he observes : — " Quant aux Kaslouliis, j'y reconnais 
les Schelouh qui, de nos jours encore, composent une grande division de la nombreuse 
nation dont les membres sont d^sign^s, d'une maniere abusive, par le nom de Berblres ; 

6Q 



522 THE Xth chapter of genesis. 

on conceit que ces hoinmes, qui, dans tous les temps, se montrferent avides de pillage, 
avaient, de bonne heure, parcouru I'Afrique pour y excercer leurs brigandages. Que, 
se trouvant attir^ par I'appat des richesses de I'Egypte, lis aient tent^ une incursion 
dans cette contr^e, et r^ussi a s'en rendre maitres, la chose n'a rien d'improbable. 
C'est ainsi qu'a des ^poques plus r^centes nous voyons les Mazices, qui appartenaient 
a la meme race, infester par leurs brigandages I'Egypte et les contrfies voisines." 

The Shillovhs (sufficiently for the purposes of this essay) have now been started in 
Morocco and followed to the confines of Eg3'pt. In these wildernesses some of their 
advanced posts still reside. At the famed oasis of Jupiter Ammon, or Seewdh, the 
same phenomenon is witnessed at the present day for which this oasis was remarkable 
in the time of Herodotus, viz : the intermixture of Egyptian and Berber tribes. And 
just as its habitants then spoke Coptic and " Ethiopian " dialects, so now their speech 
is Arabic and Shilha; i. e., the tongue of the Shillouhs ; into which latter idioms 
Arabic continues to become the more and more absorbed, in proportion as from oasis 
to oasis one journeys westwards; until, little beyond words impressed with religious 
attributes remains of Arabic in the aboriginal tongue of the Shillouh votary of Islam. 

The KS/uLuK/i-Jm of Xth Genesis resolve themselves, once for all, into the Shil- 
louhs ; one of the two main branches of the great Gxtulian or Libyan family, race, 
or perhaps " species," of mankind. They inhabited Barbary when the ethnic chart 
of Ilamitic stocks was compiled. They do so still, in the nineteenth century a. c.''16 

33. D^ntJ'Sa — P/iLSTdM — ' Philistim.' 

None will dispute that, according to the Text and the versions, these people proceed 
from out of the KSAiLou-KA-im. Ergo, the Philistim were of Berber stock, and must 
have migrated from a Gsetulian birthplace into Palestine ; a land which, to this day, 
consecrates in its name the remembrance of one of its earliest occupants, the Philistines. 

Contrary to the general current of opinion, here we encounter, if the ethnic gene- 
alogies of Xth Genesis are historical (as we conceive them to be), a migration from 
Northern Africa to Asia; that is, from West to East. If we are to be told by " teolo- 
gastri," that a man yclept Casluhim, on his way from Mount Ararat to Mount Atlas, 
was delivered in Palestine of another called Philislim, St. Augustine will reply for us 
"credo, quia impossibik." Can it be shown when the "Philistines" were not in 
Palestine ? 

The PALST^IM were in Palestine before the second Pylon of the temple of Medeenet- 
Haboo was erected at Thebes ; else Kamses III. could not have recorded, in the thir- 
teenth century b. c, "the POLISITE," among his Asiatic vanquished; by all hiero- 
logists recognized as the Philistines. They must have been also settled in Palestine 
before the advent of the Abrahamidce, whose presence the Philistines never quietly 
tolerated ; and these Philistines were sufficiently powerful, at the time of the Exode, 
for Israel's escaping helots to prefer a wearisome desert march by the Sinaic 
route, lest, peradventure the latter should "see war;" if their valor had tested the 
right of way through "the land of the FhLSTt-im, although that was near." And, 
in their uncompromising abhorrence of later Hebrew domination (which they success- 
fully resisted until Nabuchadnezzar crushed alike the intruder and themselves) the 
Philistines never belied their Berber antipathies to an alien yoke. AXXo^uXoi, Emigrants, 
themselves, they seem never to have comprehended the legality of the charter through 
which otBer strangers in the same land claimed its exclusive possession : nor did Jewish 
holders of this supernatural title-deed ever collect physical force adequate to an eviction. 

Leaving aside, as Pundit fabrications, those Sanscrit apocryphas through which Wil- 
ford traced Palestine to Pali-stdn, " country of the Pali" (Hales's endorsement not- 
withstanding) ; and by no means prepossessed in favor of any Sanscrit etymology for 
descendants of Hamitic Shillouhs in Palestine or elsewhere, after Quatremere's expo- 
sure of their impossibility — leaving aside all these Indomanias, we turn to the Abbe 
Mignot for some reasonable derivation of PLSTi. 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 523 

PLS, or FclesJi, in Hebrew means mud ; and the same bisyllable resiles from the 
Greek tt^Xos, and the Latin Palus. Felusimn, frontier city of Lower Egypt, towards 
Palestine (surrounded by marshes at the Pelusiac mouth), derived its foreign name 
from its muddy situation; being called SIN, mud, in Ezekiel (xxx. 15, 16), and Teeneh, 
mud, by the present Arabs. These coincidences, coupled with the fact that the PLSTi 
dwelt between Pelusium and Palestine, led the ingenious Abb^ to see, in the miry 
neighborhoods of their abode, the origin of the name Philistine. On the other hand, 
Munk draws the name from FLS, to emigrate ; being the sense in which the LXX 
understood PLSTMm, when they rendered it by aXXofvXoi. Munk supports this hypo- 
thesis by the Ethiopic name of Jewish Abyssinians, the Falashas, or emigrants, j/ their 
name be Semitic. 

These appear to be the most rational etymologies of many producible upon the old 
system, before hieroglyphics were translated ; or rather, in Muiik's instance, before 
rumors of Egyptian translations had reached an erudite Conservator of the Royal Li- 
brary at Paris, even in 1845. Such attempts at solution must be abortive, because, 
revolving within a vicious and narrow circle of ideas, they all lean upon Hebraical 
explanations of that which the Hebraicized "language of Kanaan" cannot explain; 
and for the following reason : — 

Upon Egyptian monuments, at a date long anterior to the compilation of Xth Genesis 
(never supposed by us to be Mosaic), the PLST/-5ra are recorded. Their name is ortho- 
graphed "POLISi'TE — men and women." Allowing vowels to be as vague in hiero- 
glyphics as every one knows they are in Hebrew, here, notwithstanding, is a word of 
three ov four syllables, represented by at least /our radical letters, P, L, S, T ; as well 
in the old Egyptian as in the very modern square-letter calligraphy. To this primitive 
name the Jews added IM, in order to make their plural, PLST^m ; tlie Philist-incs : 
which word by the Masora is read Phelesheth in the singular; the final letter "tau" 
being inherent : that is, the T was already inseparable from the name thus chronicled 
at Thebes some three to more centuries before the consolidation of the Hebrew lan- 
guage itself; taking Solomon's era as the earliest and the Captivity as the latest points 
for pure Hebrew literature. This historical fact thrust before them, rabbinical scho- 
lars must pause, and settle with comparative philology the vital question of biliterala 
and monosyllables, ere they can make Egj'ptologists concede that the triliteral FLS, 
or PLS, is the root, not of a Semitic, but of an Hamitic nomen of this Barbaresque 
affiliation of the KSiLouKA-lm; because, in the Hamitic "language of KNAaN " 
(falsely called Hebrew) ; in cognate Berber tongues ; and in old Egyptian ; the prefix 
P, PA, F, no less than its Berber gradation into OU, wa, w, &c., is almost invariably 
the masculine article the, put before the noun it determines. We hold, therefore, that 
the hieroglyphical POLISi'TE is " <Ac-OLIStTE," or something similar; and while we 
pretend not to know either the meaning or the vowelled phonetism of this noun, the 
presence of the article P hatchets away such fabulous etymons as PLS. mud, or ELS. 
stranger. It remains for Berber scholars to discover nominal origins of the P-OLISt'TE 
among families of the Goetulian race : our part contents itself with suggesting two 
indications supplied by Quatremfere : — 

1st. AsHDOD, Azolus, was one of the five great cities of Philistia. In the time of 
Nehcminh (xiii. 23, 24), after return from Captivity, "the Jews had married wives of 
Ashdod," and "their children spake half in the speech of Ashdod, and could not speak 
in the Jews' language." 

It is true that the Jews, (who, considering the sanctity of their lineage, have ama- 
zingly surpassed all nations in rapidity of linguistic mutation,) in the days of Nehe- 
miah spoke Chaldec ; but, it would appear from the context that Hebrew, i. e. the 
"speech of Kanaan," was the tongue which their " Pasha" (PK/tH) sought to reinstil 
into them by means vehement, not to say singular. " I contended with them, and 
cursed them, and smote certain of them, and plucked out their hair !" says Nehemiah 
(xiii. 25). 



524 THE Xth chaptee of genesis. 

Now, Ashdod's inhabitants were ¥LSTi-lm. Even as late as Nehemiah, b. c. 520 — 40, 
they had preserved their own tongue in Palestine. What more natural, what other- 
wise possible, than that an "affiliation of the KSAiLouKAs" should have spoken in 
some dialect of Berber ? 

2d. — The KSAiLouKAs, in Xth Genesis, are offshoots of the MTsRz^es. Hear Qua- 
tremfere : — " Quant a ce qui concerne I'influence de la langue Egyptienne sur celles des 
Philistins, nous en trouvons un vestige remarquable. II existait, sur le rivage de la 
mer M^diterrange, un lieu situe a peu de distance de la ville de Gaza, dont il formait 
le port. Ce lieu €tait nomm^ Ma'iuma. Comme il avait acquis une grande importance, 
il fut, sous le regne des empereurs de Constantinople, s^par^ de I'^vechg de Gaza, et 
devint uu si^ge episcopal distinct. Ce nom, dont M. Hitzig a cherchg I'gtymologie 
dans la langue Sanscrite, appartient indubitablement a la langue de I'Egypte. En 
retranchant la terminaison grecque, il se composa du mot [Coptic and hieroglyphic] 
MA lieu et de lOM mer. Cette denomination, qui designe un lieu maritime, convient 
parfaitement a un port de mer :" and establishes the Hamitic vernacular of the people 
who named it. Who can these people have been but the Philislines who built Gaza ? 

Another consideration. We have seen that Gaetulian races, descendants of KAaM, 
dark, are "gentes subfusci coloris ;" and also that to half the population of the oasis 
of Ammon, who were not Egyptians, Herodotus gives the usual Greek name of " sun- 
burned-faces." Emigrants from such stock into Palestine were therefore physiologi- 
cally swarthy ; and such were the PTST<-Jm who founded Joppa, settling along the 
coast from the Suez Isthmus to Mt. Carmel. Now, as Kaoul Rochette has skilfully 
established, early Greek writers placed the coelo-piscine adventure of "Perseus and 
Andromeda " at Joppa ; " among the Mim-OVians,'" inhabitants of that city of Phi- 
lisiia. Had the PLSTMm not been, like all Berbers, of the swarthy race, Joppa would 
not have been included in Ethiopia, " land of burnt-faces." 

Sufficient has been said on the PLSTj-zm to show that the traditions collected in Xth 
Genesis accurately ascribe these peoples' origins to Barbary. To reject this deduction 
is to deny the validity of Xth Genesis, backed as it is by every historical desideratum ; 
without reserving a shadow upon which contrary hypotheses have been erected through 
imaginary Sanscrit analogies that possess, anthropologically speaking, about as much 
relation to a man of Fhilistia, as to " the man in the moon." 

" If, (says Quatremfere) as I have attempted to establish, the Philistines were origi- 
nally of the west of Africa, it is probable that their idiom, primitively, belonged to 
that speech, improperly termed Berber, which is spoken even to-day in northern Africa, 
from Egypt to the shores of the Atlantic ocean. One may believe that, during their 
domination (?) in Egypt, the Philistines forgot their own language to adopt that of this 
country, or made of the two idioms a barbarous mixture. When they were established 
in Palestine, seeing themselves surrounded by nations that spoke the Semitic dialects, 
and with whom they had daily relations, either as friends, or as enemies, they must 
have still more achieved modifications or corruptions of their lingua propria." 

Through the "Annals of Thotmes III," a most scientific paper which reaches us 
while correcting these pages, the antiquity of the Philislines can now be carried back 
to the sixteenth century b. c. Describing the hieroglyphical records of that Pharaoh, 
Birch reveals how there took place " another campaign against the fortress of Aranatu, 
that of Kanana, and the land of Tunep ; Kadesh was once more attacked, and the 
campaign extended to Naharaina or Mesopotamia. The Tanai, a Philistine tribe who 
were conquered by Ramses III, the Palusata or Philistines, and the Gakhil or Gali- 
laeans, also contributed to the rent-roll, and the ' silver jug the work of the Eevau ' 
refers to the celebrated metallic works of the Cyprians." Here the reader will recog- 
nize various geographical and ethnic names already mentioned in our present disquisi- 
tion. Mr. Birch's surpassingly-great essay will show him many more. 

And this is all we have to say on " P-OLIS«TE-mere and women;" — except that 
orthodox Hebrew dictionaries propose, by way of explanation, " Pujxistines, those 
that dwell in villages ! " 6lT 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 525 

34. DnnM — ETATmiM — ' Caphtorim.' 

The first horn of a dilemma (previously stated) displays itself in the absolutely 
equivocal verse of the ethnic chart itself. Our construction is, that the Caphiorlm 
proceeded (like the Philistines) from out of the KSAiLouKAs : but if a Lanci -were 
to object that every Mitsrite name, but that of the parenthetical Fhilisttm, is preceded 
by the demonstrative ATt, and were to insist that *' W-AT<-KPATiRIM " means " and- 
all-KFhTtB.ites," we should yield at once that, in the Text, the latter are sons, not 
grandsons, of the MTsRJm. In mere hagiography a distinction so minute is of no im- 
portance ; but in ethnography it makes all the difference whether the KPAT^RJm issued 
primarily from the Egyptians, or whether they are a secondary formation from among 
the KSAiLouKAs of Barbary ; Gaetulians who, like their brethren the Philistines, aban- 
doned their birthplace, and went whither ? Nobody knows ! 

Bochart pointed out a road to Cappadocia, along which English orthodoxy follows 
him as sheep do their leading-rams — chiefly because, having fixed the Negro CasluKtm 
in Colchis on the Euxine, Protestant divines consider that his brother, or his son, 
"Caphtorim," naturally took lodgings next door. Our restoration of the KSAiLouKAs 
to Barbary shatters that hypothesis, unless Cappadocia, like Colchis, can show to some 
Halicarnasian a population also " black in complexion, and woo%-haired." Strabo tells 
US that the Leuco-Syrians, jwAiie-skinned-Syrians, resided there. Michaelis thought 
of Cyprus, which Volney rejects; Calmet, first Crete, and afterwards Cyprus, which 
second thought is favored in Kitto's cyclopsedia by "E. M." Crete, however, is adopted 
by the Germanic scholarship of " J. B. R." ; and, based upon similar sources, by that 
of Munk. One regrets to disturb this happy uniformity ; but, let a query or two bo 
propounded — after recalling that, our preceding analyses having vindicated Barbary 
as the region, and Gcelulian as the race, of seven " affiliations of the MTsRJm," the 
eighth, our KP/jT^Rs, whether as offshoots of Shillouhs or of Egyptians, must have been 
likewise "gentes subfusci coloris"; speaking a dialect of Ham itic tongues; whose 
birthplace was also Northern Africa. 

1st. How, in the remote age of these ante-historical migrations, could Berber races 
have got to Crete ? By navigation ? Not impossible, certainly ; but, it is one thing 
to suppose a Mr. Caphtorim tacking his frail bark, not along shore, but straight out 
400 miles (against Etesian gales) to windward, to the Island of Candia ; and another 
to explain the embarkation of a whole tribe of KPAT^Rs, for aught we know, as numer- 
ous as the Pharusii or the Philistines. Such a voyage, at such unnautical epochas, is 
rather more difficult to be conceived, in archiBology, than some mistake of a copyist in 
writing that name which, as KPT/R (save in the Text, versions, and rabbinical com- 
mentors thereon), has never yet been localized. 

2d. What vestiges are there in Crete, or in her traditions, of any such Barbaresque 
visitation ? And why, after they had landed at Candia, did the KPATiRs abandon that 
splendid island en masse, and so thoroughly, that not a suspicion of their sojourn is to 
be found in Cretan, in classical, or in Hamitic traditions ? 

When these two questions have received a reasonable answer, we shall put our 

3d, and last interrogatory — How comes it that, after all these improbabilities, the 
second voyage, from Crete to Palestine, is unrecorded ? 

It is true that three texts are quoted to identify the Philistines with Crete : — Ezek. 
XXV. 16, "I will stretch out my hand upon the Philistines, and I will cut off the 
KART<-lnz." Zeph. ii. 5, " Woe unto the inhabitants of the seacoast, the nation of the 
KARTMm .' the word of leHOuall against you ; Kanaan, the land of the Philistines." 
1 Sam. XXX. 14, 16, " We made an invasion south of the K7iRT<-5m, . . . the land of the 
Philistines." 

Now, if the resemblance of KART^I to Crete be the only reason for making those 
SliiUouh affiliations, called P-OLlSiTE in hieroglyphics, navigate from Barbary to Can- 
dia, and thence to Palestine — if this be all, why the same palteographicnl analogy 
might bring the K/lRT^?m from KhaRT^-oum, the modern city on the juncture of the 



526 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

Blue and White Niles ! Unluckily for Crete, these texts merely show that KJiRTt-hn 
was another name — a nickname perhaps — for a sept of Philistines in Palestine. 
David's life-guards were composed of KARTil and 'PhLTtl (2 Sam. viii. 18 ; 1 Chron. 
xviii. 17). They, with the GT^I (2 Sam. xv. 18), made up a corps of "GOO men." 
Now, the latter being citizens of Gath, the union of all three tribes into a cohort renders 
their homogeneity, as native Palestinians, more than probable. But, none of these 
passages touch the Kaphtorim ; whose name is distinct from that of the KheretlAm. 

But, it is said, three other texts confirm the Cretan theory : — Deut. ii. 23, " The 
Av\m that dwelled in villages as far as (Gaza?) Aza, the KP/iTiRs who issued from 
KP/iTiR destroyed them and established themselves in their place." Jerem. xlvii. 4, 
" leHOuaH will spoil the Philistines, the remnant of the country of KPATiR." Amos 
ix, 7, " The Philistines from KPAT^R." 

One must employ double-magnifying spectacles to see anything more here than that 
Kaphtor was some place whence Philistines came (far, or near, unrevealed) ; but, in 
what does all this concern the "Island of Candia"? Herodotus and Tacitus are 
quoted. The former merely says, that Crela was occupied by barbarous tribes until 
the time of Minos. This citation does not help Caphtorim out of the mire. The latter 
has " Judceos, Cretd insulcL profugos, novissima Lihyoe insedisse memorant." He speaks 
of Jews, driven out of Candia, taking refuge in Libya. What has that incident to do 
with "Philistines from KPAT^R" in Palestine ? Those who fancy that Hitzig or Movers, 
spite of their immense learning, and dexterity in placing one Indo-Germanic hypothesis 
alongside of another, have mended matters, will be edified by the perusal of Quatre- 
mfere's critique of both. From it we translate : " It seems to me probable that the 
Kreti inhabited to the south of the country of the Philistines, upon the shores of the 
Mediterranean Sea, on the side which looks towards the frontiers of Egypt. And a 
passage of Herodotus (iii. 5) comes perfectly in support of my opinion. According to 
the Greek historian, ' from Phoenicia to the environs of Kadytis [Jerusalem], the 
country is inhabited by Syrians, called Palestinians. From Kadytis to the town of 
lenusos, the market-places appertain to the Arabs ; thence after, to the Lake Serbonis, 
dwell the Syrians.' This curious passage demonstrates that to the south of the country 
of the Philistines there was a coast sufiiciently considerable occupied by Arabs. Now, 
inasmuch as the passages of the Bible show us these Kreti established in the same dis- 
tricts, I think they constituted an Arab tribe that the love of gain had fixed upon the 
shore of the Mediterranean, that they (the Kreti) had nothing in common either with 
the Philistines or with the Cretans." 

Orthodox lexicography encourages a searcher with "Caphtoh — a sphere, a buckle, 
a hand, s. palm, doves, or those that seek and inquire." We do, " et hinc illae lachrymae." 
The roots Kah-P-T<oR might signify " the- Bull-land " ; but neither these, nor any 
others hitherto offered, having furnished a clew to the genesiaeal KaPAT^oR-IM, we 
humbly place the name upon our " Table" coupled with the word "unknown." 

Volney, whose acuteness of perception is beyond all praise, simply says, "\q5 Kaph- 
torim peuvent etre les habitans de Gaza." Wherever may have been their abode in 
Palestine during later times, Xth Genesis makes them so many afBliations of KAaM, 
the dark (red) race, through the Egyptians ; and consequently points to Barbary for 
their origin. Our "Affiliations of the MTsRm" now arrange themselves as follows: 

Stock and Tongue. Habitat. Origin. 

1. The LUD,s Berber Mauritania Barbary. 

2. " AMaN,s " Oases, &c " 

3. " LHaB.s " Libya " 

4. " NiPAaiaT«,s " Mareoticum " 

5. " PATiRiS,s " Pharusia " 

6. " KSALouK/(,s " All N.-W. Africa.... " 

7. " PAiLiST<,s " Palestine "? 

8. " KaP/iTtoR,s "? " "Unknown." 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 527 

[All these families of mankind thus re-enter into the grand Gcetulian group of North- 
■western Africa : of which sundry races, through prehistorical migrations, had par- 
tially occupied Palestine in ages anterior to the arrival of the Abrahamidce. The 
surpassing accuracy of the ancient compiler of Xth Genesis has now been triumphantly 
vindicated from a new quarter ; and that which not a man of the ghostly schools, 
whence issued his reverence doctor smythe, has ever possessed the knowledge to 
expound rationally, herein becomes comprehensible through " Gliddon, skeptical 
views of, — Index, p. 401." — G. R. G.] eis 

"Aucl lO'J'Aal^ begat" {Gen.^.lb.) 
35. |TV — TsIDN"— 'SiDON.' 

One especial object of our Section A has been achieved in the preceding pages. It 
was, to rescue the maligned " aflBliations of KUSA," and the mystiiied "affiliations 
of the MTsRJm," from the sloughs of despond into which ecclesiastical hands had 
plunged them. After fixing the former in Southern Arabia among the dark-red Him- 
yarites, and the latter in Barbary among the " gentes subfusci coloris" of Gcetulian 
origin, we can now look down complacently upon the Egyptian alluvium of the Nile — 
■whether viewed as the true "Land of KAeM" (the god), divine procreator of the 
Egyptian race ; or as the " Land of KAaM," the swarthy people — as the centre-point, 
whither converge the traditions and the anthropological similitudes of Arabian Asia 
and of Barbaresque Africa. Our remaining objects will be satisfied by a catalogue of 
the other cognomina in Xth Genesis, according to' the latest views of archaeological 
science ; beginning with TsIDoN. 

The city of Sidon is the simple meaning of our text ; not an individual so christened : 
the vicissitudes of whose Sidonian inhabitants, " skilled in many arts," often lauded 
poetically by Homer, are celebrated prosaically in classic and biblical dictionaries. 
Its local name was Siyda when the writer (G. R. G.) sojourned there in 1829 and 
1830. Orthodox philology replies to our query, as to the signification of the word — 
. " SiDOX — hunting, fishing, venison;" of which heterodoxy can accept but the second 
term in this instance; because the Semitic roots of sayd, "to chase," here refer, as 
Trogus Pompeius tells us, to the icthyologic facilities of the locality; ^^ naxa piscem 
Phoenices Sidon vocant." In ethnic classification Sidon derives prominence from having 
once been (Gen. x. 19) the easternmost limit of Kanaanitish occupancy; and "after 
many years," continues Trogus, "the Philistines of Askalon drove out the Sidonians, 
who sought refuge on the rocky islet upon which they founded Tyre." 

From Justin, the epitomizer of Trogus's lost volumes, we descend to Bochart, and 
admire the subdued irony with which he disposes of commentators upon the word 
TsIDN : — " Quod vir qui in his Uteris paucos habuit ssquales admirationem explicat 
vocem IlTV Sidon, non sine admiratione legi." The most recent, and incomparably 
the best qualified archeologue who has journeyed "round the Dead Sea and in the Bible 
Lands," is De Saulcy. He remarks on " Saydah — This is undoubtedly the 'Liluiv vdXis 
Kai h/ifiv (KXfiffrJj) of Scylax, the Sidon of Pliny, the i:iSu>v of Strabo, who places it at 
400 stadia from Berytus, the Sidona of Antonine's Itinerary, the Sydone of Peutinger's 
Table, and, lastly, the Civitaa Sidona of the Pilgrim from Bordeaux. It would be quite 
useless to argue this identity, which proves itself." 

Conformably to Xth Genesis, KNAaN, parent of Sidon, was an affiliation of H.4M ; 
but, " according to M. Movers, the Kanaanians, called by the Greeks Phanicians, were 
a people that appertained to the Semitic race ; of which some tribes," says he, " at a 
time which preceded the commencement of our history, marched little by little, some 
coming from the north, by way of Syria ; others, from the south, by way of Arabia ; 
and, according to all appearances, achieved, after several centuries, their establish- 
ment, in a permanent manner, in Palestine. Called Kanaanians, from the word Ka- 
naan, KNASN, which means a low land, by opposition to the term Aram, ARM, which 



528 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

expressed a high land, they composed, according to the recital of Moses, a single 
people, but divided into many nations," &c. 

To this theory Quatremere judiciously objects, — that the opinion which attributes a 
Semitic origin to the Kanaanites (aside from its opposition to Xth Genesis, which he 
considers of Mosaic editorship) reposes uniquely upon the resemblance of the tongue 
spoken by the Kanaanites with the languages in vogue among other peoples to whom 
general consent now applies the name of Shemilish. He holds this basis to be unsafe ; 
because all of the affiliations of Shem did not speak one language ; notably the 
Elamites, of Persia ; whose tongue differed entirely from that of Aramaeans or Arabs : 
at the same time, surrounded as the KNAaNI ever were by Semitic influences, their 
language would necessarily imbibe such exotic idioms. Again, it is by Quatremfere 
considered doubtful, either that KNAaN means a low land, or ARM a high one. In- 
deed, one might add that the final N in Kanaan may be a later addition to an original 
root, KNS ; said to be the pristine name of the Phoinikes, Phoenicians ; which is pro- 
bably preserved through another form, viz. : Beni-a^'K, "sons of Anak; " who were 
not " Giants," as some commentators imagine. Such diversities of scientific opinion 
are here presented to exhibit some problemaia ; not to solve them. 

To us the chart of Xth Genesis has proved a very trustworthy guide so far. It 
assigns an Hamitic origin to KNAaN ; and consequently to the foundation of the city 
of Sidon. No facts known to us interfere with this natural view. During the eighth — 
ninth centuries b. c. the name of Sidon was already sculptured, according to Raw- 
linson and Layard, upon the monuments of Assyria ; but the very conjectural identity, 
claimed by Osburn, of the SAAIRETANA, hieroglyphed on the Egyptian records of 
Ramses II., with the Sidonians, is now overthrown by Hinck's translation of a cuneatic 
register of Sardanapalus, wherein the " Sharutinian " city becomes situate "between 
Antioch and Aleppo." We have, moreover [^supra, p. 239, Fig. 289], identified with 
Egyptian native soldiery of the royal guard the individual whom Mr. Osburn suspected 
to be a Sidonian. None dispute, however, that Sidon must have been a " city" when- 
soever Xth Genesis was written, so we proceed to the next name.sis 

36. Jirr — K7jT« — 'Heth.' 

The Hillites are well known. Of them the patriarchal Abraham [Gen. xxiii. 9, 
17, 19) purchased not a double cavern, called Machpelah ; but " the field contracted for." 
Thus, under the magic wand of such scholarship as that of the Vatican Professor of 
Sacred Philology, multitudes of mistranslated Hebrew words are replaced by their 
historical meanings. — " I boschi," says Lanci, " diventano veneri, le doppie spelonche 
spiegansi per contratti, i torrenti si cangiano in beneficii, le isole in popoli e staii, i topi 
in virili vergelle, le rondini m puledri, le voragini in montagne." 

In hieroglyphics, the KAeT, variously euphonized, occur so often, back to the age 
of Thotmes III., or the sixteenth century b. c, that one need but refer to Mr. Birch's 
critical papers for authority. The "land of Kheta' among Egyptians seems to have 
meant that part of Palestine where we find the Hittites of Scripture; but the name 
KAeT also designated this very wide-spread people ; who reappear, through Layard's 
researches, on the cuneatic inscriptions of Assyria, as the Khatti or Khetta of Syria. 
To us, and to the writer of Xth Genesis, K/teTi is not a man, but &, people so called.620 

37. 1^'^y _ IBUSI — ' Jebusite.' 

In the book of Judges (xix. 10), a flagitious act is recounted, which chronologers 
assign to about the year 1406 b. c. The date seems too remote, but the earlier it is 
placed by commentators, the more certain will be the archaeological deductions now 
about to be drawn. 

A Levite " rose up and departed, and came over against Jehus, which is Jerusalem ;" 
that is to sny, the place had been known previously by the name of IBUS ; but, in the 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 629 

time of the writer of Judges, was called Jerusalem, as a second name for one and the 
same locality ; whence the Benjamites, who gave it this latter appellative, had failed 
to drive the Jebusitea out, " even unto this day." {Jud. i. 21.) So Joshua (xviii. 28), 
i. e. the book so-called, has " and IBUS which is Jerusalem ;" and without requiring 
further information, the following text corroborates what precedes: — (1 Chron. xi. 
4), " And David and all Israel went to Jerusalem, which is IBUS, where the IBUSlw 
(were then) the inhabitants of the land." 

Hence it is certain, that IBUS was a very ancient city, on the site of which the 
exotic Israelites founded a more recent one they named Jerusalem — literally, YeRuS, 
heritage, and SAaLaiM, peace (in the dual) — written YeRuSAaLaiM, and signifying, 
according to Lanci, "She who inherits two-fold peace." 

IBUSI, in Xth Genesis, means therefore "a man of, or belonging to, IBUS," a city ; 
and not the imaginary son of a man of that name. Around this topographical centre 
clustered the IBUSm before the irruption of Israel's hosts into Kanaan. There the 
Jebusites manfully vindicated their nationality until David stormed their citadel, Mt. 
Zion ; and here some of them remained long after their city was changed into Jerusa- 
lem, until the invader and the invaded were swallowed up by the Babylonians. 

Now, whether a tribe called IBUSJm built a city and named it after a mythical ances- 
tor, divine or human ; or whether the anterior name of a city was adopted by a tribe, 
is what neither ourselves nor any one else can aver. Xth Genesis speaks of an Ibus- 
ian ; just as it speaks of an inhabitant of any more celebrated but perhaps not more 
ancient city than IBUS, already in existence when Joshua entered Palestine. 

Mr. Osburn's reading of " Jebusite," among the "thirty-seven prisoners of Beni- 
Hassan," has not survived criticism [supra, p. 173] ; but M. De Saulcy recognizes 
Gabusa, or Jebus, upon the old cuneiform tablets at Lake Van. We note a " man 
appertaining to the city of Jebus" in the IBUSI of Xth Genesis, and pass onwards. ^21 

38. nON — AMEI — 'Amorite.' 

Around half the circumference of the Lake Asphaltum, and from the Jordan north- 
ward to Mt. Hermon, once dwelt a people "of stature high as cedars, and strong as 
oaks " (Amos ii. 9), called the Amorim : — cousins to the Em\m, Rephdim, Zuzim, Zam- 
zumlm, NipMlim, and Anakim ; falsely rendered " giants " in the versions ; all, 
according to the Vulgate translators, " monstra qusedam de genere giganteo " (Numb. 
xiii. 33) : some of whom were so tremendously tall, that Caleb's spies reported how 
" we were in our own eyes as grasshoppers, and snch were we in their eyes." Never- 
theless, astonishing as such human proportions seem, those of a thorough-bred Atno- 
rite surpassed them all; according to the orthodox stream of Hebraical traditions 
supplied by Cahen. 

" When Og (the Amoritish king of Bashan) saw the Israelite camp, which had sis 
parasangs (twenty-four miles) of extent, he said : I single-handed will undertake the 
combat with this people, that they do not to me as to Sihon. For this object he de- 
tached a mountain six parasangs (twenty-four miles) in breadth, and placed it on his 
head to heave it upon the Israelites. God caused an insect to come, which, piercing 
the mountain through the middle, caused Og''s head to sink therein. He, wishing to 
diseng.ige himself, could not manage it, because one of his teeth projected in front 
very considerably. Moses then seized an axe ten cubits (fifteen feet) in length, and 
jumping into the air to the height of ten cubits (fifteen feet), struck the giant on the 
ankle-bone of his foot. On falling, the corpse of Og touched the Israelite camp." To 
similar rabbinical stories Horace replied, " Credat Judseus Apella!" After all, in the 
Text, another and later writer, during whose day Og's iron bedstead was still exhibited 
at Rabbath, found, by actual measurement, that this " remnant of giants " had slept 
within an area of only thirteen and a half feet by six [Deut. iii. 11). 

67 



530 THE Sth chapter OF GENESIS. 

Among Berher tribes, the name OMAEE, Aamare, reappears in Ebn Khaledoon's 
list ; but whether indigenously, or exotically through some ante-historical Kanaanitish 
or modern Arab afi&liation (sons of Omar, or Aamer?), others may better determine. 

It is long since that Rosellini pointed out among the early Asiatic conquests of the 
XVIlIth dynasty, the " Land of Omar :" but Birch first suspected this country to be 
that of the Palestinic ^monie; a conclusion enforced by Hincks, and developed by 
Osburn. There is a question still pending between hierologists and cuneiform decy- 
pherers in regard to the "citadel of Aiesh " in the land of Amaru, which leaves it yet 
uncertain whether the river Amoor, " Jaxartes," or the nation Amorite in Palestine, is 
intended. Nor have the Palestinic travels of De Saulcy ascertained any ruins of a 
ciii/ called AMR, whence the AMoRI of Xth Genesis might be derived : although 
I nothing can be more precious to the ethnologist than the "Figure of aMoabite" dis- 
covered by him on the " hybrid monument, in which the Egyptian and the Assyrian 
styles are intermingled," at Redjom-el-Aabed. Ignorance of Judaic topography here 
compels us merely to read an AMoR-ww; a man of, or belonging to, the city, country, 
or tribe, of AMR.622 



39. 'J^J-lJ — GEGSI — ' GiRGASiTE.' 

This, together with the two preceding and all the following affiliations of KNASN, 
has the termination I (iod) ; which in Semitic tongues commonly indicates the-belong- 
ing-to a place ; for instance, MussW means Cairo ; lluss'r-i, a Cairine. In Xth Genesis, 
this adjunct to a geographical proper name has precisely the same grammatical accep- 
tation ; and if science cannot always find the place alluded to, the fault lies at the 
door of travellers less qualified than a De Saulcy. GRGS-I signifies nothing more 
than a man belonging-to a locality once called GRGS ; although its Palestinic situation 
still lacks a discoverer. Other books of the Hebrews are silent on this name ; which 
was all that remained of a Girgasite even in the time of Josephus, 1800 years ago ; 
unless "the country of the Gergesenes," mentioned by Maliliew (viii. 28), contained 
other persons than those " possessed with devils." ^23 



40. '')n— KAUI — ' HiviTE.' 

A man "of, or belonging to," a place called KhTJ ; now pronounced, through the 
modern Chaldce substitution of V for U, " KAaV." The KhXJItes rank among the un- 
excelled Kanaanites ; because Joshua (xi. 19) suffered some of them to deceive him 
into a peace; and Solomon (1 Kings ix. 20, 21) exacted "bond-service" from others. 

We must never forget, in viewing this name and its fellow-nomina, that time, dis- 
tance, foreign and obsolete languages now reputed to be "sacred," combined with the 
singular mixture of scepticism and marvellousness instilled into our minds by juvenile 
education, lend an enchantment to these Kanaanitish people that would vanish, did 
we now possess the honor of their acquaintance. They all were petty tribes of a few 
thousands, at most of fewer myriads of population ; comprised within an area so very 
insignificant, that St. Jerome, who travelled over Palestine (which had previously in- 
cluded the whole of these nations, and other people besides), wisely deprecates statis- 
tics : — " Pudet dicere latitudinem terras repromissionis, ne ethnicis occasionem blas- 
phemandi dedisse videamur." That criticism which, precursor of Niebuhr, the author 
of " Scienza Nuova," applied so successfully to early Roman, might equally well be 
adapted to early Jewish history — " What we may say about ih^ poetic geography of the 
Greeks suits the ancient geography of the Latins. Latium possessed, without doubt, at 
the commencement, but a petty extent ; inasmuch as, while employing two hundi-ed 
and fifty years to conquer twenty diiFerent peoples, Rome during that time did not 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 531 

stretch out the frontier of her empire further than twenty miles round about." Among 
"the cities of the K/iU-m " (2 Sam. xxiv. 7) we cannot yet place a finger upon that 
particular one whence hailed the " citizen" individualized in Xth Genesis.624 

41. 'p-lj; — AaRKI — ' Arkite.' 

A man of Arka, or Acra ; a city the ruins of which are still seen at Tel-Arka, mound 
of Arka, between Tripoli and Antaradus ; but Akra must have been already a city 
when Asar - adan - pal and Temenebar I. recorded its capture in the eighth — ninth 
century b. c. ; else Rawlinson could not have discovered its cuneatic name. 

[In former inquiries into the probable origin of some Berber names, that certainly 
present some Kanaanitish coincidences, I indicated the ERKYE of Ebn Khaledoon as 
homonymous. That some EanaaniUs sought refuge in Barbary is undoubtedly histo- 
rical ; that some Berbers did once occupy Kanaan has been already shown. There is 
a strange blending of Gsetulian and Arabian elements in Palestine anterior to the 
advent of the Abrahamidce, underlying every record, which the supposition of a crea- 
tive centre, distinct from that of Euphralic tradition, might possibly explain. — 
G. R. G.]*i25 

42. 'rO — SINI — ' SiNITE.' 

A man " of, or belonging to the town of SIN," not far from Acra, on the slopes of 
Mount Lebanon. This name reappears among Ebn Khaledoon's Berber tribes as the 
ZIN-ata.626 

43. mnN — ARIIDI — ' Arvadite.' 

A man of Roichjda (as modern Syrians now designate the little island of Aradus), 
which town, with its continental neighbor Antaradus, was a famed Phoenician empo- 
rium. Every lexicon explains the familiar locality ; but Osburn has the merit of indi- 
cating the people and their name hieroglyphed amid the conquests of Sethei I., and 
Ramses II. ; fourteenth — sixteenth centuries b. c. ; and Rawlinson that of reading the 
cuneiform inscriptions in which, during the eighth — ninth centuries b. c, the existence 
of Aradus is chronicled. 527 

44. noy — Tsimi — ' Zemarite.' 

A man of the Phoenician town of Simyra, not far from Antaradus, on the western 
spur of Mount Lebanon ; afterwards occupied by the Benjamites, who probably ex- 
pelled its inhabitants — the TsMR-Jm. A similar name occurs among Ebn Khale- 
doon's Berbers ; but, beyond this phonetic and therefore uncertain analogy, we here 
must emulate the laconic chorography, not merely of Xth Genesis, but of map-makers 
in general, having nothing to add to the investigations of Bochart.628 

45. \nDn — KBITfl — 'Hamathitb.' 

This is a man "belonging to a city" situate on the Orontes at the eastern frontier 
of Palestine, now called el-Hdmah by Syrians. Although later Greeks termed it Epi- 
phaneia during their dominion, the natives have always preserved its antique nomen. 
The LXX properly wrote Ef<a8 : as did Assyrians, six centuries before them, in cuneatic 
inscriptions deciphered by Rawlinson ; while, at least four hundred years previously, 
Ramses III. had hieroglyphed the Uamathites among his Asiatic vanquished. 

We would passingly uotice that which, philologically speaking, is incontrovertible in 
regard to the Hebrew transcription of +his name. The letter I, iod, has been shown 
above to be the demonstrative adjunct "of, or belonging to" a locality. T?, lau, in 
all ancient Hamilic idioms is the feminine article, the; prefixed or suffixed even now 
to abundant Berber nomina — ex. gr., T-Amazirgh or Amazirgh-T. These cut away, 



532 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

the pristine monosyllable of KhaMnTtl is KhM; identical with KheM the name of 
Egypt; and also -with KAaM the son of Noah, personified symbol of all Hamitic families. 
We have traced the Philistines to a Barbaresque source, although history dawns upon 
them in Palestine. The writer of Xth Genesis, whose authority has been found so 
unexceptionably safe hitherto, makes a KhaM-ite citizen on the frontier of Palestine 
descend from KNASN ; the figurative son of KUSA who was the figurative son of 
KAaM. The Hamitic article T is suffixed to the primitive hiliteral name of a city, whose 
existence is carried back on Egyptian monuments to Mosaic epochas. There is no 
historical limit definable for the foundation of the city ; none, most assuredly, for the 
antiquity of its name. But, archaeology may draw, from other data, inferences that 
appear satisfactory : before considering which, justice to the memory of human great- 
ness suggests a citation : — 

" The man who has anticipated by a century the movements of mind towards modern 
sciences ; who has raised up questions which, down to him, were considered to be 
resolved or to be insoluble ; who has carried the investigations of a criticism the most 
intrepid into documents by all antiquity respected ; who never bent himself before esta- 
blished prejudice ; who has accomplished the double enterprise of destroying and of 
reconstructing universal history ; who has treated upon all the sciences without being 
acquainted precisely with any one, and who bequeathed to each of them some fecund 
teaching ; the man who has almost divined all the discoveries of the nineteenth cen- 
tury; who, appertaining to an age [1722] and to a country [Naples] wherein thought 
was never free, seemed to ignore that the saying of every thing to every body, was to 
expose himself to be comprehended by nobody ; the man whose genius recalls the 
mighty intellects of Plato and of Aristotle, deserves to be followed step by step in the 
development of his glorious intelligence and in the vicissitudes of his long and 
unhappy life." That man was Vico. In " establishing the Principles " of historical 
criticism, he laid down, for the 107th rule : " the commencements of nations preceded 
the commencements of cities." A hagiographer smiles at its infantine simplicity — 
let us raise a laugh at his. 

We have seen that, Sidnn, Thus, Arha, Sin, Aradus, Simyra, and Hamaih, were dtia. 
We know that the terminal letter I, iod, to six of these seven names, produces, in 
Semitic idioms, exactly the same effect that our addition of an English "tare " changes 
them into a Sidon-jan, an Ibus-wn, an kx\-ian, a Sin-tara, an Arad-ian, a Simyr-«"are, 
and a Hamath-fan. Ergo, these people derive their appellatives from cities ; built, of 
course, before men could hail from them. What now — let us turn round and ask the 
smiling querist, as his face augments its longitude while diminishing its risible lati- 
tude, — what now becomes of your fables about those men called Sidon, Ibus, Arha, 
Sin, Aradus, Simyra, or Hamath, whom your schools have dared to find in Xth Genesis, 
as sons, forsooth [!], of another fabulous human being your philologers spell " Canaan " ? 

But, there is yet another deduction which the reader will draw at once from these 
premises, viz. : — that, inasmuch as a man could not be a HamatMan before the city 
of Hamath was built, the fact that the writer of Xth Genesis speaks of a KAaMaT/I, 
or Ilamathian, proves that the document called "Xth Genesis" was written after, pro- 
bably long after, this city had existed ; and, therefore, that he (the writer aforesaid) 
never dreamed that modern logopoeists would metamorphose his cities into so many 
human beings. 

The age of the foundation of all these cities receding beyond historical chronology, 
we have said enough on the Haviathian and his compeers: but, while taking leave of 
the cities included in the terrestrial area called KNAaN, we likewise bid farewell to 
every commentator who perpetuates rabbinical superstitions about " Canaan " and his 
gigantic progeny. " These," says the chorographer of Xth Genesis, on closing his 
Hamitic list, — "These are the affiliations of K/iaM \_i. e , the swarthy'], after their 
families, after their tongues, in their countries, and in their nations." {Gen. x. 20.) 

Nothing can be plainer, nor more scientifically concise. In our journey from Babylon 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 533 

through Southern Arabia, and round by the shores of the Erythraean (red), Edomite 
or Red Sea, the dark Himyarites (red) have accompanied us, over the Suez Isthmus, 
into Egypt — the true "land of KAaM" (dark) ; its ancient name preserved in Chem- 
mia — abode of the red people, "par excellence." Thence, towards the vrest along 
Barbary we see the prolongations of the same Ilamitic (dark) families, " gentes sub- 
fusci coloris," stretching between the Sahara desert and the Mediterranean, as far as 
Mauritania : whilst, towards the east, through Palestine, we behold the wrecks of an 
aboriginal population, linked by traditions and primitive speech to Egypt and to Bar- 
bary, "tinged with the red of Gaetulian blood," and Ilamitic under every aspect. ^29 
We next take up the " AfiSliations of Sh1!;m." 

"And unto SheM. (there was) issue." {Gren. x. 21 — Hebrew Text.) 
46. dS'I? — AdILM — 'Elam.' 

Preceding generations have bent their intelligencies towards the elucidation of 
Shemilish subjects with more zeal, and therefore with more success, than towards that 
of Japethie or of Ilamitic problems. 

Owing partly to the fortuitous preservation of this family's chronicles in greater 
completeness than those of any people except the Chinese ; still more, to the absence, 
until this century, of those immortal discoveries epitomized in two names, "Cham- 
POLLION and Raw4.inson " ; and, beyond any other stimulant of research, to doctrinal 
biases in favor of a select line that, under the name of Hebrews and Arabs, traces its 
pedigree backwards to a biliteral SM — owing, we repeat, to these historical accidents, 
we happen to know a little more about some of SM's posterity, their annals, habitats, 
and associations, than we do concerning other less respectable, because unrecorded, 
" Types of Mankind." 

According to Ainsworth, geologist to the Euphrates Expedition, Elymais, country of 
the Elymoei (the capital city of which was also called Elymais when classical history 
first dawns upon its geography), was a Persian province, situate to the south of Media, 
between the river Tigris and the Persian Appenines, sloping downwards into Susiana 
and to the Persian Gulf. Tradition, through Polybius and Strabo, ascribes to its Ely- 
mcean inhabitants a northern origin ; and Josephus calls them " the founders of the 
Persians " : with whom they are often confounded in later Hebrew annals ; for Persia 
and Persepolis are both called Elam (1 Maccab. vi. 12 ; 2 id. ix. 2), They were, how- 
ever, in the days of Abraham, already occupiers of a kingdom called Elam {Gen. xiv. 
] , 9) ; so that when, more than a thousand years later, the compiler of Xth Genesis 
registered A«ILM on his ethnic chart, he naturally meant the country which had been 
80 called from times immemorial before him. 

This country (generally, if improperly, included in the sections of territory compre- 
hended by the term Susiana), is full of ancient cuneiform remains ; both of the Persian 
and of the older Assyrian period : but, in 1846, one class of the cuneatic inscriptions 
there discovered, owing to "the number of new characters which they exhibit — 
characters for which no conjectural equivalent can be found either in the Babylonian 
or the Assyrian alphabet" — was denominated Elymcean by Rawlinson, being monu- 
ments distinct from their neighbors. 

Under these circumstances, until Rawlinson or his emulous competitors shall 
breathe upon these " dry bones" of Elymais, "and say unto them, ye dry bones, 
hear! " it is best not to hazard opinions on the unknown, which the next mail from 
Europe may perhaps render clear as day. We therefore merely indicate a discrepancy 
at present evident between modern philological and historical results and the Semilish 
genealogy of AalLM-aw, in Xth Genesis. According to the latter, the A&lLM-ites 
should have spoken a dialect of the Aramcean class of languages : but, according to the 
former, as interpreted by Lenormant, Quatremfere, Movers, and others, the afi&nities of 



534 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

A^ILM, cognate if not identical with the Persians, are Arian. It seems to us, hoTV- 
ever, that Ldwenstern's solution is satisfactory. He shows how the primitive Elamites 
were of Semitic extraction, but that, in after times, Scythic conquerors superimposed 
in Elam their extraneous blood, tongues, and traditions ; as the reader can verify in 
this author's learned papers. In the meanwhile, De Saulcy has read upon cuneatic 
inscriptions of the age of Asar-haddon, eighth century b. c, that this monarch was 
"rex populi Assur," and "rex populi Elam": and this is confirmed by Layard's 
Second Expedition, for " Sennacherib speaks of the army which defended the workmen 
being attacked by the king oi Elam and the king of Babylon." 

Our confidence in the compiler of Xth Genesis stands unshaken. If, as we have 
proved, his tabulation of the distant Hamiles is so correct, how much better must a 
Chaldman chorographer have been acquainted with the legendary origins of a Semitish 
AalLM-aw ? 6^0 

47. -lISTk^ — ASITE — 'AssHUR.' 

While admitting the equivocal nature of the text of Genesis x. 11, we have given 
reasons [supra, p. 509] for reading — " From this land (Shinar) he himself (NiMKoD) 
went forth (to) ASUE (Assyria) and builded Nineveh," &c. Such lesson indicates 
that we have now before us a geographical name. 

"It would be strange," critically remarks De Sola, "if Ashuk, a son of Shem 
[Gen. X. 22) were mentioned among the descendants of Cham, of whom Nimrod was 
one. It would be equally strange if the deeds of Ashur were spoken of (in verse 11) 
before his birth and descent had been mentioned." The writer of Xth Genesis, a plain 
sensible man, compiling the Assyrian department of his chart not impossibly in ASUR 
itself, was not likely to have committed such a needless anachronism. Let us examine 
another text. 

King James's version. Genesis ii. 14 — "And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: 
that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria." This text has opportunely received 
recent ventilation at Paris, in discussions between De Longperier, an Orientalist as 
profound in biblical as in all archaic lore, and a learned dogmatist, M. Hoeffer. The 
ante-diluvian river, miswritten Hiddekel in our version,' is, in the Text, H-DKL, the- 
DiKLe — a name that, through various historical transmutations, such as DiGLe, 
DidJLeh, TiGLe, and TiGRE [Tigrdm, in Persepolitan inscriptions), is inherited by us 
in its euphonized Latin form — the TIGRIS. 

The Test therefore reads literally — the Tigris, "ipse vadens KDMT< [ante) ASUR;" 
Parisian debate turned upon the meaning of KDMTi; by English interpreters ren- 
dered "East;" — a translation which, if true, (as dogmatism had maintained,) would 
place the city of Nineveh, built in the land of ASUR [Gen. x. 11), on the west bank 
of that river; supposing always that the river lay to the east of it (Assyria). And 
thus " Holy Scripture" was triumphantly quoted to prove that, inasmuch as Nineveh 
was situate west of the Tigris, the vast exhumations of Botta, Layard, Place, and 
Rawlinson, on the eastern bank, which people fondly supposed to have been executed 
in ante-diluvian Assyria, not having been made on the site of Nineveh at all, the whole 
of these discoveries, in regard to Nineveh, fell to the ground! 

But, Mrs. Rich and St. Jerome naively tell us — • "It is one thing to write history, 
and another to write prophecy under the immediate effect of inspiration." If "a 
prophet is not without honor, but in his own country, and among his own kin, and in 
his own house " [Mark vi. 4) ; that is, among those mortals who happen to know him 
best ; — the unfortunate scholar alluded to can hope for little elsewhere ; since De 
Longperier established : — 

1st. That Herodotus has nowhere connected the Tigris with Assyria. 

2d. That neither the Septuagint, nor the Vulgate, any more than the Hebrew Text, 
justifies such a reading as " East" in Genesis ii. 14. 

3d. That KDMTi here meaning simply " en avant vers," the true signification of 



HEBRET7 NOMENCLATURE. 535 

this passage must be, in English, " the Tigris, flowing in front ioicards (say opposite) 
Assyria." 

Our digression introduces another difficulty. Between the land of ASUR in lid Gene- 
sis, and ASUR in Genesis Xth, rolls the Flood ; which, contrary to the sophistries of 
the Rev. Dr. J. Pye Smith, we wholly agree with the " Friend of Moses," and the 
writer of Genesis Vllth, in considering to have been universal. If geology, in the XlXtli 
century after Christ, discovers phenomena which prove Diluvian motnentaneous tiniver- 
sality to be impossible, so much the worse iov geologists. But to attribute to Hebrew 
authors living long subsequently to the XlXth century b. c, the intrepid concep- 
tions of modern geology, is to commit a most gross historical anachronism ; besides 
inventing a doctrine utterly irreconcilable with the plain square-letters of the Hebrew 
Text. We would therefore merely inquire of the orthodox geologist whether he con- 
siders the land of ASUR, along which ran the river Tigris before the universal Flood, 
to have been specified (by Moses) proleptically or retroleptically ? His reply would 
enlighten us upon one of two propositions. If this Hebrew "scholar and statesman," 
as the Friend of Moses terms him, had before his eyes, as some maintain, certain docu- 
ments written by ante-diluvian patriarchs, then ASUR, in such manuscripts, must 
have been the geographical appellative of a country existing before the Flood ; which 
country, after the waters had passed away, emerged as ASUR, along with its river Tigris, 
on the same terrestrial area, in order to be catalogued by the writer of Xth Genesis 
among other countries existing in his later day. Or, if Moses was enlightened upon events 
anterior to his lifetime through " Divine inspiration," then we possess the authority of 
the Most High (through Moses) for sustaining that, ASUR, having been the geographi- 
cal name of a country years before the Deluge, and centuries before " Ashur, son of 
Shem," was born, the writer of Xth Genesis was right in mapping the "land of 
ASUR" as a country, according to its ante-fluviatile acceptation in Genesis ii. 14 — a 
country, too, wherein the masterly geological researches of Ainsworth could discover no 
traces of any Noachian Flood. That which remains certain is, that ASUR was already 
a country, according to the letter of Scripture itself, whensoever, or by whomsoever, 
or wheresoever, Xth Genesis was written ; and, for our researches, " for us, that is 
enough." — " That you should wish to call Moses author of the Pentateuch, or Esdeas 
the restorer of this same work, I do not object," philosophically wrote St. Jerome. 

The name of ASUR, in unpunctuated Hebrew, becomes AS/iUR through rabbinical 
marks ; and passing through different dialects and ages, as ATiUR, ATUR, ATURw, 
A//iURA, ASSURta, &c., it is now written Assyria by ourselves. But, while modern 
Chaldee Jews have preserved in Athour the correspondent of Ashour as intonated by 
their forefathers, cuneiform scholars have discovered, in the land of ASAUR itself, the 
indigenous name, petroglyphed Assour, upon innumerable records disinterred from the 
mounds of Khorsabad and Nimroud. 

Kings of the "country of ASUR" are now well-known personages to readers of 
Botta, Layard, Rawlinson, De Longp^rier, De Saulcy, Hincks, Birch, Grotefend, Lowen- 
stern, Oppert, Norris, Vaux, Eadie, or Bonomi ; and having been found upon sculptures 
coeval with the epoch of Jehu, king of Israel, ASUR was already the name of Assyria 
early in the ninth century b. c. : an age, we think, nearly parallel with the compilation 
of Xth Genesis. These now-familiar topics need no pause ; but some of those things 
which are less so demand notice in tracing ASUR to its primeval source. Rawlinson 
finds in Assarac, (Assarak, Asserah,) "god of Assyria" ■ — -the deified proto-patriarch 
of that land — called in the inscriptions "father of the gods," "king of the gods," 
"great ruler of the gods;" whose mythological characteristics are those of Kronos 
or Saturn. " I should suppose him, as head of tlie Pantheon, to be represented by th.it 
particular device of a winged figure in a circle, which was subsequently adopted by the 
Persians to denote Okmuzd, the chief deity of their religious system." And we may now 
leave hagiography to rejoice over possible connections between the divine Assarac and 
Ashur the son of Shem, among those of other genealogies of Xth Genesis ; which doc- 



536 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

ument Rawlinson does not consider anything more than "an historical representation 
of the great and lengthened migrations of the primitive Asiatic race of man." More 
recently we learn from Layard how — " Asshur, the king of the circle of the great 
gods," heads the list of the thirteen great gods of Assyria, at Nimroud. At Babylon, 
however, the god Marduk is termed "the great lord," "lord of lords," "elder of the 
gods," &c. ; and Ashur no longer appears, being the god of upland Assyria, and not 
of the Babylonian plains. 

The cuneiform documents upon which AS/iUB, figures as a native mythological per- 
sonage approach in antiquity the era of Moses. The hieroglyphical records in which 
A-su-ru occurs as the Egyptian name of Assyria, surpass, by two hundred years, the 
age of the Hebrew lawgiver, because Birch discovers it upon inscriptions of the time 
of Amunoph III [su/ira, p. 133, fig. 32]. Space now prevents the demonstration that, 
among its various symbolical meanings, A-SUR signifies also " the-Bull-la,nd;" but the 
writer (G. R. G.) will publish the reasons elsewhere. In the interim, to the author of 
Xth Genesis, ASAUR meant the country by us called Assyria — nothing more nor less.632 

48. l^^^DSI}^ — ARPAKSD — 'Arphaxad.' 

"Akphaxad (ARPAaKSaD; Sept. 'Ap^a^rf^), the son of Shem, and father of Salah; 
born one year after the Deluge, and died b. c. 1904, aged 438 years (Gen. xi. 12, &c)." 

Eequiescat in pace! 

Such is the terse obituary notice, — unaccompanied by the customary poetical regrets, 
or general invitation to attend the funeral, — a divinity student encounters when, seek- 
ing for instruction about the Savior's genealogy, he opens Kitto's cyclopaedia or Tay- 
lor's Calmet (the best English biblical dictionaries) at the name Abphaxad : and this 
is all. A noble cenotaph ! We close those devout, not to say laborious, compendia, 
and turn to Volney's Eecherc7i.es Nouvelles. 

"A fifth people of Sem is Araf-Kashd, represented in the canton Arra-Pachiiis of 
Ptolemy, which is a mountainous country, at the south of the Lake of Van, whence 
stream forth the Tigris and the Lycus or great Zab. This name signifies boundary of 
the Chaldcean, and seems to indicate that the Chaldseans, before Ninus, had extended 
themselves even thither. This Aeaph-Kashd, according to Josephus, was father of 
the Chaldseans ; according to the Hebrew, he produced Shelah, whose trace, as city, 
and country, is found in the Salacha of Ptolemy. Shelah produced Ebbr, father of 
all the peoples on the other side of the Euphrates ; but if we find him on this side, rela- 
tively to Judsea, we have the right to say that this antique tradition comes from Chal- 
dsea." Our analyses of Xth Genesis entirely corroborate Volney's deductions of its 
Chaldaic derivation ; and justify Lenormant's orthodox eulogies of him as " un des 
hommes les plus p6n6trants de ce sifecle." From the latter we take the following note — 
" Josephus had made, before MiCHiELis, of Arphaxad, the father of the Casdim or 
Chaldseans. M. Bohlen explains Arrapachitis by the Sanscrit: Aryapakschatct, the 
country bordering upon Aria. This etymology is not unworthy of attention." 

There is little to be added to Volney's definition; and that little confirms him. 
ARPA-KaSD — after dividing into two words that which in the Hebrew ancient Text 
(Synagogue rolls) runs letter after letter, " continua serie," along the whole line — 
yields us, as Michaelis first suggested, ARFA, the Arabic for boundary, and KASD, 
Chaldcean. The etymology is in unison with Aramaean origines ; and Arphaxad was 
the brother of Aram: while Bochart's identification of it with the province of Arrapa- 
chitis of Ptolemy's geography also stands; but perhaps not with "nam quod Josephus 
et alii volunt Chaldoeos olim ab eo dictos Arphaxadceos merum somnium est." 

It is strange how Oriental tradition clings to the vicinities of Ararat as the moun- 
tainous birthplace of Chaldaic races. There we find the Heden (Eden) of Genesis Ild, 
and "the house of Eden" extant in the time of the prophet Amos (i. 5); while an- 
other writer tells us how "Haran Canne, and Heden, have made trafl5c with what 
came from Seba, and Assyria learned thy traffic " {Ezek. xxvii. 23). 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 537 

There, too, was the Ha'iasdan of the Armenians ; and there the HadcnSche 'whicli 
Zoroaster ennobled by the title of the "pure Iran" because his birthplace was at 
Ourmi, on the border of Lake Ourmiah. " There," continues Dubois, "is the antique 
native-land of Arpacsad and of the Hebrews: and their patriarch Abraham, like Zo- 
roaster, was born at Our, on the shores of Lake Ourmiah, in Chaldsea. There touches 
also Iran, Arhan, the land of Persian mj'thes." In which connection let us likewise 
add, that the river Akhourian, whose sources lie on the same chain, still bears the 
name of ARPA-Tchai. But we suggest a melioration. 

Abphakasd, as a country In Xth Genesis, is the parental source, through the province 
of Salacha, of Eber, the yonderer ; and from the latter, according to the other docu- 
ment (Gen. xi. 13-26), sprang Abraham, progenitor of the Abrahamidce ; born pro- 
bably at Our Kasdlm, " J7r of the Chaldees," whence they issued "to go to the land 
of Kanaan." It is true that Mr. Loftus considers the enormous ruins of Werka to be 
the real " Ur of the Chaldees," now traditionally called " the birthplace of Abraham ;" 
nor would the establishment of this fact result in any further alteration of our view 
than by proving (what is very likely) that AKP/ia-KaSD was a different place from 
AUR-KaSDIM. The name " Chaldsean" is also ancient enough, having been found in 
cuneiform on the monuments of Nineveh. 

Be all this as it may, there still remains one " Ur of the Chaldees," AUR-KSDIM 
in the text, which is unquestionably, as shown by Ritter and by Ainsworth, the pre- 
sent city and district of Urhoi, now Or/a, or URPAA (called, in Greco-Roman times, 
Chaldceopolis, Antiochia, Callirhoe, and Edessa), in Did.rbeh\r. Allowing very common 
mutations of vowels, we behold in Urfa, or ARPAa, ARPAa-KaSD, " Orfa of the 
Chaldxan," the absolute solution of Arphaxad, no less than the earliest geographical 
source of the AbrahamidcB. 

Thus, at every step, the chorographic exactitude of Xth Genesis is vindicated ; and 
ARPAaKaSD, no more a fabulous human being, regains its legitimate heritage among 
the countries of the earth. To the " late Mr." Arphaxad, " aged 438 years," we 
repeat our valedictory, " requiescat in pace ! " 633 

49. TlS — LUD — 'LuD.' 

The high road from Nineveh, in the land of ASUR, Assyria, conducts a traveller 
towards Asia Minor, through ARFA-KASD, Chaldcean-Orfa, into Lydia ; — a name 
which, in its Greek spelling of Au^m, faithfully transcribes the Hebrew LUD-i'a. 

This country derives its name, according to traditions collected by a native of Asia 
Minor, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, from Lydus, son of Atys ; whose crown passed 
into the keeping of Hercules. This legend indicates the ante-historical ground we 
tread upon ; and probably the intrusion of Hellenic JlieraclidcB upon an aboriginal 
Lydian population, affiliated with the Shemites. The recent explorations of Fellows 
and the Lycian monuments now rescued from perdition, establish, in the most con- 
vincing manner, the transitions of art in all its symbolism, through Asia Minor, from 
Assyria to Greece ; and the mythe of the Assyrian Hercules serves as a faithful thread 
through the mazes of this labyrinth : which mythe, Grote observes, exhibits but the 
" tendency to universal personification" — being merely "MuSos, Saga — an universal 
manifestation of the human mind." 

But, from the premises, one deduction is solid, viz. : that Herodotus, than whom in 
Lydian questions there is no higher authority, makes Hercules succeed Lydus — the 
personified land of Lydia. Now, inasmuch as the mythe of Hercules antedates all chro- 
nology, it follows that Herodotus, who says that Lydus preceded the Hieraclidee, looked 
upon the autocthonous name and traditions of Lydia as still more remote from his own 
day ; b. c. 484-430. To us, therefore, the Halicamassian's testimony, upon the ante- 
historical affairs of his native Asia Minor, would ipso facto outweigh any notices of 

68 



538 THE 5th chapter OF GENESIS. 

Lydia issuing from the "School of Esdras" in Palestine (foreign to Lydian blood, lan- 
guage, and traditions), should the latter contradict him : which, happily, they do not. 

The compiler of Xth Genesis, educated, as we now begin to feel assured, amid the 
"learning of the Chaldees," attributes no afiBliations to the geographical locality he 
designates LUD ; any more than, in his classification of the senior JIamidce [ver. 6), 
he ascribes descendants to PAUT ; which, we have seen, is Barhary. This engenders 
the supposition that he knew little beyond the names of either ; and that just as to 
him, composing his ethnic chart in some University of Clialdsea, PAUT appeared to 
be the most western geographical range of Hamitic migrations, so LUD probably 
seemed to lie among the most northerly of Semitic. As such, then, he duly registered 
them in his inestimable chorography. 

Some centuries prior to the age of this venerable digest, the Lydians are mentioned 
in Egyptian hieroglyphics. In the Asiatic conquests of Sethei-Meneptha, and of 
Eamses II., to say nothing of later Pharaohs, associated with lonians, Riphceans, and 
other well-known families of Asia Minor, we find the oft-recurring " Land of Ludenu," 
or " land of the upper Liiden," and " of the lower Luden." This establishes the exist- 
ence of Lydia and of Lydians at the XVIIIth dynasty, fourteenth — sixteenth centuries 
B. c. ; in days anterior to and coeval with Moses ; i. e., much earlier than the compilation 
of Xth Genesis. But (to avoid Mosaic conflictions with Egyptian records) it is best 
perhaps to ascend a few generations beyond modern disputes upon the era of the He- 
brew " scholar and statesman ; " when by pointing out LUD and Lydians in chronicles 
appertaining to the anterior XVIIth dynasty, we show that Amunoph II., Thotmes 
III., and Amunoph III., successors of that "new king over Egypt which knew not 
Joseph" (Ex. i. 8), could not readily have heard of Moses's Lydian geography before 
the great lawgiver was born. Posterior in epoch to the former, and anterior to the 
latter dignitary, these Pharaohs of the XVIIth dynasty knew nothing about either 
Joseph or Moses. 

Nor is history wanting to support the early spread of Egyptian arms into Asia 
Minor ; for besides a confused aggregation of events of different ages to be met with 
in every classical lexicon under the head of " Sesostris," we have the authentic ac- 
count of Tacitus that the Priests of Thebes read to the Emperor Germanicus, from 
hieroglyphical inscriptions, how " Ramses overcame Libya, Ethiopia, the Medes and 
the Persians, Bactriana, and Scythia, and held sway over the lands which the Syrians, 
Armenians, and neighboring Cappadocians, inhabit from Bithynia up to the Lycian Sea." 

We cannot quote authority for the discovery of the name LUD in cuneiform writings ; 
unless Ludenu be the same as the " Rutcnnu " of the " Grand Procession of Thotmes 
III." \_svpra, p. 159], which Birch fixes, in hierogl3'phical geography, "north of the 
Great Sea," and compares with the Assyrian king Sargina's prisoners at Khorsabad. 

However, LUD, being identical with Lydia, enters, like the rest, as a geographical 
appellative into the catalogue of Xth Genesis ; and the cyclopaedic notion that, from a 
man called LUD, " the Lydians in Asia Minor derived their name," ranks among the 
childish postulates belonging to an age of which science now hopefully discerns " the 
beginning of the end." 63i 

50. DIkS — AEM— 'Aram.' 

Orthodox lexicography informs us that Akam means "highness, magnificence ; other- 
wise, one thai deceives, or their curse." In this instance the erudition of "N. M." com- 
pensates for the meagre article by " J. P. S." in Kitto's cyclopaedia. 

It has been shown already that Quatremfere doubts Mover's derivation of ARM; 
which the latter considers to mean a high land, in juxtaposition to KNAaN, a low land. 
Still, the objection assigned by the former is inconclusive, because RM does actually 
signify high ; and with the primeval masculine article aleph. A, prefixed, A-RM is 
the-high. Certain it is, also, that the geographical brother of Arpha-Kasd, "Orfa of the 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 539 

Chaldsean," and of Lydia, must be sought for along the same Tauric uplands of Asia 
Minor; where ARM lay among the "mountains of the east" [Numb, xxiii, 7). In 
Punic, also, the same word means high ; for M. Judas reads on Numidian coins, Juba 
KOUM nielkat = " Juba, highness of the realm." 

Diodorus's kfi/ia iSpt] or Arimi 3[onics, suggest themselves at once ; although authorities 
disagree upon their location, in Phrygia, Lydia, Mysia, Cilicia, or Syria : but Strabo 
and Josephus inform us that the Greeks called Syrians those people who called them- 
selves ^ jamasaws ; and when Homer and Hesiod wrote, the Api//oi extended to Phrygia, 
which they termed Arimdia. Syria, therefore, in its widest acceptation, seems best 
to correspond to ARM, because the latter merges into Mesopotamia ; and in Pliny and 
Pomponius Mela the name of Syria is applied to provinces even beyond the Euphrates 
and Tigris. 

As the grand centre of Shemitish families, Syria still preserves the name of SAeM 
in its Oriental appellative ; being known to Syrians and the populations around them 
by no other title than BtiR-Es-SAaM, la?id of Shem. Arab geography explains this 
coincidence by reasons worthy of attention. Sham means the left hand, and Yemeen 
(Yemen in Arabia), the right; as, face directed to the East, an Arabian worshipped the 
rising sun ; or looked back to ARM as the traditionary birthplace of his ancestry 
before, by emigration to Arabia, they had acquired the right to call themselves aRB, 
viestern-m^n. Damascus, Es-Shdm el-kebecr, " the great Sham," may perhaps be the 
focus of these ancient radiations : for its identity with Akam is marked in the passage 
— " The AB.aMwns of Damascus came to succor Hadadezer king of Sobah, &c. (2 Sam. 
viii. 5. 6) — the versions generally substituting Syrians for Aramceans. 

So extensive was the range of ARM in ancient geography that, to distinguish its 
divisions, a qualifying name was generally appended to it: thus, &c/cA-ARM, the 
"field of Aram," Parfon-ARM, the "plain of Aram," and ARM-iVa/iaraim, "Aram of 
the two rivers," refer to parts of Mesopotamia: KKM-Damashk was a Damascene 
territory; ARM-5o6a/i, probably Cilicia; KBM.-Maakah, east of the Jordan; and 
AKlsi-beth-Rekhub, on which authorities vary. ARMI, an Aramoian, is a Syrian in one 
scriptural text (2 Kings v. 20). It is a Mesopotamian in another {Gen. xxv. 20). 

Aramcean was the speech of the patriarchal Abrahamidoe, when abandoning ARPAa- 
KaSD, or its equivalent AUR-KaSDim (Chaldasan Orfa, or Ur of the Chaldees), they 
arrived in the land of Kanaan ; where, forgetting their ancestral idiom, they adopted 
and misnamed Ilebrew " the language of Kanaan," or Phanician. 

Thus, from Arabia Deserta to the confines of Lydia, from Syria, over Mesopotamia, 
to Armenia, do we meet with infinite reliquice of Aram : without being able, after four 
or five thousand years of migrations, to mark on the quicksands of Aram(Ban geography 
any more specific locality for ARM, than Syria in its most extended sense. 

Hieroglyphical researches do not aid us to a more definite ascription of ARM. In 
the Vatican Museum, the statue of a priest bears the inscription — "His majesty. 
King Darius, ever living, ordered me to go to Egypt, while his majesty was in ARMA" : 
supposed to be Assyria. Nor, in Persepolitan cuneiform records or in those of As- 
syria, has any more positive identification of ARM been discovered and published than 
what may exist in Arm'ina, Arama, &c., considered to be Armenia — a country in 
whose name ARM is also preserved. 

The writer of Xth Genesis may or may not have had more precise views upon ARM ; 
which he set down with its parallels, Assyria, Orfa, nnd Lydia, on his invaluable chart, 
and then proceeded to tabulate those tribes of the Semitic stock that looked back upon 
the land of ARM as their birthplace. 6^5 



51. pi' 



"And the affiliations of ARM." 
,» — dUTs— 'Uz.' 

In Gen. x. 23, the four names after ARM are called BeNI-ARM; i. e., "sons of 



540 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 

Aram" ; but, in 1 Chron. i. 17, the same four are catalogued as BeNI-SAeM; that is, 
" sons of Shem." 

Hence one of two conclusions is submitted to hagiography. Either the writer of 
Chronicles follows a different genealogical list from that of Xth Genesis — in which 
case we are at a loss to which document to ascribe " plenary inspiration" — or (as we 
maintain with every Orientalist) the word BeNI (sons) does not mean, whether in the 
former or in the latter text, the bona fide offspring of a man called Aeam, or of a man 
called Shem ; but simply a general affiliation; such as in English we comprehend by 
Wilkin-sore ; or by Fitz-Gerald, i/c-Donald, O'-Brien, J^-Shenkyn, &c. 

aVTs, first of the four, cannot well have been Shem's son and grandson at one and 
the same time ; unless it be claimed that Shem wedded his own daughter : an escape not 
provided for in either text ; and if it were, what becomes of Aram's paternity ? Again, 
an imaginary human being called SAeM could not physically have been progenitor of a 
country called Akam. Common sense, however, based upon the spirit of familiar Ori- 
ental personifications, finds no contradiction between the authors of Xth Genesis and 
of 1 Chronicles; to whom (jUT« and his three figurative brethren, as BeNI, "afl&lia- 
tions," were colonies or emigrants from an especial land termed ARaM ; itself classi- 
fied generically among countries occupied by Shemilish families. 

This example, we presume, suffices to show the absurdity of seeing human indivi- 
duals where the writer of Xth Genesis catalogued naught but countries, cities, and 
tribes, after the symbolical names " Shem, Ham, and Japheth." — But, our difficulties 
end not here. 



Genesis X. 
F. 23— And sows of ARaM, alJTs, and 
KAUL, and GT<R, and MaSA. 



A third SUTs occurs among the de- 
scendants of Esau {Gen. xxxvi. 28). 



Genesis XXII. 

20 — Milcah has also given sons to 

Nahor thy brother. 

21 — flUTs his first born, and BUZ 

his brother, and K M U A L , 
Father of ARaM. 

22 — And KaSD— (i. e. Chaldxa) &c. 



With three distinct personifications (above exhibited), each called alJTs, it is next 
to impossible for a commentator to avoid equivoques ; and the country, or tribe, of 
one aUTs may be erroneously assigned to either of the two others ; even without sup- 
posing mistakes in the two later genealogical lists; which discrepancies, however, do 
not otherwise concern us. Xth Genesis, in every instance, has stood the test of 
critical geography heretofore ; and errors in this case are ours, not its venerable 
compiler's. 

Nevertheless, in the second list [Gen. xxii.), fiUTs becomes the uncle of ARAM ; 
whereas in Xth Genesis he is the latter's son: while KaSD, Chesed, (singular of 
KaSDIM, Chaldceans,) unmentioned by the former author, figures, in the latter's list, 
among the descendants of N.'Vhob, Abraham's brother. 

It is to the la7id, called aUTs in Xth Genesis, that Job's residence is generally 
assigned, owing to its proximity to Chaldaea ; wherefore the latter passage indicates a 
country, rather than a tribe — but in no case a man. 

These triple chances of error, above noticed, compel archaeology to be extremely 
wary in deciding to which of numerous Arabian resemblances of name we are to attri- 
bute the dVTs of Xth Genesis — or really " land of oUTs." Bochart ingeniously guessed 
the JEsitce, Ausitis, Ausite, of Ptolemy, in the Syrian desert towards the Euphrates; 
where the Idumsean Arabs Beni-Tamln have dwelt ; to whom Jeremiah exclaims — 
"Rejoice thee, daughter of Edom, who livest in the land of alJTs." Lenormant fol- 
lows Michselis in selecting Damascus. 

In Arab tradition, Owz was the parent of the lost Addite tribes ; and, assuming this 
wild legend to be historical, by dint of mistranslations Forster has raised a fabric of 
delusion exceeded only in extravagance by the same enthusiastic divine's Sinaic inscrip- 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 541 

tiona! It is in the ill-advised Appendix to his excellent Geography, entitled " Hadra- 
mfttic Inscriptions," that this erudite Orientalist lost his balance when supposing that, 
in these very modern Himyarile petroglyphs, he found himself " conversing, as it -were, 
•with the immediate descendants of Shem and Noah, not through the doubtful medium 
of ancient history, or the dim light of Oriental tradition, but in their own records of 
their own annals, ' graven with an iron pen, and lead, in the rock for ever ! ' " He 
translates the second line of Wellsted's short inscription as follows : " Aws assailed 
the Beni-Ac, and hunted [them] down, and covered their faces with blackness." 

Happy, indeed, though not perhaps to the pious extent of the Rev. Mr. Forster, 
should we be to recognize 3UT« in these inscriptions ; but some trifling obstacles inter- 
vene. Suppose, for instance, that the Hadramautic inscription (No. 4), read into Arabic, 
should say nothing of the kind ? Ex. gr., that which Forster translates ^^Aws assailed 
the Beni-Ac," &c., should be, according to Hunt, "the effeminate youths are adorned 
and perfume their garments and strut proudly " ! And suppose, that the language 
in which these inscriptions of Hisn Ghorab are written, being the old Ehkfeelee or Cush- 
ite tongue, does not admit of their being transcribed directly into Arabic idioms at all ! 
Fresnel, the Himyarite discoverer " par excellence," gives the same inscription (No. 4), 
in Arabic letters, but has ventured no translation. These suppositions Forster, so far 
as we can learn, has never taken notice of; but goes on translating anything and 
everything into an Arabic " sui generis," with the same serene composure that Father 
Kircher, two centuries ago, read oflf at sight ( ! ) those identical Sinaic inscriptions on 
•which Forster has latterly exercised his orthodoxy without mentioning the labors of 
his Herculean prototype. 

SUTs, under these circumstances, remains on our hands. Probabilities favor the 
^sitce, Ausitis, of Ptolemy the geographer ; and Job's '• land of SUTs," on the Arabian 
frontier of Chaldaea, seems to answer best to the Aramcean analogies of Xth Genesis. 
fiUTs, we infer, was a tribe.^^ 



52. 



Sin— KAUL — 'HuL. 



We enliven the reader with orthodox lexicography as we proceed — " Hul, pain, 
infirmity, bringing forth children, sand, or expectation ! " 

Most authorities abandon K/tUL in despair : but Grotius indicated that a Coelo- 
Syrian city called Chollce by Ptolemy might represent KAUL ; and Bochart noticed the 
frequency of this word in the Armenian localities of Cholua, Choluata, Cholimma, and 
Cholobetene; which last might be an Hellenic corruption of KhVL-Beth, "house of 
KAUL." Recent researches favor the adoption of the "land of Huleh," in which is 
the Lake Huleh, at the north of Palestine.637 

53. -inj — GT<R — 'Gether.' 

Koranic tradition execrates the memory of " Thamoud, son of Gather, son of the 
Aram," among ante-historical tribes distinguished for their idolatry : but nothing can 
exceed the vagueness of these legends. 

Gadara, the metropolis of the Perasa, east of the Jordan, and one of the cities of 
Decapolis, has been assumed to represent GT<R. Here the well-known miracle of the 
" swine " is said to have been performed. There are many other places whose names, 
with the slightest modifications, answer equally well : among them, Katara, a town 
and district placed by Ptolemy on the Persian Gulf, sufiBciently important to have 
become the bishopric of Gadara. 

Gaddir, in Kanaanitish dialects (according to Pliny and Solinus, also in the " Punica 
lingua") meaning a hedge, limit, boundary, or " a place walled-round," renders the 
confusion still more perplexing ; for in countries traversed by Phoenician caravans, 
and occupied by their factors, any form of GT^R is as likely to have signiiied frontier 
or station, as to be derived from the tribe called GT<R in Xth Genesis.638 



542 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

54. tJ'D — MS — 'Mash.' 

Besides the discrepancy, above removed, between Xth Genesis and the parallel in 
1 Chronicles (i. 17), in regard to the afiSliations of these four names from Shem, or 
from Aram ; here is another, that cannot be explained save through an error of some 
copyist. Who can really tell whether we should transpose MSKA into Xth Genesis, or 
MS into 1 Chronicles ? [Supra, p. 473.] Two reasons, however, seem to justify the 
accuracy of the former text: one that a MSK is already mentioned among the " sons 
of Japheth " (ver. 2) ; and therefore the repetition of a similar name amid the Shem- 
ites is improbable: the other that the chart of Xth Genesis is the " editio princeps," 
of older and more standard authority than the books called Chronicles. 

The Maccz, on the peninsula of the Persian Gulf whereon now stands the derivative 
city of Unseat — the Masmi Arabs in Mesopotamia ; the Masani near the Euphrates ; 
and the Massoniice of Yemen ; might entice inquiries : but, we think their habitats some- 
what distant from the localities where Aramoean tribes appear to group ; especially as 
MSA, ifassa, descended from Ishmael (Gen. xx\. 14), may well assert its right to the 
latter lineage. 

We cannot amend the old view of Bochart and of Grotius, that this Aramaean tribe 
survives about Mt. Masius ; along Xenophon's river Masca; in the Masieni of Ste- 
phanus, and perhaps the Moseheni of Pliny ; all of which point to Upper Mesopotamia 
as the camping-ground of MaSA.639 

" Aiid ARPAa-KaSD engendered SLKA, and SLKA engendered 
aEBR " {Gen. x. 24). 

55. nSt:'— SLK^ — 'Salah.' 

Orfa in Diarbekir has been already demonstrated to be the fountain-source Arpha- 
Kasd, "Chaldseaa Urfa," and no other than the true AUR-KaSDIM, " Ur of the 
Chaldees ; " whence flow the earliest traditions of the Abrahamidse. 

aEBR, the yonderer, third in descent, seems to show either that a displacement had 
taken place before the name itself could well have been assumed; or that the appel- 
lative "yonderer" is an ex post facto attribution — the consequence of a migration that 
had previously taken effect. 

Between these two names, Orfa as a fixed geographical point, and -E'ier "he who 
has gone beyond," stands SLK/i ; transcribed Salah in king James's version : perhaps 
in this instance with more propriety than according to the vulgar Masoretic Shelah ; 
which is suggested as the marginal reading. 

Sela of Ammianus Marcellinus, or Scle of Ptolemy, a city in Susiana, has received the 
concurrence of many commentators. Others consider SLKA unknown. If Volney's 
suggestion of the city and territory called Salacha by Ptolemy be not the most probable 
halting-place of the EBERi when they had left Chaldean Orfa, the ignorance of 
every body consoles us for ours.^*" 

56. -131^ — :gBR, or rather ezBR—'HEBBR,' 

[The impossibility of transcribing the letter Gnain of the Hebrews, atn of the Arabs, 
into any European alphabet, has been noticed by me long ago. As a general prin- 
ciple, I follow the rules of Lane in these substitutions ; but unless a European hears 
the sound of Qin orientally articulated, his imagination can realize its phonetism as 
little as his adult voice can enunciate it. — G. R. G.] 

Etymologioally, fiBB signifies " one of the other side," or " the yonder-land /" whilst 
£BRI, a "■' yonderer," or " a man from the other side," has precisely the same radical 
as the Greek Yvsp, Latinized into Iber (Ibcres, Iberian) ; equivalent to trans, ultra, &c. 

"IlEBEB (n^i?, one of the other side; Sept. 'KI3cp and 'E/?£/i), son of Salah, who 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 543 

became the father of Peleg at the age of 34 years, and died at the age of 464 {Gen. 
X. 24 ; xi. 14 ; 1 Cliron. i. 25). His name occurs in the genealogy of Christ [Luke 
iii. 35). Thei-e is nothing to constitute Heber an historical personage; but there is a 
degree of interest connected with him from the notion, which the Jews themselves 
entertain, that the name of Hebrews applied to them, was derived from this alleged 
ancestor of Abraham. No historical ground appears why this name should be derived 
from him rather than from any other personage that occurs in the catalogue of Shem's 
descend^pts ; but there are so much stronger objections to every other hypothesis, that 
this perhaps is still the most probable of any which have yet been started." 

If the authors of this volume had written the above scientific expose, it would have 
been seized upon as another instance of " skeptical views " (save the mark !) ; but the 
initials "J. N." appended to the above aj-ticle in Kitto are those of a profound Ger- 
mano-Hebraist, the Rev. Dr. John Nicholson of Oxford. 

Archseologically, the name !EBR marks a displacement, or dislocation, that must 
have occurred before such name could have been given or assumed. 

Of such dislocation the earliest notice is the march of the AbrahamidcB from Orfa- 
Chaldee to Harran (probably Carrm), in Mesopotamia, and thence to Kanaan : where 
the Kanaanites gave to Abraham, probably, the designation of EBR, as "he who 
comes from yonder-land," — transfluvianus, or " from the other side " of the Euphrates — 
■whence Hebrew, £BRI, became the cognomen of this family. Indeed, it is remarked 
that the title EBRIM, yonderers, Hebrews, was given to the Abrahamidae by foreign 
nations. They called themselves Israelites after Jacob's wrestling match at Phenuel ; 
and did not adopt that of " Hebrews " until many centuries later. 

We are dealing, therefore, in Xth Genesis — a document compiled at least five, 
if not ten, hundred years subsequently to the arrival of the earliest Abrahamidae in 
Kanaan — with a. people upon whom the name £BR had been imposed, " nolens volens " 
on their own part. Had the chorographer of Xth Genesis been a man of Abrahamic 
pedigree, he would probably have designated his own nation by its most honored title, 
"Israelite;" but, far from that, a Chaldcean composing his ethnic map in Chaldaea, 
naturally gives to £BR its radical sense of " yonderer ;" either because the Palestinic 
Abrahamidae were so termed by surrounding populations, or because they were then, 
to him, as !fiBeR-«m, "people who had gone beyond" the Euphrates. That there is no 
" prefiguration " (i. «., " cart before the horse ") in Xth Genesis, has been proven by the 
names Sidonian, Ilamalhian, &c. ; folks who could not well have been citizens of those 
cities, Sidon, Hamath, &c., until after the houses had been built: and inasmuch as 
these citizens are catalogued in the same document with llBR, the antiquity of the 
latter's registration is brought down to historical times ; long ages after that emi- 
gration from Chaldsean Orfa into Palestine through which the foi'eign application of 
" yonderers," given to Abraham's descendants, had originated. 

" Fama crescit eundo ;" and Oriental mythos — after Judaism, a little before the 
Christian era, had penetrated into Arabia ; and still more forcibly after Islamism, in the 
seventh century, had imbued pagan Arabians with extraneous traditions — assimilated 
£bER, now metamorphosed into a man and a. patriarch, to the Arab prophet Hood : 
who, in native Arabian tradition, plays a part somewhat like that which Moses does 
in Jewish ; being their earliest metahistorical Reformer. Who this Hood probably is, 
the profound investigations of Fresnel clearly indicate : — 

D/iU-NUAS, or Zhu-Nawdz, is the subject. " Caire, 12 3Iars, 1845. 

" The Greeks knew that Bacchus was Arabian, and have sought for the etymology 
of the name AuStoo-os, Dionysus, after their own fashion: they made of it 'the god of 
Nysa,' Nysa being a city of Arabia, or, as says Herodotus, of Ethiopia, where Bacchus 

was raised by the Nymphs About forty miles to the east of Zhafdr, the 

most ancient of all their (Arabiiiu) metropoles, and the site of the oldest Arabian civi- 
lization, is a mountain that Edrisi calls Lo&s, and that the inhabitants of Mahrah call 
Nous This mountain of Notts, near which is found, not the Eabr EoM, or 



544 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

tomb of Heber (£BR), but the Kahr Sdleh (that is to say, the tomb of the Father op 
HotTD, according to Arab notions) is the point where I place the birth of Bacchus ; in 
other words, the point of departure for those civilizing conquests of which the Arabs 
have preserved the remembrance. These conquests are not the act of a single man, 
or if one might so express oneself, 'of a single Bacchus.' Dhou-Ons or Bhou-Noila 
(in the oblique case, Dhi-Ons or Bhi-IVoils), Dhou 'I Karneyn (the man with the two 
horns), Afrikis (the god-father of Africa), Lokman, &c., &c., are to me so many per- 
sonifications of Bacchus ; and if you must absolutely have a religious idfea pre-eiist- 
ent to Arab tings, a Bacchus outside of Yemenite dynasties, I should venture to tell 
you to seek for Bacchus in the tomb Salch (SLKA) [Gm. x. 24] under the Djabal- 
Noils. Bacchus then will be the father of the patriarch H6ber (EBE), of the Abra- 
hamidce and of the Joktanidce. 

" Will you mount up still higher? Aidmaos is (Hebraic^) DU-ANOSA, Dhou-Enosh 
(the god of the vulgar), or lastly, Enos himself. Ends, grandson of Adam. 
" Agr^ez, monsieur, &c., 

*'F. Feesnel." 

" A M. MoHt, Journal Asiaiique, Paris." 

Our researches do not require our accompanying M. Mohl into antediluvian regions. 
We are satisfied when shown that EBR in Xth Genesis is the natural appellation of a 
tribe; better known to modern science as source of the AbrahamidceM^ 

"And unto tHER were born two sons." 
57. jSiD — PLG — ' Pbleg.' 

" And the name of one (was) PLG," explains the author of Xth Genesis, "because 
in his day the earth was divided;" literally, " 'PLGed," split. In modern Arabic even, 
the identical word FLG means a " split," and "to split;" which again induces a smile 
at mystifications concerning a " sacred tongue," every third word of which exists in the 
Arabic ddrig, vernacular ; every second in the JVahwee, or Koranic idiom ; every one, 
in some form or other, by easily recognizable changes of consonant or vowel, in the 
Qamoos — the "Ocean" lexicon of Arabian literature. Any well-educated ^raS, we 
fear not to maintain, who could first peruse in some European tongue a few philoso- 
phical works on Hebrew literature and comparative philology, would master the 5642 
words counted (by Leusden) in this exaggerated Kananitish language, after devoting one 
day to its alphabet, in about a week. This doctrine no Shemitish Orientalist (no 
Lanci, no De Saulcy, no Quatremere, no Fresnel, no Rawlinson), will deny. " We 
have remarked in it," comments De Saulcy upon the Toison d'Or, a new Phoenician 
work by the Abb^ Bourgade, " a passage the justness of which we ought to applaud ; 
because, in order to write it, one must not have been scared by the scientific anathe- 
mas of certain too-exclusive savants. Here is this passage — 'It is therefore rational 
to make use of Hebrew, and of the other Aramaean idioms to explain the Punic : one 
may also use Arabic, another ramification of the Semitic family ; sometimes even it is 
indispensable to have recourse to this language, almost all Hebrew words being found 
within Arabic, either without modification, or with very slight modifications, sometimes 
in the form, at others in the sense, but not vice-versa; the language of the Koran 
being incontestably richer than that of the Bible.' " 

On the historical monstrosities erected upon this verse of Scripture, it is not for us 
to dwell. Pelagos, the Pelasgi, and Pelargos ; the " Sea," the " fossil people " as Nie- 
buhr beautifully calls them, or the " Stork," do not concern an alien Semitic bisyllable, 
whose simplest essence is Anglicfe a "split." We are loath to reject the Bochartian 
assimilation ot Phalga, a town on the Euphrates, near Charrce; which town, some say, 
is Haran, built by Abraham's brother, after his own death at Chaldcean-Orfa : just in 
the same way that Moses posthumously describes his own ever-unknown burial-place, 
his wake of thirty days, &c. {Deui. xsxiv. 5-12): but we venture to submit the 
following doubts: — 



HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 545 

1st. If by PLG, or PALG, the editor of Xth Genesis meant what, in every instance 
but the mythological NMRD, is herein proved to have been a country, a people, or a 
city, then the parenthetical passage, " because in his day the earth was split," may be 
a gloss by some later hand, — rationally suggested through paronomasia of the triliteral 
PLG " split," combined with impressions formed upon other documents by such inter- 
polator — the whole having been subsequently recast by the Esdraic school from which 
we inherit (every possible chance of intervening error and perversion inclusive) this 
verse of Xth Genesis. 

2nd. If it were shown that a gloss must be as unlikely as it is dangerous to the claims 
of plenary inspiration ; then, before we can perceive a necessity for supposing that the 
chorographer of Xth Genesis here alludes to the " Dispersion of mankind," we would 
inquire whether the words " (was) split the earth " do not refer to some local and ter- 
restrial catastrophe — an earthquake, for instance — that, occurring simultaneously, may 
have become traditionally coupled with a PLGwra migration. A similar catastrophe, 
introduced into Manetho's text in a similar manner, occurred under Bochus, 1st King 
of the second Egyptian dynasty, when " a huge chasm " was made at Bubastis. 

3rd, and lastly — If none of the above possibilities be satisfactory, then, falling back 
upon the indubitable orthodoxy of the Parisian Professor of Egyptian Archa3ology, we 
should perceive in the words " because in his day the earth (was) split," merely a par- 
tition of territory between the FLGian and the Joktanide affiliations of EBR the 
" yonderer." — " Of the two sons of this Patriarch, the first, Phaleg (holds Lenormant), 
indicating that part of the nation that continued to wander in Upper Mesopotamia ; 
Jectan, the second, shows us on the contrary the other portion of the same people which 
first set itself on a march towards the south." The verb " divide" occurs three times 
in the English version of Xth Genesis (5, 25, 32). It need scarcely be mentioned that, 
in the Hebrew, the play upon the word PLG "to split" presents itself only in verse 
25. The other two passages use a distinct verb, NP/tRDU, " they dispersed." 

"Hyg^otheses non fingo " — and as everything beyond the name of PLG, "split," 
is an hypothesis, we leave hagiography to "split hairs" on the question; merely 
insisting here that PLG has no relation whatever to a " Dispersion of mankind." 6i2 

68. ji3|T — IKTIS' — ' JoKTAN.' 

The compiler of Xth Genesis closed the ancestral line of the Abrahamidce, abruptly, 
with PeLeG, a " split." Yet to the pedigree of IKTN he devotes particular attention ; 
for, besides cataloguing thirteen of the latter's descendants, he adds, " all these are 
sons of IKTN " : and then fixes their dwelling-places. 

Why this difi^erence ? Were his partialities Arabian ? Did he know all about Arab 
migrations, and nothing of those of the Abrahamidce ? Had the writer been a "He- 
brew of the Hebrews," he would scarcely have blocked the "royal line of David " at 
PLG, "a split"; and thereby left to another hand, in another document {Gen. xi. 
18-26), at a later age, the task of linking Abraham's genealogy to his own ethnic map 
of nations and places. Here again, a foreigner to Judaism and Jews, our conjectural 
Chaldaean chorographer, "laisse percer le bout d'oreille." Such alien would not 
have greatly concerned himself with the A brahamidcB, a petty tribe that had wandered 
off to Kanaan ; and th.e writer of Xth Genesis did not : such alien would have taken 
much interest in the proceedings of the ever restless Joktanidce, always harrying the 
Mesopotamian frontier ; and the writer of Xth Genesis did. 

loKTaN, Joktan, Yoktan, or correctly Qahtdn, the Beni-Kahtdn — most ancient and 
renowned of all Semitish intruders upon the domains of Cushite-//jm?/(}r — need no 
panegyrist. They have ground their lance-heads upon every pebble " from Havilali to 
Shur, that is before Egypt, as thou goest towards Assyria." Their woollen tents are 
pitched from " Scphar, a mount of the east," at the south-western extremity of Arabia, 
even unto the declivities of Persian Uplands. Their Nedjdee horses still chase the wild 

69 



546 THE xth chaptek of genesis. 

ass, "gour," over the ■wildest tracts of Arabia's hdgar, "stone," desert: their drome- 
daries are precious at Cairo, Mecca, Aleppo, Bagdad, and Ispahan. From thera issued 
Mohammed ; whose Kordn is the monotheistic code of religious and moral law to 
above one hundred millions of mankind in Europe, Asia, Africa, and India's islands : 
their tongue; "the -pure Koriysh," for twelve centuries has been the envied attain- 
ment of poets, historians, and philosophers, of their own exalted race, and of its 
Arabian contemporaries during consecutive generations. 

By "Beni-Qahian," sons of IKTN, we have hitherto implied the Joktanides in general ; 
but the great tribe in Arabia now calling itself Beni-Kahtdn claims the direct lineage of 
this son of £BR. They are traced in ttieKataniice, Kithehanitce, a.nd Koiiabani, of Ptolemy; 
the Katabeni of Dionysius ; back to the Cattabanes, Kattabanum, of Eratosthenes in 
the third century b. c. : while their existence in Arabia is attested by the compiler of 
Xth Genesis many generations anterior to the age of the Cyrenian geographer. 

With the admirable tabulation of the " Settlements of Joktan," and the maps that 
Forster has appended to bis geography, the reader can verify for himself the accuracy 
of the following schedule of loKTaN's afl51iations.&'S 

"And loKTalST engendered" 
59. -niD^kX — ALMUDD — 'Almodad.' 

The Allumaeotce, Almodasei, X'Wov/iatarai, of Ptolemy, a people of central Arabia 
Felix, represent ALMUDaD by general consent. 6** 



60. r|S:r — SLP — ' Sheleph.' 



Ptolemy's /Safa^em, Salupeni, the Greek transposition of " ^cm-SeLePA," sons of 
Sheleph, are equally certain : now represented by the tribe of Metlyr ? ^^ 

61. nionvn — K^TsRMUT* — ' Hazarmaveth.' 

"Who, unacquainted with corrupt Chaldee vocalizations, foisted in the sixth century 
after Christ upon the old Hebrew Text (under the name Masoretic points), would see 
that the writer of Xth Genesis here wrote Khudramaiii? the very name which the 
Arabs still give to their province of Hadramhut, or KMzramot. 

This name, "in the Septuagint version, is written Sarmoih, the first syllable being 
dropped ; by St. Jerome (a well-versed Orientalist), in the Vulgate, written Asarmoih ; 
the article being incorporated with the name, or the aspirate omitted, conformably 
with the dialect of the Nabathseans ; by Pliny, Airamitce, and Chatram-oiilcc ; and by 
Ptolemy, Adramilce, Chalhramilce, and Chairamotiice or Catkramoniice" i no less than 
by Strabo. "So Hadramaut," comments Forster upon Bochart, "is modulated into 
Hazarmoveth, merely by the use of the diacritic points, ... an artifice," says this 
learned and reverend Orientalist, "allowedly, of recent and rabbinical invention." 

The tribe and territory of Hadkamaut being fully identified in Xth Genesis ; the 
only salient point of interest connected with its later history, is the mission — we fol- 
low Mr. Plate — -of a "priest of Nagrane, the capital of Christian Hadhramatit," to 
China, in the seventh century of our era ; whose successful voyage is attested by the 
bilinguar stone, in Chinese and Syriac (dated a. d. 782), discovered at Si-Gan-Fu in 
1G2.5 ; which inscription is reputed to be genuine. &i6 

62. ni» — IKKh — ' Jerah.' 

This tribe of Arabia, under the Arabic title of Yctreb-ben-QaJMn, " Ydreb son of 
Joktan ;" or of Aboo-l'-Yemien, " father of Yemen;" was pointed out by Golius, upon 
Arab authority, as " Pater populorum Arabiae Felicis ; primus Arabicce lingure auctor." 
Forster, continuing his emendations of Bochart, states that IRKA " in the LXX, is 
written 'la/ia;^; [Jarach) ; by St. Jerome, lare ; by the modern Arabs, Jerhd or Serhii 
(pronounced Jerchd, Sevcha) ; and also, as shall presently be shown, Sherah or Sheradje, 



I 

HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 547 

Screiu or Zoliran :" — a name thrice registered by Ptolemy, " in his Insula Jeraclmo- 
rum, on the Arabian Gulf, S. of Djedda, and in his Vicus Jerachoeorum, on the Lar or 
Zar river, in the \icinity of the Persian Gulf; a town and an island bearing in common 
this proper name, although separated from each other by a space of 15°, or more than 
one thousand geographical miles ! " 

It -was Bochart's acuity, as our author honestly remarks, that restored Ptolemy's 
fSaof 'Ufdx'^v, previously rendered insula accipilriim, or " the Isle of Hawks," to its patri- 
archal origin ; imula Jerachaorum, i. e., " the island of the Beni Jerah." But this father 
of European commentators on Xth Genesis did more. He showed that the Alilcei of 
Agatharcides were identical, not merely with the tribe Beni-IIilal of the Nubian 
geographer; but also with Ptolemy's " insula lerakiorum ;" for the reason that JTiteZ 
means " moon " in Arabic, just as Icrakh does in Hebrew. 

Most successfully does Forster exhibit the settlements of leRaKA within " a vast 
triangle, formed by the mouth of the Zar river, on the Persian Gulf; the town of Djar 
(the Zaaram reg. of Ptolemy) on the coast of the Hedjaz, twenty English miles south 
of Yembo ; and the district of Beni Jerah (part of the ancient Katabania), or the 
southwestern angle of the peninsula, terminating at the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb ;" 
and the probability that the great tribe, known as the Mincei in classical geography, 
belonged to IeRaKA-ia?i affiliations, is also by him perspicuously elucidated. ''*~ 

63. Dinn — IIDURM — 'Hadoram.' 

By Fresnel this name is considered to be the same as Djourhoum ; of whom Arabian 
tradition reckons an elder branch, the old Jorhamites, among extinct, and a younger, 
the Koranic Jorhamites, among existing families. Jorham is the " Arabum Hejazensium 
pater " of Pococke ; and Bochart associated the name with the Drimaii of Pliny, and 
with Cape Corodamon ; which last, by the facile transposition of D for R, is Cape 
Iladoramus, or of HDURM. Volney accepts Adrama for their natural representative; 
confirmed by Forster in Hadrama . and thus, carried onwards through the classical 
Chalramis, Dacharmmoizae. of Ptolemy, to the Dora and Dharrot of Pliny ; they are 
perpetuated in the modern town and tribe of Dahra : at the same time that Ras-el- 
Had now preserves one abbreviation of the name, and Bunder-'DouKU another — on 
the very promontory " Hadoramum " at the mouth of the Persian Gulf.fiJS 



64. SnN — AUZL — 'UzAL.' 



The native Jews of Sanaa, capital of Yemen, have abundantly borne witness that 
AUZaL was its ancient Arabian appellative, as, to this day, it is among themselves. 
The " Javan from AUZaL" of Ezekiel (xxvii. 19,) must be, therefore, as Volney and 
Forster unite in indicating, not Grecian Ionia, but a town in Yemen, now called Deifdn. 
Ocelis of Ptolemy, Ocila of Pliny, recognizable in the modern Cella ; together with 
Ausara, a town of the Gebanilce or Yemenites ; are relics of AUZaL long patent 
through the scholarship of Bochart.s^s 



65. nSpT — DEXH — 'DiKLAH.' 



In the Dulkheliice of Himyar, and the tribe Dlm-l-Kalaah of Yemen, Orientalists 
perceive this affiliation of Joklan ; that, perhaps, has carried along with it some re- 
membrance of an ante-historical sojourn on the Dikle, or Tigris: if, as Bochart, sug- 
gested, its name have no affinity to nukhl, a " palm tree." •=50 

66. S^IP — ""CTBL — ' OcAL.' 

Among nine names of existing Arab tribes identified by Fresnel with biblical appel- 
latives (after the rejection of more than forty of the latter as irrecognizable) Abil is 
one. But, it seems more than probable that a branch of these Joktanidoe crossed the 



I 

548 THE Xth chapter of genesis. 

narrow straits of Btib-el-Mandeb into Abyssinia, "Arabia Trogloditica ;" and gave 
their patronymic oUBaL, to the Aualites Sinus, Ahalites emporium, Avalita, and per- 
haps Adoulitce (D for B), on the African coast of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, 
recorded in classical geography. Volney sees them in Edreesee's Hobal; or in 
El-Hamza's Obil, that, with nine other tribes, succumbed, about 230 years a. c, in 
wars with Asdouan, Radowan, king of Persia, better known as the Sassanian Ardi- 
SHEER-^aJe^an.651 

67. SnD'DX — ABIMAL — ' Abimael.' 

ABI-MAL, in Arabic, is ^^ Father of MAL;" the meaning of which is also "posses- 
sion of properly ;" in allusion, perhaps, to the wealth accruing to this tribe from their 
occupancy of the myrrh, incense, balsam, and spice districts of Yemen. 

They are the Mali of Theophrastus, the Malichce of Ptolemy ; surviving in the town 
Malai, or el-Kheyf; not far from the tomb of Mohammed at Medeeneh.^^^ 

68. NDJT — SBA — 'Sheba.' 

The perplexities accruing to ethnic geography from the presence of four SBAs in 
the book of Genesis, three of them in the Xth chapter, have been set forth in our 
analysis of the namitic Saba of Himyar [ubi supra, p. 498] : nor is it possible to 
escape from confounding this Joktanide's properties with some of those that appertain 
to the former's inheritance. 

Nothing daunted, Forster says, " the Joktanite Sheba gave its origin, and his own 
name, to the primeval and renowned kingdom of the Sabaeans of Yemen." Perhaps 
he did. Possibly the Cushite SaBA may have done so before him. " Quien sabe ?" 
Nevertheless, " the concurrent testimonies of Eratosthenes, Dionysius Periegetes, 
Priscian, Festus Avienus, and others of the ancients," collected by Bochart, place the 
Sabceans between the Minsei and the Katabeni, at S&ba and M&reb : whilst the notice 
by Aboo'l-Feda that " Mareb was inhabited by the Beni-Kahlan," or Jokianida, really 
favors our author's somewhat peremptory identification of this SBA.653 

69. -|51N — AIJPR — 'Ophir.' 

A volume would not suffice to display the aberrations of intelligence printed on this 
name ! Some are exposed in Kitto and in Anthon. 

Munk very properly cuts short discussion by reminding those who see Ophir at 
Madagascar, Malacca, or Peru, that the writer of Xth Genesis places AUPR in the 
midst of the Arabian JoManidos : which doctrine Volney had previously sustained, 
and supported by vigorous researches that identified it with the ruined site of OpTior 
on the Persian Gulf. 

Bochart and Michsslis held the same judicious views ; and Forster has left nothing 
more to be desired ; by proving, once for all, that Ofor, a town and district of Oman, 
is the true AUPAiR of the Old Testament — that Pliny's "littus Hammseum ubi auri 
metalli" is the true Gold Coast of Solomon's expeditions — and that the whole of 
them are comprehended within the domains of the Joktanidcefi^ 



70. nSnn — KAUILH — 'Havilah. 



Our prefatory remarks on ASUR, and its ante-diluvian existence, apply with equal 
force to that "land of Hnvilah where (there is) gold," which, an universal Flood not- 
withstanding, now reappears exactly where it stood, antefluvially, on the gold-coast of 
Arabia. 

We are not free, either, from chances of error in attributing to the present K/iUILH 
(the Joktanide affiliation of Shem) some possessions that may have belonged to his 
namesake, K/jUILH the Cushite. 



) 

HEBREW NOMENCLATURE, 549 

However, the Nubian geographer indicated to Bochart (father of genesiacal geo- 
graphers) the country of Chaulan in Arabia Felix ; and Forster, with propriety selects 
the province of Khaul, south-east of Sanaa ( Uzal) ; site of Pliny's tribe of Cagulatce ; 
now inhabited by the Beni-K}ioi,AS. Its topography, moreover, in the immediate prox- 
imity of Omanite gold regions, satisfies the mineralogical exigenda of the proedlluvian 
"land of Havilah" demanded by the letter of Gen. ii. 11, 12; and insisted upon, as 
a preliminary step towards precision, by Volney.^^ 

71. 3DV — lUBB — 'JoBAB.' 

The lobaretai of Ptolemy, through the ready change of the Greek b into the Latin 
r, by a mistake of copyists, revealed themselves to Bochart as the Jobabita of Xth 
Genesis. But, " the flexible genius of the Arabic idiom " suf&ces to explain such dif- 
ference of pronunciation; and Forster triumphantly points out "the lobaritse of 
Ptolemy, in jSewi-JuBBAE, the actual name of a tribe or district, in the country of the 
Beni-Kahtan, south-east of Beishe, or Baisath Joktan, in the direction of Mareb ; and 
the original, or Scriptural form of this name, in i?ez?e-JoBnB or Jobab, the existing 
denomination of a tribe and district situated in the ancient Katabania, half-way be- 
tween Sanaa and Zebid" — Katabania being the Greek inversion of Beni-Qahtdn, the 
old JoKTANiD^j. " All these are sons of Joktan ; " wrote the venerable compiler of 
this precious ethnic chart, Xth Genesis, above 2500 years ago. 656 



We have shown that every name (but NIMROD's, which is mythological) in the Xth 
chapter of Genesis, excepting those of Noah and " Shem, Ham, and Japheth," is a per- 
sonification oi countries, nations, tribes, or cities: — that there is not a single "man" among 
the seventj'-nine cognomina hitherto examined. [N. B. The number 79 is obtained by 
adding the 8 cities, founded by Nimrod, to the 71 names above enumerated.] 

Abundant instances are patent, even in king James's version, where Israel, or Jacob, is 
put for all the Jeicish commnnity ; and so ASUR, for example, means Assyria in such pas- 
sages as "ASUR shall come as a torrent; ASUR shall arise like a conflagration; Jehovah 
will raise up ASUR against Moab, against Amman, against Judah, against Israel." Now, 
none will suppose that Asur, Moab, Amman, or Israel, are individuals, human beings. It 
is evident that these are collective names, employed according to the genius of Oriental 
minds and tongues. And upon whose authority, let us ask, must we modern foreigners 
ofi"end the spirit of old Oriental writers (apart from common sense itself), in order to find 
men in the seventy-nine ethnico-geographical appellatives of Xth Genesis ? 

That, in some instances, the name of an ante-historical founder of a nation has been per- 
petuated by the nation itself, no one denies. Classical history teems with such ; e. g. Hellas 
for the Hellenes; Dobus for the Dorians; Ltdus for the Lydians; but they are, in general, 
about as historical as Afrikis of the Arabs; whom the Saracens made the "Father of 
Africa," after they bad learned the Latin name of this continent ! In most cases, how- 
ever, the nation or tribe invented a founder ; to whom they gave the name of the country 
they happened to occupy : nor does archaeology concede to the Hebrews any exemption 
from this universal law, merely for the sake of conformity to time-honored caprice. 

But, if seventy-eight of the seventy-nine names in Xth Genesis are those of countries, 
nations, tribes, or cities; such is not the case with four others, catalogued as the parental 
NuKh, Noah, and his three sons SAeM, KAaM, and laPheTt. 

Our observations on these names limit themselves to guessing, as nearly as we can, what 
may have been meant by the writer of Xth Genesis. 

Ist. NuKA — (Noah), or NUKA, in Hebrew lexicons, among its various meanings, 
signifies Repose and also Cessation. We place the word "obscueity" beneath it 
on our Genealogical Tableau. To the chorographer of Xth Genesis this name NKA 



550 THE Xtii chapter OF GENESIS. 

symbolized, probably, a point of time so remote from his own day that he ceased to 
inquire further ; and reposed from his labors in blissful ignorance, after having com- 
prehended the vanity of human efforts to pierce that primordial gloom. If he did not, 
we do : and with the less regret, because an expounder (who says he knows all about 
it) can be met with at every street-corner. 

24. From the unknown, then, in the supposed idea of a Chaldoeaa writer, proceeded three 
grand divisions of mankind ; already distributed, at the age of the compilation of Xth 
Genesis, each one "after his tongue, in their lands, after their nations." It became 
necessary, for his chorographic and ethnic objects, to classify them. He saw they 
were apparently divided into three cuticular colors ; just as the Egyptians before 
him had perceived the same thing, when they classified three, of the four human 
varieties known to them, by the colors red, yellow, and white. 

3d. He gave to them, or adopted through preceding traditions, the three names " SAeM 
KAaM and laPAeTi "; and called the nations within his horizon of knowledge by these 
terms, as much for convenience sake, as on account of their several and probable lin- 
guistic, physiological, geographical, and traditionary relationship to each other. The 
meaning which he attached to each of these proper names is utterly unknown ; but 
modern lexicography speculates upon their acceptation as follows : — 

A. KAaM is the ancient name of Egypt ; centre point of the populations which the writer 
of Xth Genesis classified as BeNI-K/iaM, "sons of Ham; " and which we call Ham- 
itic. In Hebrew, KAM means hot : but, in Arabic, while HaM has the same accepta- 
tion, KAaM signifies darJc, swarthy : perfectly applicable to the peoples that this 
name embraces in Xth Genesis. The Egyptians designated themselves as the red 
race; wherefore, for Hamitic types, we adopt the red color. 

B. SAeM, in Hebrew, means name "par excellence." It is also supposed to possess 
the sense of left hand, in contrast to Yemen, the right ; but this seems to be an " ex 
post facto" Arabian commentary. The Egyptians always gave shades of yellow 
to Shemiiish races, in accordance with their cuticular color ; and we adopt it for 
our classification. 

C. laPAeT^ Such rabbinical explanations as "the man of the opening of the tent" 
belong to the domain of fable. 

Iapetus, son of Coelus and Terra, was the Titanic progenitor of Greeks in their 
ante-historical MUTHOI; the " audax genus 7(vpc(j" is a symbolical periphrasis for 
white races ; and an ancient Greek proverb, tov la-ntrov rpEtr/Jure/joj, " elder than Iapetus," 
indicates that the sense in which Grecians used it corresponds to our saying " older 
than Adam." It is not impossible that the writer of Xth Genesis, in his anxiety to 
discover an ancestor for white families, asked some Greek traveller, who replied 
" lairsros." To ourselves, as anciently to the Egyptians, these families are white. 

We conclude in the language of DAvezac — " Far from admitting that Gmem wished to 
make all the ramifications of the great human family descend from the unique Noah, we 
■would voluntarily sustain the thesis, that the genesiacal writer only wished to designate the 
three great branches of white races, individualized for us in the three types Greek, 
Egyptian, and Syriac ; -whose respective traditions have preserved athwart ages, as an 
indelible testimony of the veracity of Moses [or, only of that of the unknown writer of 
Xth Genesis], the names of Japheth, of Ham, and of Shem : but, without entering digres- 
sionally into a question so vast, let us hasten to say that, to our eyes, the Biblical texts are 
very disinterested upon any doubts arising from that [doubt] as to the unity or multiplicity 
of species in the human genus." 




i 
\ f 



1 



Ai 



\ li 







laP/ieTj 

Japhetk, 
WHITE I Kace 



AdlLaM 
Elam, 

ELYMAIS. 



[Tho 

by 



'A 



" These th 



GENEALOGICAL TABLEAU. 551 

Section B. — Observations on the annexed Genealogical Tableau 
OF THE " Sons of IS'oah." 

So far as the autliors' reading enables tliem to judge, here, for the 
first time since Xth Genesis was composed, are tabulated, in a true 
genealogical form, all the ethnic and geographical names contained 
in that ancient document. 

After the foregoing analysis of each name under Section A., the 
reader requires no prolix remarks to perceive the utility of our 
Tableau ; which, at a glance, exhibits Father ISTuKA (ISToah), and his 
three Sons — his Grrandsons, Great-grandsons, Gf-reat-great-grandsons, 
G-reat-great-great-grandsons, and Great-great-great-great-grandsons, ac- 
cording to their natural order. In this manner (the geography of 
the Hebrew Text being, once for all, defined,) it is to be hoped that 
science will be relieved from further discussion of main principles, 
whatever may be the light which future Oriental researches cannot 
fail to shed upon details. 

Each Name is first displayed in the " square-letter" of the Hebrew 
Text, without the Masoretic points. Below it, in "Eoman" capitals, 
is placed the conjectural vocalization of our modern, and colloquial, 
English imitation of ancient foreign words. Beneath is put, in 
"Italics," the spelling of each name as printed in king James's 
version. This is followed, in " Gothic " letters, with the geographical 
attribution of the several cognomina, conformably to the results 
attained through our Section A. And finally, binder every one, in 
common "Roman" type, is represented the probable country, nation, 
tribe, city, citizen, and personage historical or mythic, to which the 
authors' studies ascribe each name. 

" Sumanum est errare." 

[The best parallel I have met •with in ancient history of the conversion of symbolical 
and national names into personages, that might be assimilated to the Hebrew map in Genesis 
Xth, occurs in Tacitus. 65'' Speaking of the Germans, he gives one of their antique mythes 
(which, during his time, was current among them) in explanation of their figurative origins 
and tripartite distribution into races. " Celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud 
illos memorise et annalium genus est, Tcisconem deum, terra editum, et filium MANunsi 
originem gentis conditoresque. Manno tres filios assignant e quorum nominibus proximi 
oceano Ingcevones, medii Herminones, cseteris Istcevones vocantur." 

Tdisco is the god Mars. Mannus the Latinized form of our word " Man," in German 
Mann: "ones," is the euphonizing suffix to the primitive words Ingcev, Hermin, Isiaev. 

The learned Zeuss^ss has shown that Ingcev is the same as Yngvi, "noble;" ancient 
title of the royal race of Sweden. Islcev, jlso meaning " illustrious," is traced in Astingi, 
royal race of the Visigoths and Vandals: and Hermin, in old Gothic airmun, meant " the 
mighty ones." 

1. iTtfrmin-ones, (in Pliuy, JTermiones,) comprehended four tribes : the Suevi, Hermudiri, 
Chatti, and Cherusci. These clans occupied inland Germany. 



GENEALOGICAL TABLEAU OF Xtii GENESIS: pivparal for Norr & Gwwos's Tijim of Miuihhul, 1853, by G. «. G. 



"Ab lOUE prlncipinm, Mqse: JovIs nmnia plena." 

N„KA 
JVob/j. 

(OBScuniTr,) 



^ 



4 

\ 



San lu-o DTfi 

TdiBiiL McyftoK TAIIiiuS 



CRIMEA. CAUCASUS. 



Itll'/iii'I'f ■ 
PAPHLABDNIA. 



MEDIA. 


lOHIA. 


POinUS. MOSCHIAN MIS. 




1 


(Tn«™i.i 


'"■""■' ' 


HC'Sn 


1 


1 


1 

aim 


11 ELIS.II 


TwltsIS 


KiTfEM 


DoDaJmi 




TarAi^. 


Kitlm. 


/Wunmi. 


MOREA. 


TARSOUS. 


CVPRIIS. 


RHODES. 




(C11I.1..H 


icjr.i.u| 


l^loJI..^) 




TADTA 



-i-iidSn 


^iSt. 


niQivn 


ALirUDnD 


SAoLoPA 


ianT)iRMaUT( 


Almodad. 


Shrltph. 


IfaiurmiKtA. 


AlLUMAEOrfl. 


SAIAPEHI. 


HADRAMAITT. 



Mm, yu^fn, BuUri»i»i V 



Jinn 

DTTRaM 

■ «d'oram- 

_. 'ADORAMUH, 



ATIZiiL 



nSpi 

DiKLoH 

Diklah. 

DHU'L-KAliOlN. 



AdUBiiL 



ABIMAL SAoBA 

Abimad. S/,ila. 

ABU-MALAI. SABA. 



nVin 

KAUILaH 
BENI-KHOLAN. 



p'V TjIDoN, SMi 

nn- 



i(<iih.... 



...SuliHi— Cirr, 



noN-n M. Aiioiti, AcoriK j»«,-« 

'Wnrn (A4 oiRaii&!r,oirguiui..(j,vjjrini 

'iirrr oi Kmi.iiMh! avian 

'p->y-rr ih mrks. a.\h> ^™« 

'J'OTt «« SINI, SinilB SUin 

ni-lK-n <h AIID.IH, Ar.«lil,...^mdi« 

noi-n rt* T«Mm. &,m«rii„ .. .»-,!*» 



552 



THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 



2. Inffcev-ones. These embraced the Cimbri, the Teutones, and the " Chaucorum genxes ;" 

inhabiting west and north-Tvest Germany. 

3. IstcEV-ones — as the Vindili of Pliny, included the Burgundiones, Varini, Carina, and 

Guttones. Their place was north-eastern Germany. 
For our purpose of simple illustration, it is not essential to detail the geographical terri- 
tories assigned to these names ; which, mutilated and corrupted by Roman orthography, 
preserve as little relation to an ancient German pronunciation as the Indo-Germanic names 
of GoMeR, MaGUG, &c., do in our authorized version after passing through Hebrew trans- 
criptions, Septuagint corruptions, and the fabulous vocalizations of Jewish Rabbis of the 
Masora. What we are driving after becomes evident at once, so soon as we tabulate the 
genealogy of these tribes as we have done that of those in Xth Genesis. 





Tuisco 






MARS. 

1 






llamws 






MAN 

1 




Ir.gcBV. 


Hermin. 


Istcev. 


"Noble." 

1 


" Puissant." 

1 


" Hlustrious." 

1 


NoriJirwest Germany, 


1 
Central Germany. 


Norfhreast Germany. 


Cimbri, 


Suevi, 


Burgundians, 


Teutones, 


Hermundiri, 


Carini, 


Chauci. 


Chatti, 


Varini, 




Cherusci. 


Gothones. 



It would be easy to carry this method of illustration, which classifies the mythical, the 
geographical, and the patronymic personifications of nations in their true historical order, 
through the traditions of different races all over the world. We content ourselves by indi- 
cating to fellow-students the utility of a simple process that has solved many a '"vexata 
quoestio" encountered in our personal researches: especially when studying the Persian 
genealogies of Firdoosi's Shah-Nameh ; as we hope to show elsewhere. — G. R. G.] 



Section Q. — Observations on the accompanying "Map op the 

World." 



1st. The parts in hlach indicate what the writer of Xth Genesis 
knew not : those shaded represent where his knowledge decreases ; 
it being unfair, no less than impossible, to define his information by 
a sharp line. Other explanations are given on the Map itself. 

2d. The great alteration, which our results superinduce, is the pro- 
longation of his geographical knowledge (hitherto unsuspected) along 
the whole of Barbary, between the Mediterranean Sea and_the Sahara 
desert. Former African delusions are curtailed at the First Cataract, 
Syene ; southern extremity of the Egyptians, MiTsEIM, proper. The 
compiler of Xth Genesis knew nothing of "Ethiopia" above; nor is 
any austral land beyond Egypt mentioned by a single writer in the 
Old Testament; because Gliuh {Ezek. xxx. 5), GUB, conjectured by 
Bunsen, after Ewald, to be gIsTUB, Nulia, is an unnecessary effort 
when we can identify it with the Barbaresque Gobii of Ptolemy the 
geographer [supra, p. 515]. 



MODERNIZED JSTOMENCL ATURE. 553 

3d. The coast of Abyssinia is dotted red and yellow, because some 
EUSAiYes, besides the Joktanide, dUBaL, may have crossed the Red 
Sea. The latter lent his name to the Avalites Sinus, &c., on the 
African continent. 



Section D. — The Xth Chapter of Genesis modernized, in its 

ISTOMENCLATURE, TO DISPLAY, POPULARLY AND IN MODERN ENGLISH, 
THE MEANING OF ITS ANCIENT WrITER. 
Terse 

1 Now these (are) the T^oLDTt-BNI-NuKA, (generations of the sons of Ces- 
sation); SAeM yellow races, K/iaM swarthy races, and laPeTi: white 

2 races: unto them (were) sons after the deluge.* (The) affiliations of laPeTi 
white races; — C r i m e a == GoMeR, and Caucasus = MaGUG, and Media 
= MeDI, and Ionia := lUN, and Pontus = T<uBaL, and Moschia = 

3 MeS/ieK, and Thrace = TdRaS. And (the) affiliations of Crimea = 
GoMeR; — Euxine = ASKiNaZ, and Paphlagonia = RIPAaT^, and Armenia 

4 = T^oGaRMaH. And (the) affiliations of Ionia = lUN; — Morea = ALISaH, 
and Tarsous = TaRSIS, Cypriot s = KiTflM, and Rhodians = RoDaNIM. 

5 By these were dispersed the settlements of Ha-GOIM the (white barbarian) 
hordes in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in their 

6 nations. And (the) affiliations of KAaM swarthy races; Dark Arabia-|- = 
KUSA, and Egyptians = MiTsRIM, and Barbary = PAUT/j, and Canaan = 

7 KNSAN. And (the) affiliations of Dark Arabia = KUSA; — Asabia = SeBA, 
and Beni-Khaled == KAaUILaH, and Saphtha-metr opolis = SaBT/aH, and 
Bumss ^ RuAMaH, and Sabatica-regio = SaBT^aKA: and (the) affiliations 

8 of Rumss ^ RSAMaH; Marsuaba = S/teBA, and Dadena ^ DeDaN. And 
Dark Arabia^ KUSA engendered (the Assyrian Hercules?) = NeM-RuD, 

9 he first began to be mighty upon earth. He was a great landed-proprietor 
before (the face of) leHOuaH ; whence the saying, like NeM-RuD, (a) great 

10 landed-proprietor before (the face of) leHOuaH.J And (the) commencement of his 
realm, Babylon =: BaBeL, and Erech^AReK, and Accad = AKaD, and 

11 Chalne = KaLNeH in the land of Mesopotamia = SAiN^AR. Out of that 
land he (Nimrod) went forth [<o] Assyria = AS7iUR, and builded Nineveh = 

12 NINUeH, and Rehoboth-itow = ReKAoBoTi-^IR, and Calah = KaLaKA, — 
and Resen==ReSeN between Nineveh ^NINUeH and between Calah = KaLaKA 

13 (he) she (Nineveh?) the great city). And (the) Egyptians ^MiTsRIM engendered 
the Ait-Oloti = LUDIM, and the Ammonians == ANaMIM, and the Libyans 

14 = LeHaBIM, and the Nefousehs = NiPAaiTiuKAIM, — and the Pharusii = 
PAaTmRiSIM, and the Shillouhs = KSAiLouKAIM out of whom issued 



* No transHatian is intcncled by the terms yellow, swarthy, and white races. We use them merely to 
CTolye the ethnological tripartite classification of the writer. 

■f-Dark Arabia serves for the dark Ccshite (red -Himydr) A rabs. 

J The mention of leHOuall makes this copy of the Ethnic Chart Jehovisiic, and consequently recent, by every 
rule of exegesis. (Parker's De ^Velte, II., pp. 77-145.) 

70 



554 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

15 Philistines =P//eLiSTaM, and the Caphtors =KaPAT<oRIM. And Canaan 
= KNaAN engendered Sidon = TsIDoN his first born, and Kheth = KAeT<, 

16 and the Jebusian = IBUSI, and the Amorian == AMoEI, and the Girgasian 

17 ^GiRGaSI, And the Khuian = K/iUf, and the Aocrian = iJRKI, and the 

18 Sinian SINI, — and the Aradian = ARUaDI, and the Simyrian = TsiMRI, 

19 and the Hamathian^ KAaMaT^I: (Afterwards the families of the Kanaanian 
= KN5ANI (were) spread abroad.) And the boundary of the Kanaanian = 
KNaANI (had been) from Sidon ^ TsIDoN, towards Gerar, even to Aaza, 
(round) by Sodom, and Admo?'a, and Admah, and Tseboim, as far as LasM. 

20 These (the) affiliations of KAaM swarthy races, after their families, after 

21 their tongues, in their countries, in their nations. And to SAeM yellow races 
also (there was) issue: he (is) the father of all (the) affiliations of (the) 

22 Yonderer = £BeR, brother of laPAeTi the elder. Affiliations of SAeM yellow 
races. Elymais = alLaM, and Assyria = ASAUR, and Chaldsean Orfa = 

23 ARPAa-KaSD, and Lydia = LUD, and Aramtea = ARaM ; — and (the) affilia- 

tions of Aramsea = ARaM; Ausitis = alJTs, and Huleh = K/jUL, and 

24 Gatara ^ GeTmR, and Masonites ^ MaS. And Chaldaean Orfa = ARPAa- 
KaSD engendered Salacha? =SAeLaK/i; and Salacha =S/!eLaKA engendered 

25 (the) Yonderer = EBeR. And unto (the) Yonderer = £BeR were born two 
affiliations; the name of one (was) (a) Split = PeLeG (because in his days the 
earth was split), and (the) name of his brother (was) Joktan ^ loKTaN. 

26 And Joktan = IoKTaN engendered (the) Allumaseotse = ALMTJDaD, and (the) 
Salapeni = SAeLePA, and Hadramiut = KAaTsaRaMUTi, and (the) Jera- 

27 chsei = leRaKA, — and (Cape) Hadoramum = HaDURaM, and SanSa = 

28 AUZAL, and (the) Dhu'-l-Kalaah = DiKLeH, And (the) Abalitse = SUBaL, 

29 and Malai (el-Khyef) = ABIMAL, and Saba (Mareb) = SaBA, — and Ofor 
AUPAiR, and (the) Beni-Kholan = KAUILeH, and (the) Beni-Jobab= lUBaB. 

30 All these (are) affiliations of \_QaMd,n\ Joktan = loKTaN; — and their dwelling 
(was) from Zames Mons = MeSAA, towards Mount Zaff^r = SePAaRaH, 

31 mountain of the East (or mountain opposite?).* These (are) (the) affiliations 
of SAeM yellow races, after their families, after their tongues, in their lands, 

32 after their nations. Such (are the) families of (the) sons of Cessation= NuKA, 
after their generations, in their nations ; and from these were dispersed Ha-GOIM 
= the hordes (the peoples) on the earth after the deluge. 

[Here ends the document.) 

The authors cannot but hope, after the evidences herein accumulated, that the impartial 
reader now agrees with them and with Rosellini, that "la serie dei nomi de' discendenti di 
Noe e una vera ricenzione geografica delle varie parti della terra;" so far as the world's 
surface was known to the writer of Xth Genesis. 

Viewed by itself, as a document from all others distinct, incorporated by the Esdraic 
school into the canonical Hebrew writings, Xth Genesis is simply an ethnic chorograph ; 
wherein three " Types of Mankind," generically classified as the red, yellow, and white, 
are mapped out — "after their <^amilies, after their tongues, in their countries, in their 

* The word here is the same KD5I upon which the analysis of De Longpfirier was referred to under ASUK 
[uhi supra, p. 534]. 



MODERNIZED NOMENCLATURE. 555 

nations." In every instance where monumental or written history has enabled us to check 
the writer's system, his accuracy has been vindicated. In not a few cases exactitudes, so 
minute as to be relatively marvellous, have been exhibited. 

Our genealogical table displays the order in which this compiler supposed the diiferent 
colonies, or affiliations, issued from each of the three parental stems. Our retranslaiion of 
Xth Genesis, by substituting, as far as possible, modern names for the same nations and 
countries, has enabled us to comprehend his literal meaning more clearly than when read- 
ing Hebraical appellatives now mostly obsolete, no less than veiled by an ancient and foreign 
mode of spelling them. And lastly, our transfer and redistribution of these seventy-nine 
cognomina, in a map, fix, within a few degrees of latitude and longitude, the boundary 
of this writer's geographical circumference ; and thus indicate the horizon, so to say, of 
all the knowledge his " gazetteer " contains. 

Learned and orthodox works have frequently defined this geography before ; and with 
limitations of area quite as restricted as ours, as regards the sum total of terrestrial super- 
ficies. Because, if we have cut off, as not alluded to in Xth Genesis, the whole of Nubia 
above Egypt, and all Africa lying south of the northern limit of the Sahara deserts, our 
map, on the other hand, prolongs the writer's knowledge through Barbary, from Egypt to 
the Pillars of Hercules. Thus, upon the whole, our restoration is more extensive than 
that of Volney. 

No savant whose opinion is wortliy of respectful attention, but excludes all knowledge, 
on the part of the writer of Xth Genesis, of any portion of Europe, except the coasts of 
the Peloponnesus and of Thracia. All reasoilable commentators, by cutting off " Scythia " 
at a line, drawn from the north-eastern apex of the Black Sea to the Caspian, deny that 
Xth Genesis includes Russian Asia ; while none extend the geography of that document 
beyond a line drawn from the Caspian Sea to the mouth of the Indus, as an extreme ; a 
frontier, to our view, quite unjustifiable, and by far too distant from a Chaldcean centre- 
point. 

In consequence, we all agree that Hindostan and its mixed populations ; China with her 
immense Mongol and Tartar hordes ; and the Islands of the Indian Ocean ; are entirely 
excluded from Xth Genesis. The lands of Malayana, Oceanica, Australasia, and the Pacific, 
having been discovered within the last three centuries, were of course unknown to the 
school of Esdras twenty-tliree hundred years ago. So was also the "New World ;" — the 
vast American continent and its Islands, prior to the voyages of Columbus, and his suc- 
cessors. The most rigid orthodoxy, therefore, concedes that, upon Finnish, Samo'ide, Ton- 
gousian, Tartar, Moiigol, Malay, Polynesian, Esquimaux, American, and many other races, 
the writer of Xth Genesis is absolutely silent ; that, every one of these peoples lay very 
far beyond the utmost area demonstrable through his chorography. 

Nothing " heretical," then, accrues from our simple demonstration of the truth of that 
which the educated of all Christendom now-a-days insist upon. 

But, the orthodox will even allow a little more. Beginning at the Cape of Good Hope, 
they will admit, that the compiler of Xth Genesis does not embrace that region, nor its 
inhabitants, the Eosjcsmans, Hottentots, Kaffres, and Foolahs, in this ethnic geography. 
They will voluntarily renounce also, in the name of this genesiacal writer, acquaintance with 
any part of Africa more austral than a line drawn athwart its continent from Senegal on the 
western to Cape Gardafui on the eastern or Abyssinian coast. Thus much, we opine, no 
one " nisi insperitus" can hesitate to grant. 

Upon retiectinn, in view of the impassabilities of the immense Sahara desert (first, geo- 
logically, when it was an inland sea ; and secondly, zoologically, until the camel was intro- 
duced and propagated in Barbary, after the first century, b. c), all scholars, we presume, will 
coincide with our limitation; and, byway of compensation for the additional knowledge 
which our analyses have secured for the author of Xth Genesis, along Berberia, Barbarj", 
they will not insist upon his acquaintance with anything south of the northern edge of the 
Sahara: — the oases of Seewah, El-Khargheh, &c., remaining, between orthodox readings 
and ours, "subjudice." 



556 THE xth chapter of genesis. 

So far, to judge by published commentaries, there are no insurmountable obstacles to 
harmony between the most catholic interpreter of Xth Genesis and ourselves. " Nos adver- 
saires " will now fairly confess that the battle-ground, upon which their and our opinions 
have to be fought, lies on a miserable strip of the Nile's deposits ; along the countries we 
term, in common, the Nubias. 

Yet, even here, reasonable persons — those who have of their own accord, and for the 
sake of truth, already abandoned the Tchoudes, Finns, Samo'ides, Tongousians, Tartars, Mon- 
gols, Malays, Polynesians, Esquimaux, American-aborigines, Hottentots, Bosjesmans, Kaffres, 
Foolahs, Senegalians, Abyssinians, the Sahara desert, &c., &c., as not included in Xth Gen- 
esis — such reasonable persons, we think, cannot make out, legally, a " casus belli" between 
our results and their individual preconceptions, upon matters so pitiful in geography as the 
Nubias. 

They have read our analysis of KUSA. They have seen every affiliation of KUSA settled 
in Arabia. Now, if every affiliation of KUSA in Xth Genesis be Arabian, why must we 
seek for these KUSA-rtes elsewhere? Indeed, if we both agree in classification, neither 
party has any other genesiacal names to dispute about. 

KUSA and its affiliations being irrevocably determined in Arabia, and proved to have 
been generally of the Himyar-reci stock, it would be as absurd to look for them in Nubia 
as on the Caucasian mountains. We know that until the Xllth and perhaps the Xlth 
dynasty, the boundary of the MT^Rlm, Egyptians, was the 1st Cataract of Syene : and 
inasmuch as the Nubias were then little known to Egyptians, they were undoubtedly far 
less known to Asiatics. 

Consequently, there was a time when Nubia herself was a "terra incognita." We have 
only to continue this Asiatic ignorance of Africa for a few centuries, and every one will 
allow that there is no improbability involved in the assertion that the Nubias were unre- 
vealed to the compiler of Xth Genesis at Jerusalem, or at Babylon. His map proves that 
they were so ; and, thus far, discussion is at an end. 

With the Nubias vanishes the last possibility that Negro races were known to the writer 
of Xth Genesis. He never mentions them ; nor indeed does any other writer in the canon- 
ical Scriptures, from Genesis to Malachi. 

Negroes are, therefore, excluded from mention in the Old Testament ; together with Finns, 
Uralians, Mongols, Tartars, Blalays, Polynesians, Esquimaux, American-luAiaxis., &c., &c. 
The map of Xth Genesis, under the heads " Shem, Ham, and Japheth," merely covers 
those families of mankind classified by the Egyptians, in the days of Sethbi-Meneptha, 
15th-16th centuries b. c, into the yellow, the red, and the white human types. 

Such is our conclusion. Science and reason confirm it. Xth Genesis proves it. Never- 
theless, few persons beyond the circle of education exempt from ecclesiastical prejudice, 
will, for some time to come, accept this result ! Why ? 

[Our manuscripts comprise critical answers to this query viewed in all its bearings upon 
the Ante-Diluvian Patriarchs, and upon the two pedigrees of St. Joseph recorded in Mat- 
thew and Luke. Inasmuch, however, as their production here would necessitate a second 
volume to this work, we postpone their publication : remembering St. Paul's sage admon- 
ishments to Timothy and to Titus — " not to give heed to fables and endless genealogies" 
— "but avoid foolish questions and genealogies." (1 Tim. i. 4; Titus iii. 9: Sharpe's New 
Testament, " translated from Griesbach's Text;" London, 1844, pp. 380, 392-3).— G. R. G.] 



TEEMS, UNIVERSAL AND SPECIFIC. 557 

CHAPTER XV. 

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 
Section E. — Terms, universal and specific. 

There is nothing in the language of the Bible which illustrates 
more strongly the danger of a too rigid enforcement of literal con- 
struction than the very loose manner in which universal terms are 
employed. Those who have studied the phraseology of Scripture 
need not be told that these terms are used to signify only a very large 
amount in number or quantity. All, every one, the whole, and such 
like expressions, are often used to denote a great many, or a large 
portion, &c. Examples may be found on almost every page of the 
Old Testament, but we will first select a few from the many scattered 
through the N"ew. And we beg the reader to bear in mind the fact 
already established, viz., that neither the writers of the Old or !N"ew 
Testament knew anything of the geography of the earth much beyond 
the limits of the Roman empire, nor had they any idea of the sphe- 
roidal shape of the globe. Be it noted also that, in order to avoid 
the mistakes of the English authorized version, our quotations are 
bori'owed from Sharpe's New Testament as closest to the original 
Greek. 

In the account given by Matthew (iv. 8, 9) of the temptation of 
Christ, we have these words : 

" Again the Devil taketh him on to a very high mountain, and showeth him all the hhig- 
doms of the world, and their glory ; and saith unto him ; ' All these will I give thee, if thou 
■yvilt fall down and worship me.' " 

Before accepting such words as " all the kingdoms of the world" 
in a literal sense, it may be well to peruse the commentary of Strauss, 
in his Life of Jesus : — 

" But that which is the veritable stumbling-block, is the personal apparition of the Devil 
with his temptations. If even there could be a personal Devil, 'tis said, he cannot appear 
visibly ; and, if even he could, he would not have behaved himself as our Gospels recount 
it. . . . The three temptations are operated in three different places, and even far apart. It 
is asked, how Jesus passed with the Devil from one to the other ? . . . The expressions, the 
Devil takes him, . . . places him, in Matthew — the expressions, /e^cAw^', he conducted, he placed, 
in Luke, indicate incontestably a displacement operated by the Devil himself; furthermore, 
Luke (iv. 5) saying that the De\'il showed .Jesus ' all the kingdoms of the world in a mo- 
ment of time;' this trait indicates something magical. . . . Where is the mountain from the 
summit of which one can discover all the kingdoms of the earth ? Some interpreters reply 
that by the world, cosmos, one must understand Palestine only, and by the kingdoms, 



558 BIBLICAL ETHNOGEAPHT. 

BASiLEiAis, the isolated provinces and the tetrarchies of that country : a reply which is 
not less ridiculous than the explanation of those Avho say that the Devil showed to Jesus 
the world on a geographical inap."65y 

In reference to these diabolical powers we may also be permitted to 
rejoice with our readers over the following fact, recently announced 
by the Rev. John Oxlee (Rector of Molesworth, Hunts, England) in 
his "Letters to the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury:" — 

" In the Chronicon Syriacum of Bar Hebrseus, we have it duly recorded, that, in the year 
of the Hegira 455, or of our Lord 1063, certain Curdean hunters, in the desert, brought a 
report into Bagdad ; how that, as they were hunting in the desert, they saw black tents, 
with the voice of lamentation, weeping, and yelling; that, on their approaching them, they 
heard a voice saying: ' To-day died Beelzebub, the Prince of the Devils; and every place 
where there is not lamentation for three days, we will erase from its very foundation.' 
. . . Hence it is apparent, even on the indubitable testimony of the devils themselves, 
that Beelzebub, the Prince of the Devils, died a natural death, nearly eight hundred 
years ago ; and was lamented and bewailed, with all due honors, by the municipal author- 
ities of Bagdad, Mosul, and other cities in the land of Senaar. There, then, let his mortal 
remains peaceably rest, never more to be disturbed, in the future, by human curiosity." 660 

We have a repetition of the pre'sdous passage in Luke, which should 
probably be taken in a figurative or allegorical sense ; for although the 
evangelists had little idea of the extent or the shape of the earth, yet 
it cannot be maintained that Jesus or the devil were so ignorant as 
to suppose that a view of the world could be greatly extended by 
ascending a mountain. If we could take this language in a literal 
sense, it would at once settle the question as to the amount of geo- 
graphical and ethnological knoAvledge of the evangelists. Here are 
some more instances of "universal terms" used loosely in a vague 
or general sense : — 

[Mat. xii. 42) — "The queen of the South .... came from the ends of the earth to hear 

the wisdom of Solomon." 
[Luke ii. 1) — "And it came to pass in those days that a decree went forth from Csesar 

Augustus that all the world should be registered." 
[John xxi. 25) — "And there are also many other things which Jesus did, which if they 

should be written one by one, I do not think that the world itself would contain the 

written books. 
{Acts ii. 5) — " And there were dwelling in Jemsalem Jews, devout men, from every nation 

under heaven." 
[Acts xiii. 47 — quoting Isaiah xlix. 6) — "I have set thee to be a light of the Gentiles, that 

thou shouldest be for salvation to the ends of the earth." 
[Rom. X. 18 — quoting Fs. xix, 4) — "Yes, verily, their sound went into all the earth, and 

their words unto the ends of the world." 

These examples will be quite sufficient to show the manner in 
which '■'■universal terms" were used, and the necessity for measuring 
their extent by a proper standard. We now present a remarkable 
text, and the only one in the oSTew Testament which alludes directly 
to the dogma of unity of races. 



TERMS, UNIVERSAL AND SPECIFIC. 559 

{Acts xvii. 26) — " And [God] Lath made of one blood all nations of men to dwell on all 
(he face of the earth, and hath determined the appointed seasons, and the bounds of 
their habitation." It will be noted that this saying of Paul is not autographed in his 
Epistles ; but, as Ilennell critically annotates, " rests mainly on the testimony of 
the author of Acts, who himself intimates that he is the same as the author of the 
third Gospel." ct;i 

iTow, can any reason be assigned why a wider signification should 
be given to "universal terms" here than in the previous examples? 
Have we not seen, too, in the quotation just preceding this, the loose 
manner in which the same writer (St. Paul) uses such terms ? Should 
not this paragraph, also, deserve the less credit, inasmuch as it has no 
parallel? It should be remembered that when St. Paul stood uj)on 
Mars's Hill and preached to the men of Athens, his knowledge of 
nations and of races did not extend beyond that of his hearers; 
and the expression, " hat?i made of one Mood all nations of men," was 
certainly meant to apply only to those nations about which he was 
informed ; that is, merely the Roman Empire. 

Leaving the ISTew Testament we take up the Old, and such pas- 
sages as these meet Snx eye : — 

(1 Kings, xviii. 10) — As " lellOuaH thy God liveth [most sacred form of Jewish oath], 
there is no nation or kingdom, whither my Lord hath not sent to seek thee ; and when they 
said, ' He is not there,' he took an oath [a certificate] of the kingdom, that they found thee 
not." If this text were to be taken literally, Obadiah's most solemn affidavit is here given 
that Ahab's emissaries had visited Cldna, Norway, Peru, Congo, — in short, circumnavigated 
the whole globe, besides traversing it in every direction, during the tenth century b. c, in 
quest of Elijah ! 

(1 Kings, X. 24) — "And all the earth sought the face of Solomon, to hear his wisdom." 
Is this to be accepted verbatim et literatim ? Must no allowance for poetic license be made, 
when David says, — "And the channels of the sea appeared, the foundations of the world 
were discovered" (2 Sam. xxii. 16). 

Receding to previous chapters (that is, not written during earlier ages, but merely bound 
up in books placed anteriorly to Kings and Samuel in the present order of arrangement), 
we come to — " And now KuL-HAReTs (the WHOLE earth) was of one lip and of DeBeRIM 
AOaDIM." — The last two words, plurals in Hebrew, cannot be literally rendered into 
English, as ones words ; but the sense is " one language." 

The whole context refers to an idea purely Chaldcean, and to a preternatural event exclu- 
sively Babylonish ; viz., the city and the tower of BaBeL, which leHOuaH "descended to 
see " after they were built. The two things, tower and city, are inseparable ; and we per- 
ceive that the people "ceased to build the city," after they were "dispersed thence over 
the face of the whole eaeth." 

{Gen. xi. 1) — "On that account it was called BaBeL, because leHOuaH there BeLeL 
(confounded) the lip (speech) of the whole earth." The root BLL means to mingle, to 
talk-gibhcrish ; and, conformably to the favorite genius of Semitic d scription, the writer 
avails himself of a play upon words — i. e., really "perpetrates a. pun" — because the mono- 
syllabic etymon of BaBeL, itself meaning "confusion," is the same as that of BeLeL. — We 
might say in Englisli, " BABEL-6aJ6?e," and thus realize part of the alliteration of BaBeL- 
BeLeL, while losing half its double entendre; because, BaBeL does not mean in English what 
it does in Semitish idioms, viz., "gibberish" as well as confusion. Another mode of convey- 
ing an idea of this play upon words would be, to translate BaBeL-BeLeL by "higgledy- 



660 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

piggledy." Poor, dreary, and mis-timed though such jocularity may seem to us, and 
inconsonant with the sanctity of the volume in which it is now found, nevertheless, no 
Orientalist will dispute the assertion, that similar rebuses, or riddles, are the delight of 
Eastern narrators ;6S2 while, by the Talmudic Rabbis, this pun was supposed to cover awful 
mysteries. Few persons are aware that, as the Text says nothing about the destruction of 
either city or tower, theologians derive their notions in this respect, not from the Bible, 
but from the spurious and modern tales of Hestiaeus, of Polyhistor, of Eupolemus, and of 
the " Sibylline Oracles." The classical texts may be found in Cory's Ancient Fragments. 
The reader, who has comprehended the principles of criticism, established further on in 
the Archceological Introduction to Xth Genesis, can now seize the historical value of this docu- 
ment {Gen. xi. 1-9) in a moment. 

1st. It has no connection with what precedes or succeeds it; but breaks in, paren- 
thetically, between what is now printed as the 32d verse of Chap. X. and the 10th of 
Chap. XI. : its apparent relation to either originating solely through modern, arbitrary, 
and therefore unauthorized, divisions into chapters and verses. 
2d. Age and authorship unknown, its antiquity cannot ascend beyond the seventh — eighth 
century b. c, because its divine ascriptions are Jehovistic ; nor could it well have been 
embodied into the book called " Genesis," earlier than about b. c. 420, by the Esdraic 
School; because, the mention of " the land of Shinar" ^—oi " brick they had for stone 
(or rather L-ABNi, /or building) and bitumen they had for mortar "663 of the "city; — 
therefore the name of it was BaBeL (Babylon) " — carries us at once to plains between 
the Shinar hills and the Euphrates-river ; to the bricks or Chaldsean mounds ; to the 
bituminous springs of Hit [His of Herodotus, and hieroglyphic IS) ; 66i and to the Ba- 
bylon of Nebuchadnezzar ; than whom, although the name of a place called BBL is as 
old as Thotmes III. of the XVIIIth Theban dynasty, 1500 — 1600 b. c, nothing cunei- 
form yet found at Babylon is anterior. 665 
3d. What connections BaB-eL 666 " Qate of the Sun" (like the Chinese "celestial gates;" 
or their Mongol derivative, the Ottoman " Sublime Porte"), may have with this name's 
origin : whether Beltjs the king ; Baal the god ; or " Bel and the dragon ; " are to be 
taken into consideration : — these curious inquiries, if familiar to our studies, are 
foreign to our present purposes and objects. But, "in sober sadness," let us ask — 
Can such words as KuL-Ha-AReT« (the whole earth) be accepted, by ethnological 
science in the nineteenth century, when contained in such an unhistorical document ? 
At any rate, "Types of Mankind" must respectfully leave them aside. 

" Isis ! dea infelix, Nili remanebis ad amnem 
Sola, carens et voce!" 

The ignorant of all races and ages, especially inland-populations such as the Jews were, 
when a foreign tongue strikes their auricular nerves, do not suppose that the speaker is 
uttering sense, but believe that he is merely exercising his vocal muscles instinctively, in 
the same manner t\i&i geese "talk." The writer oi Matthew is not free from this illusion; 
because, where our authorized mistranslation has "Use not vain repetitions, as the heathen 
do ;" the original Greek reads — "And when ye pray, babble not as the heathen do" {Mat. 
vi. 7 : — Sharpe, N. T., p. 10). In the idea of the Hebrews, vouched for, according to De 
Sola, even by such mighty commentators as Rashi and Mendelssohn, 667 the "One lan- 
guage" at Babel was merely the "lingua sancta;" that is to say, all mankind there talked 
Hebrew at first; but (after the dispersion thence, when their speech was "confounded"), 
only Shem's sons miraculously preserved the Hebrew tongue immaculate; "the rest of 
mankind " BABEL-iaJiZec? in gibberish ! 

The above hints are furnished to others. We feel as charitably disposed as Josephus did 
when writing. — "Now, as to myself, I have so described these matters as I have found 
them and read them ; but if any one is inclined to another opinion about them, let him 
enjoy his different sentiments without any blame from me." 668 



561 



Section F. — Structure of Genesis L, II., and m. 

Far more important, at an ethnological point of view, are the first 
three chapters of the book called "Genesis;" and to them we can 
here devote but a paragraph or two. 

Our AreJiseologieal Introduction, in Part III., has pointed out their 
Esdraic age, and the Persic origin of some of the mythes they 
contain. All modern divisions into chapters and verses, of course, 
are to be abstracted ; being mere European addenda. Jewish divi- 
sions of the book of Genesis are entirely different. They are twelve 
in number; of which the first SeDR — Chapter I. to Chapter YI., 
verse 9 — is called the "Bereshith," beginning. ^^ 

To understand this "structural analysis of the book of Genesis," 
according to exegetical principles now universally recognized by 
Hebraists, we refer the reader to a masterly critique by Luke 
Burke,®^ and to the solid evidences supplied by De Wette.^'^ The 
more salient characteristics distinguishing the two documents are, 
the words ELoHIM, in king James's version replaced by " God ;" 
and leHOuaH, for which our appellative "Lord" is substituted; 
neither of these two Hebrew divine names being translated; as the 
writer will demonstrate in some future treatise. The relative order 
of these documents becomes intelligible to the reader by being placed 
in juxtaposition. Our purpose now being merely the exhibition of 
some structural peculiarities not generally known, it is unnecessary 
to retranslate the whole three chapters, and impossible to justify 
herein our verbal interpretations. "With Cahen's Bible, the reader 
can easily fill up gaps for himself in the former case : adequate 
explanations in the latter would require the publication of a volume 
of results which, obtained through ten years' incessant travel and 
study, G. R. G.'s manuscripts embrace. To the anthropologist, how- 
ever, it will be satisfactory to behold the true place of the word 
A-DaM in these texts — DIN, says Cahen, " I'espece humaine, sin- 
gulier collectif." And, as concerns other questions, we must be con- 
tent for the present to submit an observation written by the great 
Hellenist, R. Payne Knight, to his colleagues Sir Joseph Bankes and 
Sir W. Hamilton : — 

" It must be observed that, when the ancients speak of Creation and destruction, they 
mean only formation and dissolution; it being universally allowed, through all systems of 
religion or sects of philosophy, that nothing could come from nothing, and that no power what- 
ever could annihilate that which really existed. The bold and magnificent idea of a creation 
from nothing was reserved for the more vigorous faith, and more enlightened minds of the 
moderns; who need seek no authority to confirm their belief; for, as that which is self- 
evident admits of no proof, so that which is in itself impossible admits of no refutation." 6"^ 

71 



562 



BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 



DOCUMENT No. I. — Genesis I.; 
11.3. 

JQ^annonical ©tie of ©reatibe 
cosmooong — antique 
scfcntfft'c. 



f ^ ^ I E 

§ I S J A 



{Chorus ls(.) 



(Chorus 2(2.) 



(CAorus 3(?.) 



o 


f 

-3 


= r G (C7wrusith.) 
at \ sol. 


CO 

g 

E-i 




5 J C (C/iorws 5tt.) 



{i 



(CAorMs6(A.) 



anti 



' Sabbath," iSaterday ; com- 
mencing at sunset on Fri- 
day, and ending at sunset 
OD Saturday. 



"In the beginning, ELoHIM created 
the (universality of) skies, and the 
(uniTersality of) earth. And the earth 
was T(oHtJ — and— BoHU (literally- 
masculine and feminine principles dis- 
located, or confounded; paraphrasti- 
cally — ^' without form and a confused 
mass"), and darkness was upon the face 
of the abyss, and the (breath) spirit of 
ELoHIM hovered (like a descending 
bird) over the face of the waters — 
[F. 3, 4.] 

"And it was eBeB (western twilight) 
and it was BeKR (early dawn) — Day 
One! 

[V. 6, 7.] 

"And it was eReB (westom twilight) 
and it was BeKR (early dawn) — Day 
Second! 

[F. 9—12.] 

"And it was eReB (western twilight) 
and it was BeKR (early dawn) — Day 
Third ! 

[F. 14^18.] 

"And it was eReB (western twilight) 
and it was BeKR (early dawn) — Day 
JFOUETH ! 

[K 20—22.] 

"And it was eReB (uies^em twilight) 
and it was BeKR (early dawn) — Day 
Fifth ! 

"And ELoHIM said, 'Let us make 
(the universality of) the A-DaM (the- 
RED-man) after our image, like our like- 
ness, and let him rule over the fish of 
the seas and over the bird of the skies 
and over the cattle and over all the 
[whole] earth and over all the crawler 
crawling upon the earth.' And ELoHIM 
created (the universality of) the A-DaM 
(TflE-RED-man) after bis image, after the 
image of ELoHI.M created (he) them. 
And ELoHIM blessed them and 
ELoHIM said to them 'Be fruitful and 
multiply, and fill the (universality of) 
earth and subject it, and rule over fish 
of the seas and over bird of the skies 
and over all the living that crawls upon 
the earth.' 

[F. 29—30.] 

"And it was cKeB (joes(ern twilight) 
and it was BeKR (early dawn) — Day 
the Sixth! 

[Ch. ii. V. 1, 2.] 
"And ELoUlM blessed the (univers- 
ality of) <?ay-the-SEVENTH and sanctified 
it, because he SAaBaTi (rested, and 
seventhed) from all his work which 
ELoHIM created to act " — (i. e., by its 
own organism henceforward). 

Finis. 



DOCUMENT No. II. — Genesis n. 4 ; 
in. 24. 

33o|)ular ffircation of tje ESSotVti 
— later, anU 3Pecsic. 



"Such (the) generations (literally, 
brinffingfm-lhs) of the skies and the 
earth according to their creation, on 
(the) day leHOuaH-EtoHiM made earth 
and skies. 

[F. 5, 6.] 

"And leHOuaH-ELOHiM formed the 

(nnivcrsality of) A-DaM (THE-KED-man) 
of dust from the A-DaMaH (the-red- 
earth) and breathed in (his) nostrils 
breath of life, and the A-DaM (the-bed- 
man) became (a) living creature. And 
leHOuaH-ELOHiM planted (a) garden in 
eDeN (or, t'n-DEiiGHT) to (the) East, and 
there placed the (universality of) 
A-DaM (THE-RED-man) whom he had 
formed. 

[F. 9—14.] 

"And leHOuaH-EiOHiM took the 
(universality of) A-DaM and placed 
him in (the) garden of eDeN (or, de- 
light) to cultivate it and to guard it. 

[F. 16—20.] 

"And leHOuaH-ELOBiM made the 
A-DaM (THE-KED-man) to fall (into a) 
great drowsiness, and he slept ; and he 
took one of his ribs and flUed-in flesh 
in place thereof AndleHOuaH-EioHiM 
constructed the rib which he had taken 
from the A-DaM (THE-RED-man) into 
AiS/iiH (woman — or ISE, Isis) and 
brought her to the A-DaM (the-kej>- 
man). 

[F.20. CA. iii. D. 19.] 

"And the A-DaM (THE-RED-man) called 
(the) name of AiSAaT^ (his wife, or 
ISeT, Isis) KAiUaH (life), because she 
was (the) mother of all KAala (living). 

[F. 21—23.] 

" So he drove-out the (universality 
of) A-DaM (THE -RED -man); and he 
placed at (the) East to (the) garden of 
eDeN (delight) the (universality of) 
KeRuBIM (fiery-disks), of which he 
made the central-flame revolve to 
guard the road to (the) tree of the 
KAalalM (lives). 

Finis. 



STRUCTURE OF GENESIS I., II., AND III. 563 

Our present object limiting itself to the Creadon of Man, as set forth in the above two 
documents — each, the reader now perceives, distinct altogether the one from the other — 
we withhold (contrary to our habit) authorities for our arrangement of the " document 
Elohim." The Hebraist will concede that we have adhered with rigid fidelity to the Text; 
and that suffices until we resume biblical mysteries on a future occasion, when authority 
enough shall be forthcoming. Yet, to the curious investigator, we feel tempted to offer the 
"Air" of Ihe Music of the Spheres: 



-P — h- 



ti-=t==r==±:=^=t=F=l 



^-^1 



If he be a musician, he can play it on a piano ; if he is a geometrician, he will find its cor- 
responding notes on the sides of an equilateral triangle added to the angles of a square ; if 
he loves metaphysics, Plato will explain the import of unity, matter, logos, perfection, imper- 
fect, justice, repose; while Pythagoras will class for him monad, duad, triad, quaternary, qui- 
nary, senary, and septenary. We hope to strike the octave note some day ourselves ; but, 
in the meanwhile, should the reader be profound in astronomical history, and if he can 
determine the exact time when the ancients possessed neither more nor less than "five pla- 
nets, besides the Sun and Moon," there are two archseological problems his acumen will 
have solved — 1st, the arithmetico-harmonical antiquity of the number 7 ; and 2d, the pre- 
cise era beyond which it will thenceforward be impossible to carry back the composition 
of that ancient Ode we term "Genesis i — ii. 3." 

Being of an epoch much more recent; arranged upon a geographical basis purely Chaldcean; 
and containing allusions to a garden of delight (like the famed "hanging-gardens" of 
Babylon, and the paradisiacal parks of Persia) ; the "Jehovistic document" throws little or 
no light upon ancient ethnography. A-DaM, as we shall see, never was intended by the 
Jehovistic writer, to be the proper-name "Adam," as the versions pretend. The woman 
AiSAaH (when the masoretic points or other arbitrary and modern diacritical marks are 
removed) becomes ASH, or (vowels being vague) ISE : identified with the Coptic ISE, as 
well as with the hieroglyphical appellative of that primordial ISI, whom the Greeks 
(through the addition of their euphonizing Sigma) made into the goddess ISIS : "for," says 
Clemens Alexandrinus, "in that which belongs to the occult the enigmas of the Egyptians 
are similar to those of the Hebrews." 675 Qne of the titles of this myrionymed goddess was 
"the universal mother;'^ and naturally so, "because she was the mother of all living" 
(Gen. iii. 20). 

"I am," says ISIS, "Nature; parent of all things, the sovereign of the elements, the 
primary progeny of Time, the most exalted of the deities, the first of the heavenly gods 
and goddesses, the queen of the shades, the uniform countenance ; who dispose with my 
rod the numerous lights of heaven, the salubrious breezes of the sea, and the mournful 
silence of the dead ; whose single deity the whole world venerates in many forms, with 
various rites and many names. The Egyptians, skilled in ancient lore, worship me with 
proper ceremonies, and call me by my true name, Queen ISIS." 

In consequence, the " document Jehovah " does not especially concern our present sub- 
ject ; and it is incomparable with the grander conception of the more ancient and unknown 
writer of Genesis 1st. With extreme felicity of diction and conciseness of plan, the latter 
has defined the most philosophical views of antiquity upon cosmogony ; in fact so well, that 
it has required the palaeontological discoveries of the XlXth century — at least 2500 years 
after his death — to overthrow his septenary arrangement of "Creation;" which, after all, 
would still be correct enough in general principles, were it not for one individual oversight, 
and one unlucky blunder ; not exposed, however, until long after his era, by post-Copernican 
astronomy. The oversight is where he wrote (Ge^z. i. 6 — 8) : " Let there be RaQl? ;" i. e., a 
firmament; which proves that his notions of "sky" (solid like the concavity of a copper basin 
with stars set as brilliants in the metal), 6^7 were the same as those of adjacent people of his 
time : indeed, of all men before the publication of Newton's Frincipia and of Laplace's 



564 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Mecanique Celeste. The blunder isTvhere he conceives that AUR, "light," and lOM, "day" 
[Gen. i. 14 — 18), could have been physically possible three whole days before the " two grfeat 
luminaries," Sun and Moon, were created. These venial errors deducted, his majestic song 
beautifully illustrates the simple process of ratiocination through which — often without the 
slightest historical proof of intercourse — different " Types of Mankind," at distinct epochas, 
and in countries widely apart, had arrived, naturally, at cosmogonic conclusions similar to 
the doctrines of that Hebraical school of which his harmonic and melodious numbers remain 
a magnificent memento. 

That process seems to have been the following. The ancients knew, as we do, that man 
is upon the earth ; and they were persuaded, as we are, that his appearance was preceded 
by unfathomable depths of time. Unable (as we are still) to measure periods antecedent 
to man by any chronological standard, the ancients rationally reached the tabulation of 
some events anterior to man, through induction — a method not original with Lord Bacon, be- 
cause known to St. Paul; " for his unseen things from the creation of the world, his eternal 
power and godhead, are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. i. 20). 
Man, they felt, could not have lived upon earth without animal food; ergo, "cattle" preceded 
him ; together with birds, reptiles, fishes, &c. Nothing living, they knew, could have 
existed without light and heat; ergo, the solar system antedated animal life, no less than 
the vegetation indispensable for animal support. But terrestrial plants cannot grow without 
earth; ergo, dryland had to be separated from pre-existent "waters." Their geological 
speculations inclining rather to the Neptunian than to the Plutonian theory — for Werner 
ever preceded Hutton — the ancients found it diflScult to "divide the waters from the 
waters" without interposing a metallic substance that " divid'ed the waters which were 
under the firmament from the waters that were ahove the firmament ;" so they inferred, 
logically, that a firmament must have been actually created for this object. \E. g., " The 
windows of the skies" [Gen. vii. 11) ; "the waters above the skies" [Ps. cxlviii. 4).] Be- 
fore the "waters" (and here is the peculiar error of the genesiacal bard), some of the 
ancients claimed the pre-existence of light (a view adopted by the writer of Genesis 1st) ; 
whilst others asserted that "chaos" prevailed. Both schools united, however, in the 
conviction that darkness — Erebus 6^8 — anteceded all other created things. What, said 
these ancients, can have existed before the "darkness?" Ens entitim, the CREATOR, 
was the humbled reply. ELoHIM is the Hebrew vocal expression of that climax; to 
define whose attributes, save through the phenomena of creation, is an attempt we leave 
to others more presumptuous than ourselves. 

" Gob," nobly exclaims De Bretonne, " has no need to strike our ears materially to make 
himself heard, our eyes to make himself seen. The first act of triumph of the spirit over 
matter is the discredit of emblems that have disguised the infinite God ; and the first step 
towards truth is to recognize him without image, after having, for so long a period, modelled 
him after our own." <^9 

What definition of the Godhead more sublime than that in the Hindoo Vedas? — 

"He who surpasses speech, and through the power of whom speech is expressed, 

" know, thou ! that He is Beahma, and not these perishable things that man adores. 
" He who cannot be comprehended by intelligence, and he alone, say the sages, 

"through the power of whom the nature of intelligence can be understood, know, 

" thou! that He is Brahma, and not these perishable things that man adores. 
" He who cannot be seen by the organ of vision, and through the power of whom the 

" organ of seeing sees, know, thou ! that He is Brahma, and not these perishable 

" things that man adores. 

"He who cannot be heard by the organ of audition, and through the power of 

"whom the organ of hearing hears, know, thou! that He is Brahma, and not 

"these perishable things that man adores. 

" He who cannot be perceived by the organ of scent, and through the power of 

"whom the organ of smelling smells, know, thou ! that He is Brahma, and not 

" these perishable things that man adores." 6S0 



STRUCTURE OF GENESIS I., II., AND III. 565 

Phoenician, Chaldeean, and many other nations' cosmogonies present both striking re- 
semblances and divergences. Some of them are compared with Genesis, very ably, by 
Palfrey ; 681 from whom we borrow these words of the A lexandrian cosmogony of Diodortjs 
SicuLus — "This is not unlike what Euripides says, who was a disciple of Anaxagoras. 
For this is his language in the Melanippe : 

' There was one aspect to sky and earth ; 
Then the secret powers doing their office 
Produced all things unto the regions of light, 
Beasts, birds, trees, the sea-flock, 
Finally, men themselTce.' " 

But that which ancient philosophers attained through the laws of inductive reasoning, if 
to themselves clear and satisfactory, could not be conveyed in a form so indefinite to the in- 
telligence of the illiterate, nor to children. Such undeveloped minds require dogmatical 
tuition. The teachers, so to say, had inductively ascended along an imaginary ladder, 
from man as its basis ; until, having established some facts in nature antecedent to his 
terrestrial advent, they reached its top, when they recognized that there must be a First 
Cause anterior to the "beginning:" but, so soon as these scientific results were to be con- 
veyed to pupils, the dogmatical method became necessary : wherefore the preceptors re- 
versed the order; and, commencing at the top of the supposititious ladder, they taught — 
" In the beginning ELoHIM created." Each rung, as they came down, marked, like degrees 
on a scale, the order in which previous induction had established the relative places of 
events ; and thus every intellectual nation possessed a " Genesis." That of the Hebrew 
Elohistic writer possesses the superior merit of being a scientific hymn,682 arranged in true 
accordance with the septenary scale of numerical harmonies. 

Viewed as a literary work of ancient humanity's loftiest conception of Creative Power, 
it is sublime beyond all cosmogonies known in the world's history. Viewed as a narra- 
tive inspired by the Most High, its conceits would be pitiful and its revelations false ; 
because telescopic astronomy has ruined its celestial structure, physics have negatived its 
cosmic organism, and geology has stultified the fabulous terrestrial mechanism upon which 
its assumptions are based. How, then, are its crude and juvenile hypotheses about Human 
Creation to be received ? 

Before answering this interrogatory, it may be instructive to peruse some Fathers of the 
Church : 

1st. Okigen. — " To what man of sense, I beg of you, could one make believe, that the 
first, the second, and the third day of creation, in which notwithstanding an evening 
and a morning are named, could have existed without sun, without moon, and without 
stars ? — that, during the first day, there was not even a sky ! Who shall be found so 
idiotic as to admit that God delivered himself up like a man to agriculture, by planting 
trees in the garden of Eden situate towards the East ; that one of those trees was 
that of life, and that another could give the science of good and evil ? No one, I think, 
can hesitate to regard these things a.s figures, beneath which mysteries are hidden." ®3 
The same patristic scholar adds elsewhere — "Were it necessary to attach ourselves to 
the letter, and to understand that which is written in the Law after the manner of the 
Jews or the populace, I should blush [erubesco dicere) to say aloud that it is God who 
has given us such laws : I should find even more grandeur and reason in human 
legislations ; for example, in those of the Athenians, of Romans, or of Lacedsemo- 
nians."^8t 

2d. Clemens Alexandrinus — "For your Genesis in particular was never the work of 
Moses. "685 — " Horum ergo scripta (Orphei et Hesiodi) in duas partes intelligentiae 
dividuntur; id est, secundum litteram sunt ignobilis vulgi turba confluxit, ea vero quae 
secundum allegoriam constant omnis philosophorum et eruditorum loquacitas admi- 
rata est." 686 St. Clement applies exactly the same principles to Genesis (xxvi.), where 
he exclaims — "0 divine jesting ! It is the same that Heraclitus attributes to Jupiter^ 



566 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Abimelecli is Jesus Christ, our king, who, from the heavens above, considers our sports, 
our actions of grace, our transports of joy."687 
3d. St. Augustine — "There is no way of preserving the true sense of the irst three 
chapters of Genesis, without attributing to God things unworthy of him, and for 
which one must have recourse to allegory. "Si's 
4th. St. Jerome — who, in his commentary upon Jeremiah, enforces the allegorical 
method — " Sive Mosbn dicere volueris auctorem Pentateuchi, sive Esdram ejusdem 
instauratorem operis, non recuse." 689 

Let the most philosophic of many truly-learned Rabbis close the list : — 
Maimonides — " There are some persons to whom it is repugnant to perceive a motive in 
a given law of the (divine) laws ; they love better to find no rational sense in the com- 
mandments and prohibitions. That which leads them to this, is a certain feebleness 
they feel in their souls, but upon which they are unable to reason, and of which they know 
not how to give any account. This is what they think. If the laws should profit us 
in this (temporal) existence, and that they had been given to us for such or such a 
motive, it might very well be that they are the product of the reflection and of the 
intelligence of a man of genius: if, on the contrary, a thing possesses no comprehensible 
sense and that it produces no advantage whatever, it emanates, without doubt, from 
the Deity, because human thought could not lead to such a thing. One would say 
that, according to these weak minds, man is greater than his Creator ; because man 
(according to them) speaks and acts while aiming at a certain object ; whereas God, 
far from acting similarly, would order us, on the contrary, to do that which to our- 
selves is not of the least utility, and would forbid us from actions that cannot cause us 
the slightest damage." (Arabic^, 'DellAlat el Khd,yereen ; Hebraic^, More Nehoukhlm ; 
"Guide to the Strayers," ch. xxxi. : Mujmk's Translation, Paris, 1833.) 
They all — i. e., the Fathers of the first centuries — attributed a double sense to the 
words of Scripture, the one obvious and literal, the other hidden and mystical, which lay 
concealed as it were under the outward letter. The former they treated with the utmost 
><'.;»lect ;690 following St. Paul's authority — "For the Ze^^er killeth, but the spirit giveth 
life." — (2 Corinth, iii. 6.) 



Section Cr. — Cosmas-Indicopleustes. 

Eut, in tlje proportion that Hellenic learning faded in Alexandrian 
schools, so patristic talent and scholarship also deteriorated. That 
" Genesis" which, by the earlier Fathers, had been ascribed to Ezra 
rather than to Moses, and the language of which, to more refined 
Grecian intellects, appeared too contemptible for Divinity unless con- 
strued in an allegorical sense, at length began to be accepted verbatim 
et litteratim by Christian writers : the strenuousness of orthodoxy, in 
any creed, increasing always in the ratio that mental culture declines. 
At last, arose a Monk who, unjustly forgotten by the Church though 
he be now, did more to petrify theological stolidity in Europe, for 
800 years, with respect to the first three chapters of Genesis, than 
any human being but himself — Co^M.AS-Indicopleustes. 

" He is," says the learned Mr. Sharpe, " of the dogmatical school which forbids all 
inquiry as heretical. He fights the battle which has been so often fought before and since, 
and is even still fought so resolutely, the battle of religious ignorance against scientific 



COSMAS-INDICOPLEUSTES. 567 

knowledge. He sets the words of the Bible against the results of science ; he denies that 
the world is a sphere, and quotes the Old Testament against the pagan philosophers, to 
show that it is a plane, covered by the firmament as a roof, above which he places the 
kingdom of heaven. . . . The arguments employed by Cosmas were unfortunately but too 
often used by the Christian world in general, who were even willing to see learning itself 
fall with the overthrow of paganism. All knowledge was divided into sacred and profane, 
and whatever was not drawn from the Scriptures was slighted and neglected ; and this per- 
haps was one of the chief causes of the darkness which overspread the world during the 
middle ages." *9i 

To comprehend the force of these observations it may be well to preface our description 
of the Topographia Christiana by a few excerpts from Matter. 692 

The only Christian Father whose writings evince the humblest acquaintance with Egyp- 
tian studies, Clemens Alexandrinus, expressly says, that the "Egyptians taught the Greeks 
the movement of the planets round the sun ;" and, since 1848, Egyptology can proudly add 
the extraordinary discoveries of Lepsius in hieroglyphical Astronomy, which are likely 
to be carried to results little expected, through Biot.693 

About B. c. 603, Thales had observed an eclipse of the sun. He taught the spheroidily if 
not the sphericity of the earth ; he knew the obliquity of the ecliptic ; knew that the moon 
was illumined by the sun ; and explained solar eclipses by the intervention of the lunar 
disc between the earth and the sun. In the succeeding century, Pythagoras sustained the 
sphericity of the earth, and its movement, with the planets, round the sun ; and his disciples 
Leucippus and Uemocritus added some acquaintance with the rotary motion of the earth 
upon its axis. Eudosus advocated similar doctrines. Now, Thales, Pythagoras, and Eu- 
doxus, had studied under genuine hierogrammatists in Egypt. 

The grand Stagyrite (who had not drunk of Nilotic waters) maintained the contrary ; 
viz., that the sun revolved around the earth. In vain did Aristarchus strive to bring science 
back to truer principles. His voice was unheard for sixteen centuries. Hipparchus deter- 
mined the precession of the equinoxes, &c., during the 2d century b. c. ; but, his more im- 
portant works being lost, " tulit alter honores ;" because Ptolemy, a far better geographer 
than astronomer, has not revealed what of his great predecessor's views militated aga i3t 
his own celestial dogmas. In the early part of the 2d century, after c, Ptolemy had wo- 
fully retrograded from ancient Greco-Egyptian science ; for he held to the absolute immo- 
bOity of the earth, and made the sun revolve around our globe. Denouncing the contrary 
system as too ridiculous to merit attention, he gives his own reason for opposing it, viz., "that 
one always sees the same half of the sky " ! " The earth," says Claudius Ptolemy, " is not 
only central, but also stationary. If it had an individual motion (upon its axis) such move- 
ment would be proportioned to its mass. It would, therefore, leave behind it the animals 
and other bodies, which would be carried into the air, — it would fliy away from them, and 
escape froin the sky ! No object not fixed to the earth, no bird, could advance to the east- 
ward with the same rapidity as the globe " ! Unsuspected before Newton, the laws of gravi- 
tation and attraction could not ease Ptolemy's perplexities. 

AVe have seen that the older and wiser Fathers of the Church (who must have been more 
or less read in the higher Grecian classics), unable to reconcile the letter of " Genesis" with 
what they well knew to be positive philosophy, had recourse, like Philo, to allegorical expla- 
nations : which means, simply, that they disbelieved genesiacal stories as revealed in the 
Scptuagint, and therefore nullified them by inventing mystic hypotheses. 'They sustained, 
however, in their writings, no especial theory upon astronomy or geography: but, that 
with which Clemens, and Origen, and Anatolius, and Synesius, and Theophilus, and even 
Cyril, had refrained from meddling, was grasped, with Promethean audacity, by an itine- 
rant trader of the sixth century after c. ; whose temerarious zeal, when he had adopted 
monastic vows, was exceeded merely by his delicious stupidity; as we now proceed to 
prove. Cosmas, setting a Greek copy of " Genesis" before him, composed, upon that poor 
version's literal language, his Topographia Chrisliana.^^^ Of Ilehrew he had not an idea. 




568 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

He, Cosmas aforesaid, commences with a practical de- 
monstration of the absurdity of "Antipodes," — by draw- 
ing a figure like this ; — 

He then acutely observes : — " Cum figura hominis recta 
sit, qui fit ut quatuor illi eodem tempore stantes recti non 
sint; sed quocumque vertas eos, quatuor illi simul nun- 
quam videantur ; quomodo ergo fieri potest ut vanas illas 
mendacesque hypotheses admittamus ? Quomodo ergo fieri 
potest ut eodem tempore pluvia in quatuor illos dccidat ? 
Quod ergo nee natura nee mens nostra admittere potest, id 
cur frustra supponitis?" — "Thus," continues Montfaucon, 
" Cosmas here and throughout Topographia Christiana, ut 
et multi alii ex SS. PP. qui nee gravitatis centrum, nee astrono- 
mtcas observationes, callebant." '^^ 

St. Augustine it was who had '^ seen folks with an eye in the pit of their stomachs; " so 
his testimony is unsafe ; but Lactantius had beheld fewer marvels, and we quote him : — 
" Ineptum credere esse homines quorum vestigia sint superiora quam capita, aut ibi qute 
apud nos jacent inversa pendere, fruges et arbores deorsnm versus crescere. . . . Hujus 
erroris origm^rsi pMlosophis fuisse quod existimarint rotundum esse mundum." 
' For the sake of contrast with later patristric orthodoxy, let justice be meted out to some 
old rabbinical capacities. The most ancient authors of the Ouemara were acquainted with 
the spherical form of the earth; for they say, in the Jerusalem Talmud, that Alexander 
the Great, going over the earth to conquer it, ascertained that it was round ; and it is on 
that account that statuary represents him with a globe in his hand. 696 Albeit, there are 
Judaical authorities of higher antiquity in the Zohar — a book which probably antedates, 
but in any case approximates to, the Christian era^S" — whose knowledge of the more an- 
cient systems of cosmogony led them to write as follows : — "In the book of Chamnouna 
the Old one learns, through extended explanations, that the earth turns upon itself in the 
form of a circle ; that some (people) are above, and others below ; that the aspect of all 
creatures changes according to the appearance of each place, while preserving nevertheless 
the same position ; that such a country of the earth there is that is lighted, whilst such 
others are in darkness ; the former have day when to others it is night ; and there are some 
countries where it is constantly day, or, at least, where night lasts but a few instants."698 
But such profanity was unintelligible to Cosmas. No ray of light, from scientific sources, 
could penetrate into a blockhead. 

To him, the habitable earth is a plane surface, having the form of a parallelogram, of 
which the sides are double in length to the top and bottom. Inside this oblong square are 
four basins, the Mediterranean, the Caspian, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Outside 
the parallelogram the circumambient ocean surrounds the inner oblong-square, and sepa- 
rates it from the outer continents (primitively inhabited by Adam's family), from paradise, 
and from the " garden of Eden," which are situate upon a mountain at the East. Here 
dwelt our first parents, until the ark of Noah, during the deluge, ferried them over to the 
inner continent where we ourselves reside unto this day. Cosmas ignored whatever he 
could not find in the Bible ; and, wiser than our modern theologers, this modest pattern for 
prurient orthodoxy never discovered China, Northern Europe, Central Africa, America, Poly- 
nesia, or Australia, in the canonical Scriptures. Let his map, and his own perspicuous 
language, explain true Mosaic cosmology. He begins with the exact Greek letter of 
Genesis i. 1: but his editor kindly furnishes the Vulgate: — " Scriptum est In prikcipio 
FECIT Deus ccelum et teeram. Primum itaque cflj/wm fornicatum." 699 

[N. B. My own tracing (made at the British Museum, in 1848, for personal remem- 
brance) being too rough, we are indebted to the accomplished Mrs. Luke Burke for the 
facsimile transcript, of which the above is a copy; reduced slightly more than one half. 
Typographical exigenda compel us also to transfer Cosmas's explanations from the map 



COSMAS-INDICOPLEUSTES. 



569 



CosMAs's Map. — Fig. 358. — " I. TABULA." 
12 3 




O70 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

itself into our text; but the letters A, B, C, &c., indicate the place of each. As the work 
of Cosmas is exceedingly rare, we hope theological students will appreciate the pains taken 
to furnish them with so clear an illustration of what they still call " Mosaic" cosmogony. 
— G. K. G.] 

CosMAs's Greek Explanations. 
A — Adulis city [Abyssinia). 
B — the road from Adulis to the East — 
Ethiopians travelling. 



C — Ptolemy's chair. 

D — Firmament. 

E "1 Waters which are above the Pirma- 

F / ment. 

G "t Columns (to support the Firma- 

H / ment). 

I — inhabited earth. 

J — land beyond the Ocean, where men 

dwelt before the Deluge. 
K — land beyond the Ocean. 
L — Caspian Sea. 
M — River Phison. 



N — 4 Points of the compass. 

— Mediterranean Sea. 

P — Arabian Gulf. 

Q — Tigris. 

R — Euphrates. 

S — River Gihon. 

T — land beyond the Ocean. 

U — the Sun Occident. 

V — the Sun Orient. . 
X — the Sun Occident. 

Y — the Sun Orient. 

Z — is Cosmas's picture of the Almighty 
looking down, and seeing that " it 
was good." 



In the IVth book of " Topographia Christiana," the pious Cosmas describes his hydro- 
graphic and ecclesiastical principles ; but, rich as they are, his argumentation is too prolix 
for our purposes, which are served by translating Montfaucon's synopsis of his author's 
elucidation of Plate I. 

"Fig. 1. In the first figure, the cityAnoDLi or Adulis [in Abyssinia] (for it is so called 
in both ways by Cosmas) is shown. Axumis, which is two miles distant from the Red 
Sea, is situated to the East ; for which reason an Ethiopian is represented, in his Ethio- 
pian costume, taking the Axumis road to Adulis. Then Ptolemy's chair' is delineated 
in the form it is said to have had by Cosmas. That [part of the chair] however, sculp- 
tured all over in characters, had only the last portion of the inscription added. But 
the inscription on the stone tablet placed opposite was finished — a fragment of which 
from the lower part together with its characters or letters had been destroyed. Above 
the stone tablet king Ptolemy Evekgetes himself is represented in his military attire 
as he appears in the picture. These things you will find more fully explained in page 
140 and the following. 
"Fig. 2. In the second figure the shape of heaven and earth is delineated according to 
the opinion of Cosmas and the old Fathers, who thought the earth, as it were, fiflat 
surface, extending beneath and inclosed by walls on all sides ; and that these walls were 
raised to an immense height, and finally arranged themselves into the form of a vault; 
while the firmament pervaded the higher part of the vault so that it (beatorum sedes) 
might be the seat of the Blest. [The same idea ('firmament,' Hebraicfe SKAKIM 
KAZKIM — literally, solid skies) occurs in Job xxxvii. 18. Thus Cahen renders — 
' As-tu etendu avec lui les cieux, solides comme un miroir metallique ?' And Noyes — 

'Canst thou like him spread out the slcy 

Which is firm like a molten mirror? ' 700 

But, under the firmament, they thought the sun, moon, and stars, were put in mo- 
tion ; and that a conical mountain of wondrous height rose up in the northern parts of the 
earth ; and while the sun, performing his circuit round the earth, stood behind this 
mountain, there was night to those inhabiting the earth ; but, on the other hand, it 
was day when the sun shone upon us on the reverse [i. e., on our side] of the moun- 
tain : and, in a similar way Cosmas reasons with respect to the moon and stars ; see 
page 186 and the following. 
" Fig. 3. Exhibits a prospective view of the universe ; that is to say, of the heavens 



COSMAS-INDICOPLEUSTES. 571 

and the earth in the part where they are more closely drawn together; for Cosmas 
thought the earth was square and oblong, and the same is assumed with respect to the 
hea,vens. See page 180 and following. 

" Fig. 4. Represents a conical mountain, and the earth, together with the sun and 
moon, under the firmament. But on the sides [JbJ ix. 6 — oMUDIH — ' Pillars (of the 
earth)'; Job xxvi. 11 — ' pillars oi the skies'] are represented ih.Q pillars of heaven, 
with an inscription [in Greek !'\ upon the plan here presented — oi siiXo< toB oipawni — 
the columns of the sky ; which columns, according to the opinion of Cosmas, I think to 
be those walls which arise on the sides from the earth up to the heavens (^Psalms 
cxlviii. 4 — ' Ye waters that be above the skies'). 

" Fig. 5. The outline of the earth and its hvoypaipiav are traced out. You may observe 
that Cosmas conjectured that the immensely-high conical mountain presented an obsta- 
cle where our earth could not, at the northern part, be so well inclosed by a right line ; 
because its foundations on that side are round, as if they proceeded from a great pro- 
montory in the ocean. 

" Fig. 6. Displays the rugged plain of the earth, such as Cosmas explains in many 
places ; for he thought, as we have said befoi-e, that the earth was oblong, and its 
length twice as long as its breadth, and that an ocean surrounded the entire earth, as is 
here represented. But, beyond the ocean, there was yet another land adhering closely, 
on all sides, to the walls of heaven. Upon the eastern side of this transmarine land he 
judges that man was created; and that there the paradise of gladness yv as located, 
such as here, on the eastern edge, is described : where it received our first parents, 
driven out of paradise to that extreme point of land on the sea-shore. Hence, upon 
the coming of the deluge, Noah with his sons was borne by the ark to this earth we 
now inhabit. The four rivers, he supposes, to be gushing up the spouts in paradise ; 
with subterranean channels through the ocean, to our earth, and in certain places that 
they gush out anew. He considers that the Hyrcanian Sea [Caspian] is joined to the 
ocean ; which we have elsewhere shown was the opinion of certain ancients. 

" Fig 7. He briefly dispatches the whole machinery of the world, which, as the an- 
cients thought, was composed of the skg and the earth. Its form he represents, with 
the conical mountain above alluded to. But Cosmas- JEgypticus deemed that the earth 
which we inhabit was always inclining from the north to the south. Albeit Cosmas 
contradicts himself. How can such a mass as that of heaven and earth stand, sup- 
ported by nothing, since it is always pressed downward? He answers — the earth, 
inasmuch as it is ponderous matter by nature, seeks the bottom ; but the igneous parts 
tend upward : therefore, when sky and earth are thus joined and cannot be torn asun- 
der, the one pressing from above and the other from below, neither yielding to the 
other, the whole machine remains immovable and suspended. [' This is a grand argu- 
ment,' says air. Burke, commenting in a private letter, ' and beats the Newtonian 
theory out and out ! Only fancy ; two forces shut up in a box, one pulling up, and 
the other pulling down, and the box, in consequence, remaining ' immota et suspensa ! ' 
This is, beyond exception, the brightest mechanical idea I have ever come across']. 

" Fig. 8. He represents the conical mountain on that side which is turned adversely to 
the earth ; where, when the sun arrives, night is produced to the earth's inhabitants. 
In the same place the revolutions of the sun are indicated by lines [upon the conical 
mountain] ; whereby the various seasons of the year are caused. When, therefore, the 
sun arrives at the lower line, the nights then are longer, and it makes winter, rpoirn, or 
revolution : the sun performing the major portion of his course be?iind the mountain. 
When, however, the sun comes to the middle line of the mountain, then the equinox is 
produced; the sun in perfoi-ming his course having reached the equinoctial line. 
When, finally, the sun touches the uppermost line, then the summer revolution takes 
place, and he attains to the tropic. This is in conformity with the opinion of Cosmas 
who describes the revolutions of the sun in these words — iieynXii vu^, great night; lihri 
vuf, middle night; fiKpa virf little night; as you behold in the picture." 



572 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Through the above parody upon nature, Cosmas explained all celestial phenomena — 
the course of the moon, its phases and eclipses, as well as the sun's rotation round the 
earth's flat plain. The Topographia Christiana became the text-book of ecclesiastical ortho- 
doxy, for above 800 years, down to Galileo ; and Cosmas's caricature on the one hand, 
coupled with ignorance of the Hebrew text of Joshua (x. 12-14) on the other, induced the 
murder of Giordano Bruno. 

Nevertheless, according to the literal language of the first IX chapters of "Genesis," 
Cosmas was not far from the truth. Were the ancient writers of those chapters to arise 
from the grave, and were they respectfully requested to indicate which commentary best 
represented their meaning — that of the Topographia Christiana ; or those recent attempts 
" to make Moses sound in the faith of the geological section of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science " ™i — they would unanimously claim the former as their own. 

Happy middle-ages ; wlien Europe made up in credulity what it lacked in intelligence ! 
"They had neither looked into heaven, nor earth; neither into the sea, nor the land, as 
has been done since. They had philosophy without scale, astronomy without demonstra- 
tion. They made war without powder, shot, cannon, or mortars ; nay, the mob made bon- 
fires without squibs or crackers. They went to sea without compass, and sailed lacking 
chronometers. They viewed the stars without telescopes, and measured altitudes without 
barometers. Learning had no printing-press, writing no paper, paper no ink ; magnetism 
no telegraph, iron no rails, steam no boilers. The lover was forced to send his mistress a 
deal-board for a love-letter, and a billet-doux might be of the size of a trencher. They were 
clothed without manufactures, and the richest robes were the skins of formidable monsters. 
They carried on trade without books, and correspondence without postage : their merchants 
kept no ledgers ; their shopkeepers no cash-books. They had surgery without anatomy, 
physicians without materia-medica ; who gave emetics without ipecacuanha, and cured 
agues without quinine. They dispensed with lucifer-matches, coffee, sugar, tea, and to- 
bacco""*® — and, never having heard of the first three chapters of " Genesis," they believed 
in Topographia Christiana ! 

The book is scarcely known, now-a-days, to theologers ; but its commentary (orally trans- 
mitted from father to son) survives all around us. We have conceived it our duty not to 
let the one continue without the other ; and therefore have rescued from further oblivion 
the Mosaic chart of Cosmas. 



Section H. — Antiquity of the name "ADaM." 

After what has been already set forth, there seems scarcely reason 
to answer an interrogatory, above propounded, relative to "human 
creation " as narrated in Genesis. Archaeological criticism might 
finally rest upon one Hebrew word ; viz. ADaM. 

The philological law of iriliterals, in Semitic tongues, has been touched upon during pre- 
vious examinations of Xth Genesis. " Non omnia possumus" — and the authors must 
reiterate that, in order to keep within one volume, they have been forced to expurgate 
redundancies, often, they fear, at the sacrifice of perspicuity. In lieu of extracts from the 
pages of Lanci, Meyer, Gesenius, Neumann, Ewald, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Prichard, 
Bunsen, — in addition to those previously drawn from Rawlinson, De Saulcy, &c. — all cor- 
roborating our correctness, we must substitute references to their authoritative works. 

The reader will observe, notwithstanding, that the bisyllable ADM cannot be a primitive 
but must be a secondary formation, according to the progressive scale of linguistic develop- 
ment. To reach the primary root, or monosyllable, within this triliteral word contained, 
an ajfix, a svffix, or a ?«e(/;aMetter, must be first removed. Among Hebraists of the highest 
modern school, on the European continent, the fact that "Adam" is a dissyllabic name alone 



ANTIQUITY OF THE NAME ADAM. 573 

suflSces to prove that its possessor appeared on earth thousands of years subsequently to 
the primordial ages of humanity ; because in principio man articulated but monosyllables. 
Or else (what is the same thing in result, no less than more positive) the Israelite -who 
(in some form of com-letter) wrote the word ADM, of Genesis, lived at a philological epoch 
when the pristine monosyllables had already (organically through development) merged into 
■words of two syllables ; and therefore, that writer committed an egregious anSichronism 
■when he retro-leptically ascribed a triliteral proper-name, or rather noun, to his first human 
progenitor. 

The word ADM, or •with an additional vowel, ADaM, is consequently to be divided into 
two separate words, A and DaM ; or A-DaM. Now, A, aleph, is the primeval, Semitic, 
masculine article A = " the" :"03 an article that, in Scripture, is prefixed to above forty 
masculine substantives ; although, until recently, the fact was unperceived by Hebrew 
grammarians, or Jewish lexicographers. 

In the next place, the word ADaM does not proceed, as the Rabbis suppose, from 
ADaMaH {Gen. ii. 7) — a bisy liable from a trisyllable ! — but the latter is an extension of the 
former root, DaM (Arabicfe, Bern), meaning blood; the color of which, being red, originated 
the secondary signification of DaM, as "red; " and "to be red." 

Consequently, A, the letter '^ aleph," being the masculine article the; and the noun DaM 
meaning blood, or "red," we have only to unite these two words into A-DaM, to read the- 
blood, or THE-KED, in " Genesis ;" which duplex substantive, applied to man, naturally sig- 
nifies " the-red-nxan ; " and, when applied to the ground, ADaMaH ("out of the dust" of 
•which this the-red-ma,n, ADaM, was moulded), it means tfie-red-earth : i. e., that rubescent 
soil out of which the Jehovistic writer of Genesis lid imagined Hebrew man to have been 
fashioned by Creative artisanship. The BeNi-ADaM also, in Psalms (xlix. 2. Comp. Fs. 
Ixii. 9: and contrast with BeNoTZ-HaADaM, Gen. vi. 2), are reputed to he patricians of the 
pure Abrahamic stock ; whereas the plebeians (including all those who are, like Anglo- 
Saxons, mere GOIM, Gentiles) belong altogether to a different and lower level ... in the 
eye of leHOuaH. 

We adopt entirely the Italian rendering of the great interpreter of Sacred Philology at 
the Vatican ; and think, with Lanci, that il-rossicante, " the-Blusher," is the happiest trans- 
lation of the old Semitic particle and noun A-DaM. 

How does this interpretation bear upon ethnography ? 

Reader! simply thus. As no " Type of Mankind" but the white race can be said (phy- 
siologically) to blush ; it follows, that, according to the conception of the writers of Genesis 
(who were Jews and of the " white race "), not only did the first human pair converse be- 
tween themselves, no less than with God and with the serpent, in pure Hebrew, but they 
were essentially A-DsiMiies (red-raan and woman) " blushers : " — and therefore, these He- 
brew writers, never supposed that A-DaM and ISE (vulgaricfe, Adam and Eve) could have 
been of any stock than of the white type — in short, Hebrews, Abrahamidce, like themselves 
— these writers aforesaid. 

Thus, through a few cuts of an archseological scalpel, vanishes the last illusion that any 
but while " Types of Mankind " are to be found in the first three chapters of the book called 
" Genesis." 

The "Chinese" having been carefully removed further on from connection with the Me- 
sopotamian SINIM of Isaiah (xlix. 12), nothing remains but to refer the reader to the map 
[supra, p. 552] we have given of Xth Genesis for the whole of Ethnography comprehended 
by the writers of the Old Testament: Strabo, who followed Eratosthenes about B.C. 15, 
furnishing every possible information upon what of geography was attainable, in the first 
century after c, by the writers of the New. 

The present authors have asserted these results before. 



574 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

" That part of the map colored deep-red includes all the world known to the inspired 
writers of the Old Testament ; and this, with the part colored pale-red, includes all known 
to St. Paul and the Evangelists. — • As we have no evidence that their inspiration extended 
to matters of science, and we know that they were ignorant of Astronomy, Geology, Natural 
History, Geography, &c. — what evidence is there that they knew anything of the INHA- 
BITANTS of countries unknown to them, viz. : Americans, Chinese, Hindoos, Australians, 
Polynesians, and other contemporary races?" — (J. C. N. : Bibl. and Phys. Hist, of Man ; 
New York, 1849 ; " Map " and pp. 54-67.) 

" These unhistorical origines of nations are now adverted to, as a prelude to the discussion 
of the Xth chapter of Genesis (see Ethnological Journal, No. VI., note, page 2-54), whereby 
it will be demonstrated that, under ih.^ personifications of " Shem, Ham, and Japheth," their 
fifteen sons, and seventy-one grand-children, the Hebrew geographers, whose ken of the 
earth's superficies was even more limited than that of Eratosthenes, about b. c. 240, have 
never alluded to, nor intended, Mongolian, Malayan, Polynesian, American, or Nigritian 
races."— (G. R. G. : Otia Mgypliaca ; London, 1849: p. 124, "note.") 



Five years have since elapsed. Most of the conclusions advanced 
b}'' the authors have been challenged. Whether those conclusions 
were based, or not, upon thorough investigation of each department 
of the subject, the reader of the present volume is now best qualified 
to decide. 



PAKT III. 

Supplement. 
BY GEO. R. GLIDDON. 



ESSAY I. 

AKCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 

" Scriptura primum intelligi debet grammatice antequam possit explicari theologice." 

(Luther.) 

*' The Xth Chapter of Genesis — ArcJiaeologieal Introduction to 
its Study'' — is the heading given, in our "Prospectus," to Part III. 
of this work. 

To the generality of readers, educated under convictions that every process calculated 
to probe the historical evidences of the Hebrew Scriptures has heretofore been rigorously 
upplied to them, an Introduction termed " archseological " may seem, to say the least, super- 
fluous at the present day — while to not a few persons, the proposed method of examina- 
tion may, at first sight, even wear the aspect of presumptuousness. Nevertheless, having 
announced the intention, it behooves us to justify it. 

In common with other Protestants, since our earliest childhood, we have been assured 
that the Bible is the word of God — and that the inspiration of the writers of both Old and 
New Testaments rests upon testimony the most irrefragable. We have also been admonished 
in the language of the Apostle (1) to ^^ search the Scriptures;" coupled with the corrobora- 
tive exhortation, (2) " seek, and ye will find ; knock, and it will be opened unto you." 

Thus, on the one hand, asseverations the most positive fortify the inquirer who conscien- 
tiously examines whether the divine revelation of the Bible and the inspiration of its penmen 
are " built upon a rock;" at the same time that, on the other, the Gospels themselves invite 
him to search, seek, and scrutinize. 

Supportfd by such authority, no legitimate objection can be sustained, by Protestants, 
against the eniplnyment of what we conceive to be the only method through which the his- 
tuiical validity of a given proposition can be thoroughly tested; nor will logical orthodoxy 
coiitfs; Vater's axiom — "Faith in Christ can set no limits to critical inquiries; otherwise he 
would hinder the knowledge of Truth." 



(1) I'he good Tidings according to Jonx v. 39. 

(2) Tlie good Tidings according to Matthew, Tii. 7 ; copied in T7ie good Tidings according to Ltjke, xi. 9. We 
follow Sn\RPE: The Neio Testament, translated from Griesbajch's Text; wherein "will" is substituted for the 
" ehall " of king James's version. 

(575) 



576 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

Homo, according to Bacon, naturm minister et interpres, iantumfacit et intelligit quantum de 
naturcB ordine re vel mente observaverit ; nee amplius scii, aut potest. A finite being, ciroum- 
scribed within the intellectual horizon of the mundane age in which each individual lives, 
man can reason merely upon phenomena. Quicquid enim, wrote the immortal Newton, ez 
phenomenis non dedueitur hypothesis vocanda est; et hypotheses vel metaphysicce, vel physicoe, vel 
qualitatum occultarum sen mechanics, in philosophia locum non habent. 

What is Philosophy ? Etymologically, the " love of wisdom," and papaphrastically, the 
"love of knowledge ;" multiform are the significations through which this sublime Greek 
word has travelled. From the ablest English historian (3) of its phases, we extract such 
paragraphs as will convey to the reader our individual perceptions of its import at this 
day. 

"We shall find some obscurities cleared up, if we can master an accurate and compre- 
hensive definition of Philosophy. The definition I have finally settled upon is this : — 

"Philosophy is the expla7iation of the Phenomena of the Universe. By the term explanation, 
the subject is restricted to the domain of the intellect, and is thereby demarcated from 
religion, though not from theology. 

•' Philosophy is inherent in man's nature. It is not a caprice, it is not a plaything, it is 
a necessity ; for our life is a mystery, surrounded by mysteries : we are encompassed by 
wonder. The myriad aspects of Nature without, the strange fluctuations of feeling within, 
all demand from us an explanation. Standing upon this ball of earth, so infinite to us, 
so trivial in the infinitude of the universe, we look forth into nature with reverent awe, 
with irrepressible curiosity. We must have explanations. And thus it is that Philosophy, 
in some rude shape, is a visible effort in every condition of man — in the rudest phase of 
half-developed capacity, as in the highest conditions of culture : it is found among the 
sugar-canes of the West Indies, and in the tangled pathless forest of America. Take man 
where you will — hunting the buffalo on the prairies, or immovable in meditation on the hot 
banks of the Ganges, priest or peasant, soldier or student, man never escapes from the 
pressure of the burden of that mystery which forces him to seek, and readily to accept, 
some explanation of it. The savage, startled by the muttering of distant thunder, asks, 
'What is that?' and is restless tOl he knows, or fancies he knows. If told it is the voice 
of a restless demon, that is enough ; the explanation is given. If he then be told that, to 
propitiate the demon, the sacrifice of some human being is necessary, his slave, his enemy, 
his friend, perhaps even his child, falls a victim to the credulous terror. The childhood of 
man enables us to retrace [archseologically] the infancy of nations. No one can live with 
children without being struck by their restless questioning, and unquenchable desire to 
have everything explained; no less than by the facility with which every authoritative 
assertion is accepted as an explanation. The History of Philosophy is the study of man's 
successive attempts to explain the phenomena around and within him. 

" The first explanations were naturally enough drawn from analogies, afforded by con- 
sciousness. Men saw around them activity, change, force; they felt within them a myste- 
rious power, which made them active, changing, potent : they explained what they saw, by 
what they felt. Hence the fetichism of barbarians, the mythologies of more advanced 
races. Oreads and nymphs, demons and beneficent powers, moved among the ceaseless 
activities of Nature. Man knows that in his anger he storms, shouts, destroys. What, 
then, is thunder but the anger of some invisible being ? Moreover, man knows that a 
present will assuage his anger against an enemy, and it is but natural that he should 
believe the offended thunderer will also be appeased by some oflfering. As soon as another 
conception of the nature of thunder has been elaborated by observation and the study of 
its phenomena, the supposed Deity vanishes, and, with it, all the false conceptions it origi- 
nated, till, at last. Science takes a rod, and draws the terrible lightning from the heavens, 
rendering it so harmless that it will not tear away a spider's web ! 

" But long centuries of patient observation and impatient guessing, controlled by logic, 
were necessary, before such changes could take place. The development of Philosophy, 
like the development of organic life, has been through the slow additions of thousands upon 
thousands of years ; for humanity is a growth, as our globe is, and the laws of its growth 
are still to be discovered. . . . One of the great fundamental laws has been discovered by 
Auguste Gomte — viz : the law of mental Evolution . . . which he has not only discovered, 

(3) G. H. Lewes: Biographical History of Philosophy ; London, 1846. The substance of onr remarks may be 
found in vol. iv. pp. 245-262, under the heading of Auouste Comte, " the Bacon of the nineteenth century," and 
author of Cours de Philosnphie Positive. The original source of this ab.stract may be found in Comte, vol. i. 
edit. Paris, 1S30, "Exposition," pp. 3-5, 63, &c. ; but we take Mr. Lewks's later definitions from The Leader; 
London, 1852; April 17, 24, and May 1. A profound thinker has recently done full honor to Mr. Lewes's 
work. (Vide McCulloh: CrtdH/Uily oftlie Scriptures; Baltimore, 1852, vol. ii. pp. 454-458.) 



TO THE THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 577 

but applied historically. . . . This law may be thus stated: "Every branch of knowledge 
passes successively through three stages : 1st, the supernatural, or fictitious; 2d, the meta- 
physical, or abstract ; 3d, the positive, or scientific. The first is the necessary point of de- 
parture taken by human intelligence ; the second is merely a stage of transition from the 
supernatural to the positive ; and the third is the fixed and definite condition in which 
knowledge is alone capable of progressive development. 

" In the attempt made by man to explain the varied phenomena of the universe, history 
reveals to us," therefore, " three distinct and characteristic stages, the theological, the meta- 
physical, and the positive. In the first, man explains phenomena by some fanciful concep- 
tion suggested in the analogies of his own consciousness ; in the second, he explains 
phenomena by some i priori conception of inherent or superadded entities, suggested in 
the constancy obsei-vable in phenomena, which constancy leads him to suspect that they 
are not produced by any intervention on the part of an external being, but are owing to the 
nature of the things themselves ; in the third, he explains phenomena by adhering solely 
to these constancies of succession and co-existence ascertained inductively, and recognized 
as the hm-s of Nature. 

Consequently, " in the theological stage. Nature is regarded as the theatre whereon the 
arbitrary wills and momentary caprices of Superior Powers play their varying and variable 
parts. ... In the metaphysical stage the notion of capricious divinities is replaced by that 
oi abstract entities, whose modes of action are, however, invariable. ... In the positive stage, 
the invariableness of phenomena under similar conditions is recognized as the sum total of 
human investigation ; and, beyond the laws which regulate phenomena, it is considered idle 
to penetrate." 

" Although every branch of knowledge must pass through these three stages, in obe- 
dience to the law of evolution, nevertheless the process is not strictly chronological. 
Some sciences are more rapid in their evolutions than others ; some individuals pass 
through these evolutions more quickly than others ; so also of nations. The present intel- 
lectual anarchy results from that difference ; some sciences being in the positive, some in 
the supernatural [or theological], some in the metaphysical stage : and this is further to be 
subdivided into individual differences ; for in a science which, on the whole, may be fairly 
admitted as being positive, there will be found some cultivators still in the metaphysical 
stage. Astronomy is now in so positive a condition, that we need nothing but the laws of 
dynamics and gravitation to explain all celestial phenomena ; and this explanation we know 
to be correct, as far as anything can be known, because we can predict the return of a 
comet with the nicest accuracy, or can enable the mariner to discover his latitude, and find 
his way amidst the ' waste of waters.' This is a, positive science. But so far is meteorology 
from such a condition, that prayers for dry or rainy weather are still offered up in 
churches ; whereas if once the laws of these phenomena were traced, there would be no 
more prayers for rain than for the sun to rise at midnight." 

We have only to reverse the order, and apply its triple classification to individuals, and 
in the natural arrangement of the strata, tracing backwards from the positive to the meta- 
physical, from the latter down to the supernatural, we shall perceive that this last, at 
once the oldest stage and unhappily the most common, represents the least mature, the 
least educated, the most antiquated, state of human intelligence. In consequence, the 
mere supernatiiralisi believes anything and everything, however impossible. 

" The Metaphysician believes he can penetrate into the causes and essences of the pheno- 
mena around him; while the Positivist, recognizing his own incompetency, limits his efforts 
to the ascertainment of those laws which regulate the succession of these phenomena." 

In the quintuple classification of those sciences into which Positive Philosophy has hitherto 
been successfully inti-oduced, M. Comte (1832-40) admits only Astronomy, Physics, Chem- 
istry, Physiology, and Sociology. It strikes us that, at the present day, this division is 
more exclusive than the progression of knowledge any longer warrants. Archatology, for 
instance, we claim to have arrived at its positive grade ; and although its laws are by no 
means popularly appreciated, to have become as certain in its results as any other human 
science. A brief exposition of its attributes may prepare the reader for a just recognition 
of its utility. 

Ap;^aios, antiquus, "ancient," and Aoyos, a "discourse," are Hellenic words — meaning, when 
united, in general acceptation, ■' discourse or treatise on the opinions, customs, and man- 
ners of the ancients." This is the definition of Archaeology proposed by the sage Millin, (4), 

(4) Iniroduclion d VClude de T ArchCologu ; Paris, 1790; pp. 2. 20, 22. 



578 AECH^OLOGICAL INTKODTJCTION 

adopted by Lenormant, (5) and recognized by all true scholars from Niebuhr to Letronne ; 
especially among those intellectual giants who since Champollion's era have solved the chief 
enigmas of hieroglyphical and cuneatic records. Archaeography, as distinct from archae- 
ology, according to Fabricius, (6) is a term which should be limited to the study of ancient 
monuments especially, whereas archEeology embraces every process of investigation into 
all historical subjects. Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in the first century before C., and 
Josephus in the first century after, treated upon Archeology, but entirely neglected 
Archseography, or the study of monuments ; whence their several incoherencies : the 
former, however, had some clear perceptions of the truth when he named Archaeology 
" the science of primitive origins." 

Albeit, the word has deviated somewhat from its pristine sense ; for among the Greeks 
an archcBologist signified a man who brought together the most ancient recollections of a 
given country ; whereas, at the present day, the name is applied exclusively to him who, 
possessing intimate acquaintance with the monuments of a given ancient people, strives 
through the study of their characteristics to evolve facts, and thence to deduce logical con- 
clusions upon the ideas, tastes, propensities, habits, and history of departed nations ; 
many of the greatest and most essential of whom having left but fragmentary pages of 
their stone-hoohs, out of which we their successors must reconstruct for ourselves such por- 
tions of their chronicles as are lost ; no less than confirm, modify, or refute such others as 
have reached us through original, transcribed, or translated annals. 

Archseology, so to say, has now become the "backbone" of ancient history; its relation 
to human traditions being similar to that of Osteology to Comparative Anatomy ; or to what 
fossil remains are in geological science. An Antiquary is rather a collector of ancient relics 
of art, than one who understands them; but an Archcuologist is of necessity an Antiquary 
who brings every science to bear upon the vestiges of ancient man, and thus invests them 
with true historical value. In short, an Archaeologist is the monumental historian — the 
more or less critical dealer in and discoverer of historical facts, according as by mental dis- 
cipline, diversified attainments, and the study of things, he acquires thorough knowledge of 
each particle preserved to his research among the debris of antique humanity. 

Were the simplest rules of this science popularly taught, we should not have to prolong 
the lamentations of Millin at errors prevalent for want of a little archaeological knowledge. 
He narrates how Baronius took a statue of Isis for the Virgin Mary — how the apotheosis 
of the Emperor Germanicus was mistaken for St. John the Baptist's translation to heaven — 
and how a cameo called " the agate of Tiberius," which represents the triumphs of this 
prince and the apotheosis of Augustus, came to be long regarded as the triumphal march 
of Joseph ! Neptune and Minerva giving the horse and olive to man would not have been 
metamorphosed into Adam and Eve eating the forbidden apple ; nor would a trumpery 
pottery toy have been considered by His Eminence Cardinal Wiseman (7) as a Roman me- 
mento of Noah's Ark after the universal flood, although among its animals were "thirty- 
five human figures!" Without archaeology, says Millin, one is liable with the historian 
EoUin to speak of the Laocoon as a lost monument — to dress up Greek heroes in Roman 
garments — to adorn Hercules with a perruque ct la Louis XIV! ^sop, at the court of 
Croesus, would hardly have addressed himself to a colonel in French uniform ; nor Strabo, 
in " Democrite Amoureux," have pointed his quizzing-glass at steeples, and amused his 
leisure by making almanacs ; neither would Horace call Servius TuUius " Sire ; " nor Ra- 
cine have invoked a goddess as " Madame" in his classic plays. (8) 

More than half a century has elapsed since Millin wrote. Hundreds of archaeologists 
have made their works accessible to the literary public. Yet so slow is the difi'usion of 

(5) ArchCologie, par M. Ch. Lenokmant, de I'Institut : Revue ArcMoL; Paris, 1844; Ire partie, pp. 1-17. 
(0) Bihlioiheca Antiquaria ; p. 181. 

(7) Connection between Science and Revealed Religion; 1849; toI. ii. pp. 139-143. 

(8) See many recent instances of antiijuariaa siiams exposed by Letronne — " L'amulette de Jules Cfisar, le 
cachet de Sepullius Macer, le mfidaillon de Zenobie, le coffret d'Antinoiis, le sabre de Tespasien, et d'autres 
s^ntiqmtis moderncs" — Menwiret et Documents ; Rev.Archeol; Palis, 1849; pp. 192-223. 



TO THE Xth CHAPTEK OF GENESIS. 579 

critical knowledge, that in our own land and hour, there are still some not uncultivated minds 
■who imagine the Aborigines of this American continent to have descended from the " Lost 
Tribes of Israel "(9) — who see the Runic scribblings of Norsemen upon the Indian-scratched 
Rock of Dighton (10) — who, regardless of Squier's exposure,(ll) yet suppose the local pebble 
manufactured for that museum since 1838, to attest Phcenician intercourse with the mound- 
builders of Grave Creek Flat (12) — and who, disdaining to refer to the long-published deter- 
mination of its pseudo-antiquity, (13) still believe that the gold seal-ring of RA-NEFER- 
HET, a functionary attached to a building called, about the sixth century b. c, after 
King Shoophu, should have once adorned the finger of Cheops, builder of the Great Pyra- 
mid in the thirty-fourth century b. c. (14) ; thereby becoming 5300 instead of only some 
2500 years old! 

The instances around us of the misconceptions, which the slightest acquaintance with 
the rudiments of archaeology would consign forever to oblivion, are inexhaustible. Would 
that some of them were less pernicious to moral rectitude ! They offend our vision under 
the prostituted names of ^'Portraits of Christ " (15) — they excite one's derision in the 
ludicrous anachronisms of modern art current as " Pictorial Bibles " (16) — they bear wit- 
ness to theological ignorance when Chinese are asserted to be referred to in the SINIM of 
Isaiah (17) — and they amount to idiocy when ecclesiastics continue disputing whether Moses 
wrote a resh, R, or a daleih, D, in a given word of the Hebrew Pentateuch, notwithstanding 
that every archaeologist knows that the square-letter characters of the present Hebrew 
Text (18) were not invented by the Rabbis before the second century after Christ ; or 1600 
years posterior to the vague age when leHOuaH buried the Lawgiver " in a valley in the 
land of Moab opposite to Beth-peor ; but no man has known his sepulchre unto this 
dag."{l9) But — "point de fanatisme meme centre le fanatisme: la philosophie a eu le sien 
dans le sifecle dernier ; il semble que la gloire du notre devrait etre de n'en connaitre 
aucun." (20) 

The above illustrations suffice to indicate some of the utilitarian objects of the science 
termed "Archaeology;" -which furnishes the only logical methods of attaining historical 
certainties. Its indispensableness to correct appreciations of biblical no less than of all 
other history, nevertheless, remains to be proved by its application. We shall endeavor to 
be precise in our experiments ; but, must not forget that " precision is one thing, certainty 
another. An absurd or false proposition may be made very precise; and, on the other hand, 
although the sciences vary in degree of precision, they all present results equally certain." 
We propose to test the principles of archseological criteria by applying them to biblical 
studies, and to test the authenticity ot one chapter of the Hebrew records through the former's 
application : and inasmuch as Truth must necessarily harmonize with itself, if archaeology 
be a true science the Scriptures will prove it to be so incontestably ; and if the Bible be 
absolute truth, archosology will demonstrate the fact. We need not perplex ourselves with 
apprehensions. It would imply but small faith in the Bible were we to suppose that arch- 

(9) Deufieid : American Antiquities. 

(10) Transactions of the Eoyal Sooieti/ of Antiquai-ics of Copenhagen, 1840-43. Antiquitates Americans, ISSJ ; 
sect. XV. 

(11) London Elknotoyical Journal: "Monumental Evidence of the Discovery of America by the Northmen 
critically examined " — Dec. 1848 ; pp. 313-324. 

(12) ScHOOixniAFT : New York Ethnolngical Societr/'s Trans. 1S45; vol. i. pp. p86-397. 

(13) See " A Card": New York Courier and Enquirer, 12 Feb. 1853. 

(14) Abbott : CataUgue of a Collection of Egyptian Antiquities, now exhibiting at the Stuyvesant Institute ; 
New York, 1853; plate Xo. 1051, p. 64. 

(15) Founded exclusively upon no more historical bases than the spurious "Letter of LENTULns" — or 
derived from "Veronica's Sudan um "; Albert Durer, 1510,— vide Cole : Passion of our Lord ; London, 1844. 

(16) Harpers', for instance ; New York, lS43-'45. 

(17) Rev. Dr. Smytee : I'n ill/ of t)ie Human Jfaces; 1840 — "And while even China (7s. li. [sic] 12, Sinim, a 
remot* country in the S. E. extremity of the earth, as the context intimates) and the islands of the sea are 
specified " — p. 43. and note. 

(18) Guddon: Olia ^yptiaxyi : p. 112; and in/ra, further on. 

(19) Beuteronomi/ xxxiv. 6 — Caue\'3 translation. 

(20) AmpJre; Recherclies, ic. : Rev. des Deux Mondcs; Sept. 1345. p. 738. 



580 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

aeological scrutiny could affect the divine origin insisted upon for the book itself by those 
■who make it the unique standard of all scientific as well as of all moral knowledge. 

Instead, however, of the ordinary mode in which biblical history is presented to us in 
books bearing the authoritative title of professed "Christian Evidences," the requirements 
of archasology demand that we should reverse the order of examination. In lieu, for in- 
stance, of asserting d, priori that the Creation of the world took place exactly " on October 
20th, B. c. 4005, the year of the creation "(21) — or sustaining, ex cathedra, with universal 
orthodoxy, that Moses wrote the Pentateuch — it is incumbent upon us, while we deny 
nothing, to take as little for granted. If such be the era revealed by the Text, our process 
will lead us to that date, with at least the same precision through which Lightfoot (by 
what method is unknown), ascertained that Anno Mundi I, " Vlth day of creation . . . his 
(Adam's) wife the weaker vessell : she not yet knowing that there were any devils at all . . . 
sinned, and drew her husband into the same transgression with her ; this was about high 
noone, the time of eating. And in this lost condition into which Adam and Eve had now 
brought themselves, did they lie comfortlesse till towards the cool of the day, or three o'clock 
afternoon." (22) If the Pentateuch was originally penned in the Mosaic autograph, the 
proof will resile to our view, through archseological deductions, with the force of an 
Euclidean demonstration. 

The analytical instruments of archaeology are purely Baconian; viz: proceeding from 
the known to the unknown ; through a patient retrogressive march from to-day to yester- 
day, from yesterday to the day before ; and so on, step by step, backwards along the 
stream of tinie. Each fact, when verified, thus falls naturally into its proper place in the 
world's history ; each event, as ascertained, will be found tabulated in its respective 
stratum. It is only when our footsteps falter, owing to surrounding darkness or to trea- 
cherous soil, that we may begin to suspect historical inaccuracies ; but, at present, we 
have no right to anticipate any such doubts, considering the averments of ceucumenic Pro- 
testantism, of the orthodox sects, that the Bible is the revealed word of God. 

Our inquiries are directed to a single point. We desire to ascertain the origin, epoch, 
writer, characteristics, and historical value of but one document : viz.- — The Xth Chapter of 
Genesis ; familiar to every reader. It is presented, however, to our inspection as one of 
fifty chapters of a book called " Genesis " — this book being the first of thirty-nine (23) books 
that constitute the compendium entitled the " Old Testament ;" and the latter is bound up 
in the same volume with another collection to which the name of "New Testament" is 
given: the whole forming together that literary woi;k to which the designation of "The 
Bible" is reverentially applied in the English tongue — a name derived from byblos, the 
Greek name for papyrus, being the most ancient material out of which its derivative paper 
was made. Byblis, the Egyptian plant, gave to the Greeks their name for paper, and paper 
their name for " the book " in to /3t/3^£iov. On adopting Christianity, the Greeks designated 
their earliest translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, TO BIBLEION, as the book — "par 
excellence;" which words we moderns have adopted into our national tongue in the form 
of "Bible." 

With every desire on our part to obtain solution of our queries by the most direct road 
and in the shortest method, we do not perceive the possibility of detaching a solitary chapter 
of the Bible from the volume itself, until by archseological dissection we are enabled to 
demonstrate that such sejjaration is feasible. In consequence, it behooves us to examine, 
with as much brevity as is consistent with perspicuity, the entire Bible; and, if we hold 
" all the books of the Bible (24) to be equally true," the Xth c/ityj^cr of the first book will be 
found unquestionably to be true likewise. 

Soliciting that the reader should divest his mind, as far as in him lies, of preconceived 
biases ; we invite him to accompany us patiently through an investigation, in which the 



(21) Rev. Dr. Nolan: T!ie Egyptian Chrmology Analyzed; LonJou, 1848, p. 392. 

(22) Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the Old Testament, Ac; London, ICi", p. 5. 

(23) Mystic origin of the XXXIX "Articles" of the Anglican Church. 

(24) Poole: London IMerary Gazette., 1849, p. 432 — unaccountably suppressed in Borai ^gypUacce, 1851. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 581 

subject banishes all ornament, but that cannot fail to elicit some portions of the 
truth. 

The incipient steps of our analysis do not call for much expenditure of erudition. In 
popular Encyclopajdias most of the preliminary information may be verified by the curious 
reader; for Calmet, Kitto, and Home, contain catalogues of the various editions of the 
Bible, done into English, that have been put forth, during the last four centuries, from 
A. D. 1526 down to the present year. 

At the sight of such catalogues of different translations said to proceed from one and the 
same original, few can refrain frdm asking, in all humbleness, why, if any one of them 
were absolutely correct, should there have been a necessity for the others ? In the course 
of studies carried over many years, we have been at pains to compare sundry of the most 
prominent English translations (among them ancient as well as modern editions), not only 
with themselves, but often with the Latin, Greel;:, or Hebrew originals, of which each pur- 
ports to supply a faithful rendering. They all differ ! some more than others ; but in each 
one may be found passages the sense of which varies essentially from that published by the 
others. Hence arose in our minds the following among other doubts. 

Some of these Translators can have known little or nothing of Hebrew — or they must 
have translated from different originals — or, they did not consult the Hebreio Text at all, 
but rendei-ed from the Latin or the Greek versions — or (what recurs with far more fre- 
quency), each translator, wherever the original was ambiguous, rendered a given passage in 
accordance with his own individual biases, or with the object of fortifying the peculiar 
tenets of his Church, Kirk, Conventicle, Chapel, or Meeting-house. Now, these discordant 
Bibles being thrust upon us, each one as the only and true "Word of God," it is humanly incon- 
ceivable that God should have uttered that Word in so many different ways, and thereby 
have rendered nugatory the comprehension of one passage, by permitting a translation,in sig- 
nificance totally distinct, of the self-same passage in other modern editions. For instance, 
that the reader may at once seize our meaning : there are few texts more frequently quoted, 
especiallj' under circumstances where consolation is administered ; there are none perhaps 
that have originated such Demosthenian efforts at pulpit-oratory, or have produced in some 
minds more of those extatic emotions " that the world cannot give," than the verse wherein 
Job ejaculates — "For I know //<«< my Redeemer liveth." (xix. 25). The ^^ Multitude of 
those who are called Christians," as Origen termed them in a. d. 253 (25) ; the " Simple- 
tons, not to say the imprudent and the idiotic," of Tertullian, a. d. 245; (26) the " Igno- 
rant" of St. Athanasius, a. d. 373(27); and the "Simple believers" of the milder St. 
Jerome, a. d. 385 (28) ; have always imagined, in accordance with the lower scholarship of 
orthodoxy, that Job here foreslTadows the Messianic advent of Christ. (29) 

The context does not appear, philologically or grammatically, to justify such conclusion; 
inasmuch as the preceding verses (1 to 22) exhibit Job — forsaken by his kindred, forgotten 
by his bosom friends, alien in the eyes of his guests and of his own servants — overwhelmed 
with anguish at the acrid loquacity of Bildad the Shuhite, protesting vehemently against 
these accusations, and wishing that his last burning words should be preserved to posterity 
in one of three ways. To support our view, and to furnish at the same time evidences of 
different translations, we lay before the reader three renderings of verses 23 to 26. He 
can, by opening other translators, readily verify the adage that "doctors differ," although 
the Hebrew Text is identically the same throughout. 

(25) Oammentary upnn Joltn: and Contra (Ms., lib. viii.. 

(26) Ad Praxeam, sec. ui. 

(27) Be Incam. Verb. — contra Paid. Samosatce. 

(28) Comm. in Es. xxxii. 

(29) NoYES : Op. cU., p. 147 — " That there is no allusion to Chri-st in the term {redeemer'], nor to the resur- 
cection to a life of happiness, in the pass.ige, has been the opinion of the most judicious and learned critics for 
the last three hundred years; such as Calvin, Mercier, Grotius, Le Clerc, Patrick, IVarburton, Durell, Ileath, 
Kennicott, Docderlein, Dathe, Eichhorn, Jahn, De Wette, and many others." 



582 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

I. King James's Version. The italicized words are the Translators'. 

23 " Oh that my Tvords were now written ! oh that they were printed [sic .' ] in a hook ! 

24 That they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever! 

25 For I know that my redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at the latter day upon the earth. 

26 And though after my skin worms destroy this hody, yet in my flesh shall I see God." 

The marginal reading, authority unknown, substitutes — " Or, After 1 shall awake, though 
this body he destroyed, yet out of my flesh shall 1 see God." In the authorized version, by the 
interpolation of "worms," Job is made a believer in the resurrection of the body: in the 
margin, he believes that he shall behold God " out of the flesh; " that is, in the spirit! 
AVhat did he believe ? 

II. NoYES, New Translation of the Book of Job ; Boston, 1838; p. 37. 

23 " that my words were now written ! 

that they were inscribed in a register! 

24 That with an iron pen, and with lead, 
They were engraven upon the rock for ever! 

25 Yet I know my Vindicator liveth. 

And will stand up at length on the earth; 

26 And though with my skin this body be wasted away, 
Yet in my flesh shall I see God." 

Noyes {Notes, pp. 144-6) says — "Or we may render, Yet without flesh 1 shall see God" — 
and enumerates cogent "objections to the supposition that Job here expresses his confident 
expectation of a resurrection." 

III. Cahen, "Job;" La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, avec I'H^breu en regard; Paris, 

1851 ; pp. 86-7. We render the French literally into English. 

23 " Would to God that my words were written ! Would to God that they were traced in a book 

24 With a burin of iron and with lead! that they were engraved for ever in the rock! 

25 But I, I know that my 'redemptor' is living, and will remain the last upon the earth : 

26 And after that my skin shall have been destroyed, this delivered from the flesh, I shall see God." 

In the foot-note, Cahen explains that the Hebrew word ''7XJ, GALI, which he renders 
" mon r^dempteur," proceeds from the verb GAL, "to deliver;" meaning likewise "reven- 
diquer;" which corresponds to the Vindicator of Noyes. The idea of Job's hope of a resur- 
rection, itself a mythological anachronism, is popularly derived from the LXX and the 
Greek Fathers, with ideas developed in the Latin Church after St. Jerome. 

Thus the reader has now before him three specimens, amid the wilderness of Translations, 
wherein are involved theological dogmas of " resurrection of the body," " redemption of 
the soul," and the antiquity of "Messianic prefigurations"— questions of no slight reli- 
gious importance ; and yet, withal, unless he be profound in Hebrew, his opinion upon the 
merits of either rendering is alike worthless to himself and to others ; nor can he con- 
scientiously distinguish which is veritably the " word of God " among these triple contra- 
dictions. The ridiculous anachronism perpetrated in king James's version [v. 28) that 
makes Job wish that his words were "printed" (probably 2500 years before the art was 
invented !) (30) has long ago been pointed out ; and is alone sufficient to destroy the alleged 
inspiration of that " authorized " verse. For ourselves we mourn that want of space com- 
pels the suppression of some archaeological remarks on the "book of Job" (aylUB — 
meaning " L'uomo iracondo che rientra con rossore in se stesso "). We derive them from 
studies at Paris, under our honored preceptor Michel-angelo Lanci, to whom we here 
renew the warmest tribute of respect and admiration. 

To Anglo-Saxon Protestantism the biblical profundities of the "Professor of Sacred and 
Interpreter of Oriental Tongues at the Vatican "(31) since the year 1820, are entirely un- 

(30) Nott: Bibliccd and Fhystccd History of Man; 1849; pp. 136, 137. 

(31) Gaetano Deminicis: Biograjia del Oavaliere D. Mkhd-aitgelo Lanci; Fermo, 1840; p. 10. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 583 

known. Written in the purest Italian exclusively for the lettered — restricted to one edition 
of 125 copies for each work, at a cost of \2b francs ($25) per copy— and, for manifold rea- 
sons, artistically fashioned upon a plan not easily comprehended witliout an oral Icey — 
Land's enormous labors upon Semitic palaeography, to the " profanum vulgus" of theology, 
must long remain sealed books. In 1848-9, no copy of the Farah'pomeni, (32) nor of the 
Seconda Opera Cufica,{ZZ) both published during 1845-7, at Paris (the latter at the expense 
of Nicholas, Czar of Muscovy), existed within the Library of the British Museum : not- 
withstanding that Land's volumes were for sale at two leading booksellers' in London ; and 
that their absence at the Museum-Library had been formally notified to its unnational 
" Powers that be." (34) The Vie Simboliche della Bibbia (known to us in its author's manu- 
script) will not be published for a period incalculable, because dependent upon human 
longevity. Our mutual friend, Mr. R. K. Haight of New York, is, in the United States, 
the sole possessor of Land's works that we know of. (35) 

History records that it was in consequence of the discrepancies, notorious among such 
translations into English as existed at the beginning of the seventeenth century, that, in the 
reign of king James, a new version of the Scriptures was published : which duly received 
the royal, ecclesiastical, parliamentary, and national sanction, and is now consecrated 
amongst us Anglo-Saxons as the unique and immaculate " Word of God" — the standurd of 
faith among Protestant communities of our race throughout the world. It is, and ought 
to be, in the hands of every one ; so that no obstacles to the verification of such quotations, 
as we shall have occasion to make, exist at the present day among readers of English. As 
the document we are in quest of, Xth Genesis, is contained within this volume, we are 
compelled by the rules of archaeology first to examine the book itself; in order to obtain 
some preliminary insight into its history, its literary merits as a Translation, and the 
repute in which the latter point is held by those most qualified to judge. 

To avoid mistakes arising from confusion of editions, we quote the title-page of the copy 
before us. — " THE HOLY BIBLE, containing the Old and Kew Testaments : translated out 
of the original Tongues ; and with the former Translations diligently compared and 
revised, by His Majesty's Special Command. Appointed to be read in Churches. London: 

(32) Paralipomeni all' Illustrazione ddia Sagra Scrittura; Paris, qto. 2 vols.; 1845. 

(33) Seconda Opera Cttfica — Trailato deUe simbolidie rappreisentame Ardtnche e delta varia generazionc de' Mu- 
sidmani caratteri sopra dijjtrenti materie operati; Parigi, 1846-'47 ; qto. 2 vols. 

(34) Gliddon: Oiia JEgyptiaca ; London, 1S49; p. 17, note; see also p. 110. 

(35) Through the Chevalier's epistolary kindness, I am enabled to correct a former mistake, into which other 
authority had led me; and I gladly seize occasion to quote from one of numerous Italian autographs in my 
possession : — 

" Roma, 18 OUobre, 1S51. 
"Car'^ Amicol 
"You say, in Olia ^gypliaca (p. 31), that 'pyramid' is derived from pi and haram; the former heing a Coptic 
article, the latter an Arabic word, combined even nowadays among the Arabs in [their name, EL-HaRaM, for] 
pyramid. This Ls not according to grammatical exactness; because haram is not altogether radical. The 
demonstrative [letter H] he is prefixed to it, which serves in lieu of the Coptic pi. Sam [Arabic*], RJI, is the 
root (altitude). Haram, HRM, says, therefore, the-altitude ; and it is a synonyme of the Coptic pi-ram, in which 
' the he, U, that you have yoked to it, plays no part. The word ram, besides being a Semitic, is also a Coptic 
word, with the sense of heigJd. . . But vei-y huge seems to me the error of Ewald, in Buusen, who presumes to 
explain a text of Job (iii. 14) by changing a b into m, and making a JlaraMul of his own out of the biblical 
HaraHCt. ... 1 transcribe for you the complete article of mine, which on some occasion may be of aid to you : 

" Article talen from the ' Vie Simboliche del Vecchio e IS'uovo Testamento' regarding a passage in Job. . . . [We 
have not two pages to spare, and therefore are compelled to omit the acute philological reasonings of our valued 
preceptor. — G. R. G.] The said two verses, most entangled in the versions of others, through my inquiries 
now read — ' Now should I have quiet with the kings and mightyones of the earth who already repose in their 
subterranean habitations; or with the princes who had gold and (who) caused their sepulchres to be filled 
with silver.' [Comp. Caoen, xv. p. 12.] ... I will not leave this argument without first giving you an illustration 
of that arduous verse 6 of Psalm ix. ; in which, it appears to me, interpreters have strayed away from truth. 
Here recurs that charabOt which I explained. Xow, if philologers are wise enough to accept my discovery, 
they will see that this sentence of the Psalm, in the place above-named, speaks with vibratory locution — 
'They closed to the enemy the subterranean abode in perpetuity: thou destroyedst the cities, and with these 
the memorial of those perished.' " [Compare King James's Versionl} . . , 

"Affino VOstro, MiCHEL-ANOBLO LANa." 



534 ARCHyEOLOGICAL INTEODUCTION" 

Printed by George E. Eyre and Andrew Spottiswoode, Printers to the Queen's !Most Ex- 
cellent Majesty, and sold at their Warehouse, 189, Fleet Street, 1844. [Nonpareil Re- 
ference, 12mo.]" The Dedication "To the most high and mighty Prince, James," states 
that His "Highness had once out of deep judgment apprehended how convenient it was, 
that out of the Original Sacred Tongues, together with comparing of the labours, both in 
our own, and other foreign Languages, of many worthy men who went before us, there 
should be one more exact Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue." 

It thus becomes patent that our copy is not printed in one of " the Original Sacred 
Tongues," but merely professes to be a " more exact Translation" into English than, at the 
date of its publication, 242 years ago, had previously appeared. Even conceding that the 
Holy Scriptures in the " Original Sacred Tongues " may have been revealed word for word 
by the Almighty, and granting that their editio princeps was a manuscript in the autographs 
of divinely-inspired Scribes, no reasonable person will deny the possibility that this English 
translation may embrace some errors — none among the educated will be so unreasonable as to 
insist upon the infallibility of its English translators, however erudite, however conscien- 
tious ; nor perchance will claim inspiration for these worthies. Childishly credulous as we 
are by nature, and uncritical though the generality of us remain through education, no 
sane Anglo-Saxons, since the middle ages, allow " divine inspiration" to men of their oicn 
race. We accord the possibility of "inspiration" solely to members of a single family 
that lived a long time ago, and a great way off; whose descendants (although nowadays 
ranking among the best citizens of our cis-Atlantic Republic) are still abused by our kins- 
folk across the water ; and who, although contributors to our own and the latter's welfare 
and glory, are yet debarred, as unworthy, from a voice in the British Parliament : and all 
this, forsooth, in the same breath of acknowledgment that we derive our most sacred Code 
of Religion, Morals, and Laws, from their inspired ancestors ! and whilst, based upon our 
modern notions of their ancient creed, we nasally vociferate that they and ourselves are 
" of one blood as brothers " ! 

Our copy, such as it is, may be accepted without hesitation as a lineal descendant of the 
primary authorized version in the English language, wrested from the Lords Spiritual and 
Temporal through the intelligence of our ancestors, quickened by the Reformation ; who 
bled for the same rights that we their posterity can now assert, in the free United States 
of America and in Great Britain (without even the merit of boldness), viz. the right to 
examine the Scriptures, and everything else, for ourselves, and to express our opinions 
thereon in the broad light of heaven. 

Archaeologically speaking, in order to insure minute exactness, it would be imperative to 
collate, year by year, and edition by edition, the whole succession of copies of our " au- 
thorized version" ; and, by retracing from the exemplar on our table backwards to that first 
printed in black-letter during the reign of king James, to ascertain whether any and what 
changes, beyond variations in typography, may have been introduced. But such dreadful 
labor is, to the wi-iter, impossible for want of the series ; ungenial to his tastes as well as 
unnecessary for his objects. He contents himself with the assertion that there are many 
differences between such copies of divers editions that have fallen in his way, although con- 
sidered by others of little or no moment ; being chiefly marginal, as in the superadded and 
spurious chronology : or capitular, as in the apocryphal headings to chapters, &c. ; neither 
of which can have any more to do with the original "word of God," than the printer's 
name, the binding, or the paper. 

As positivists in Philosophy while archaeologists in method, we clear the table of these com- 
paratively-trivial disputations; and bounding retrogressively over the interval that divides 
our generation from that of His Majesty King James, the reader is requested to take with 
us the historical era of the promulgation of the " authorized version" as a common point 
of departure; viz.: a. d. IGIL 

The most ancient printed copy of king James's version, that has been accessible to us, 
lies in the British Museum. It contains a memorandum by the Rev. Dr. Home to the effect 
that the title-pages are of the primary edition of the year 1611, but that the rest appertains 



TO THE Xth CHAPTEK OF GENESIS. 585 

to that of 1G13. The whole folio is printed in black-letter. Its frontispieces are literary- 
gems ; and so faithfully portraying the symbolism of Europe's " moyen age " in their astrolo- 
gico-theological emblems, that every antiquary must deplore that castigating zeal which 
has effaced such quaint expressions of ancestral piety, to substitute for them, in some of 
our current copies, typographical whims that cannot pretend even to the venerable halo of 
bygone days. The title-page to the Old Testament is embellished by vignettes, among 
which figure the Lion, Man, Bull, and Eagle; [o(i) ancient signs for the solstices and equi- 
noxes. Moses is truthfully represented, as in Michel-angelo's statue, with Jiis character- 
istic horns; according to the Yulgale of Exod. (xsxiv. 29, 80, 85), " cornuta esset facies 
sua," which preserves one sense of the Hebrew KRN, horn. The zodiaco-heraldic arms of 
the "12 Tribes" of Israel are also preserved; (87) together with a variety of other symbols, 
archseologically precious. That of the New Testament is still more curious, inasmuch as 
it exhibits the esoteric transmission (perceived even as late as at that time by learned 
reformers in England) of certain antique symbolisms of Hebrew Scriptures into those of the 
Orientalized Greeks or Hellenized Jews. The "4" solstitial and equinoctial signs of the 
"4 seasons" remain, but are now attached to the figures of the "4" Evangelists; while the 
zodiaco-heraldic arms of the "12 Sons of Jacob" (Gen. xlix. 1, 28), whence the "12 Tribes 
of Israel," lie parallel with and oflBciate as "pendants" to the "12 Apostles," each with 
his S3'mbolical relation to the "12 months" of the year, &c. — the whole, indeed, saving its 
uncouth artistic execution, so vividly solar and astral in conception, as to betray that pri- 
meval 2EgyY)to-Chaldaic source whence students of hieroglyphical and cuneiform monu- 
ments, — exhumed and translated more than two centuries subsequently to the publication 
of our English "editio princeps" — now know that the types of this imagery are derived. 
The reader, who seeks throughout our modern editions in vain for the once-consecrated 
embellishments of ages past, may now perceive that we are not altogether ill-advised when 
hinting that great liberties have been taken with the authorized English Bible between 
A. D. 1611, era of its first promulgation, and those copies ostensibly represented in the 
current year (1858) to be its lineal and unmutilated offspring . Theologically, however, 
these variants through omission or commission are not of the same importance as they 
seem to be archseologically, nor need we dwell upon them now. 

The accuracy of this English version, and its fidelity to the original Hebrew and Greek 
MSS., must rest upon the opinion we can form of its Translators; legalized by the royal 
seal and confirmed by an act of Parliament. With the value of the two last authorities, 
regal or parliamentary, in questions of purely-philological criticism and of strictly-literary 
knowledge, we American Republicans may be excused in declaring that we have nothing 
to do. Until it is proved to our comprehension that the acquaintance of those worthy 
M. P.'s with the "original sacred tongues" was profound, and that they devoted one or 
more Sessions to the verification of the minute exactness of the volume they endorsed, their 
fiat upon the literary merit of the book itself carries with it no more weight in science 
than, to bring the case home, could the Presidential signature to an act of Congress author- 
izing the printing in Arabic, at national expense, of the Mohammedan Koriin, in the 
year 1853, be accepted as a criterion or even voucher of such huge folio's historical or 
philological correctness. 

To us the only admissible evidence of the exactitude of king James's version, as a faithful 
exponent of the " word of God" (originally written, and closed some 1500 years before that 
monarch's reign, in Hebrew and in Greek), must be twofold — historical, and exegetical : the 
former, by establishing the learning, oriental knowledge, critical skill, and integrity of the 
men ; the latter, by demonstrating that rigid examination will fail to detect errors in the 
performance itself. Of this duplex evidence we now go in quest ; remarking at the outset, 

(30) Couf. Salvebte: Sciences OccuUes; i. pp. 46, 47. Comp. EzeJdel i. 10, -with Jpocali/pse iv. 7. EionEL- 
LIM: Franc-iiiaronncrie ; Paris, 1S42: i. p. 324. pi. 4, fij^. 1. 

(37) Couf. Kirciier: (Edipus Mgyptiacus ; Rome, 1653; toI. ii. part 1. p. 21. Drcmmonb: (Edipus Judaicus; 
London, ISll ; plate 15 — " Dissertation on XLIXth Chapter of Genesis " : — and Lixci : Paralipomeni, passim. 

74 



586 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

that, inasmuch as (precise date unl<nown) the gift of "divine inspiration" is said by Pro- 
testants to have ceased about 1750 years ago with the last Apostle, nobody claims 
for these English Translators any supernatural assistance during the progress of their 
pious labors ; and, therefore, in matters appertaining to the merely-human department 
of linguistic scholarship (whilst we doubt not their excellence as men, their attainments, 
nor their good faith), we must concede the chance that their production, owing to man's 
proneness to err, may be found to fall short, in a literary point of view, of the standard 
by which a similar performance would be judged were a new Translation of the Old Testa- 
ment "authorized," after the same fashion, at the middle of this XlXth century. 

I. The Historical Testimony. 

In the year 1603, owing to the enormous defects recognized in all popular translations 
then current, the revision that had been ordered in the days of Elizabeth was carried 
into eflFect by James. Fifty-four of the most learned graduates of the Universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge were appointed to the task, seven of whom died before the work 
was completed : (38) among the last. Lively, (39) the best if not the only Hebraist on 
the translation, whose labors were of short duration; and, "much weight of the work 
lying upon his skill in the Oriental tongues," his loss was irreparable ; because the sur- 
viving forty-seven translators rejected the assistance of the only remaining Hebraist in 
England, viz., " Hugh Broughton, fellow of Christ College, Cambridge, who had certainly 
attained a great knowledge in the Hebrew and Greek tongues." Indeed, says the very 
learned Bellamy, (40) from whom we derive the fact, "it was well known that there was 
not a critical Hebrew scholar among them ; the Hebrew language, so indispensably neces- 
sary for the accomplishment of this important work, having been most shamefully neglected 
in our Universities ; and, as at this day [1818], candidates for orders were admitted with- 
out a knowledge of this primary, this most essential branch of biblical learning. It was, 
as it is at present, totally neglected in our schools, and a few lessons taken from a Jew in 
term-time, whose business is to Judaizel}."], and not to Christianize, serve to give the charac- 
ter of the Hebrew scholar," in England. 

In consequence, then, of the inability of the forty -seven translators to read one (and the 
oldest, the aboriginal "divine word") of those "sacred tongues" of which their servile 
dedication makes parade, " it appears they confined themselves to the Septuaglnt (Greek) 
and the Vulgate (Latin) ; so that this was only working in the harness of the first transla- 
tors : no translation (excepting perhaps Luther's, 1530 — 1545), from the original Hebrew 
only, having been made for 1400 years," says Bellamy. 

" If we turn," continues elsewhere this outspeaking writer (whose erudition nemo nisi 
imperitus will contest), " to the translations made in the early ages of the Christian Church, 
we approach no nearer the truth ; for as the common translations in the European lan- 
guages were made from the modern Septuagint and the Vulgate, where errors are found 
in these early versions they must necessarily be found in all the translations made from 
them." 

Whether the Vulgate and the Septuagint versions are faultless will be considered anon. 
Our present affair is with king James's translation, and certainly appearances are not 
flattering. 

We learn from Fuller, (41) how at once, on its first apparition, objections were raised 
against its accuracy in England; but as these emanated chiefly from Romanist scholarship, 
in those days of reformation at a discount, their validity is slurred over by Protestant 
ecclesiastics. Gradually, as Hebraical scholarship struggled into existence — that such 

(38) Fdiler: Church History; 1655; pp. 44-46. 

(39) Ibid, p. 47 — and Horne: Introd. to the Crit. Stud, of S. Scrip.; 1838; ii. pp. 70, 80; note 5. 

(40) The Holy Bible, newly translated from the Original Hebrew ; with notes critical and explanatory ; London, 
1818, 4to — published by the subscriptions of Royalty, Nobility, and Clergy; but never completed, and now out 
of print. Our quotations are from the "general preface." 

(41) Church History ; pp. 58, 59 — also IXorne: Introd.; ii. pp. 76-78. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 587 

giants as Walton, (42) 1G57, had redeemed the Oriental wisdom of Oxford — the voice of 
the great Dr. Keunicott (43) was uplifted a century later, 1753-9, protesting vehemently 
against the perpetuation of fallacies which the forly-seveti translators' ignorance of Hebrew 
had spread over the land through king James's version. He commences — " The reader 
will be pleased to observe, that, as the study of the Hebrew language has only been reviving 
during the last hundred years," (44) &c. — that is, only since the time of Walton, his prede- 
cessor: — which passage implies that fifty years previously to the latter's epoch, 1657, 
(i. «., at the time of the forty-seven translators, 1603-11), the study of Hebrew was all 
but defunct, or rather it had scarcely yet begun to exist ; that is, in England. 

This point was considered so familiar to every general reader, that no hesitation waa 
felt when stating it, 1849, with reference to the same question, (45) in the following words: 
" Now the Hebrew language in 101 1 had been a dead language for more than two thousand 
years, and though these men (the forty-seven translators aforesaid) were renowned for 
their piety and learning, yet very few, if any of them, were competent to so important a 
task. In fact, the Hebrew language may be said only to have been recovered within the 
last century by modern Orientalists : and from the ignorance of these very translators of 
the original language, the Old Testament was taken mostly from the Greek and Latin 
versions, viz : the Septuaginl and Vulgate. Being, then, a translation of bad translations, 
which had passed through numerous copyings, how could it come down to us without 
errors ?" 

Nevertheless, want of ordinary information on Scriptural literature prompted a reviewer, 
(with intrepidity characteristic of that undeveloped stage of the reasoning faculties which, 
in accordance with Comte's positive philosophy, has been already classed as " the theolo- 
gical,") to indite these remarks : — " Dr. Nott, again, speaks disrespectfully of the English 
version of the Scriptures. He makes the astounding assertion that ' the Hebrew language 
may be said only to have been recovered within the last century, by modern Orientalists. "^ 
Most surprising is it that any one should believe that the Jews should have wholly lost a 
knowledge of their ancient and sacred tongue ; and that a knowledge of it should only 
have been recovered by modei'n Orientalists, displays an amazing want of reading and 
scholar-like accuracy, and a credulity exceedingly rare, except in an unbeliever." [4:6) 

" Mutato nomine, de te fabula narratur ! " Under the head of KNaAN [^supra, p. 49G], the 
"Association " may find a series of facts on the permutations, which the so-called "Lingua 
Sancta " of the Israelites has undergone, still more " astounding," where we took occasion 
to repeat and enlarge upon the positions of Dr. Nott's "Reply." In the meanwhile, the 
" ipse dixit " above quoted of Kennicott, that a century and a half posterior to the forty- 
seven translators of king James's version, the study of Hebrew was only "reviving," may, 
by some, be considered as authoritative as that put forth, in 1850, in proof of the united 
scholarship of an "Association." 

" This only is certain, that, in Nehemiah's time, the people still spoke Hebrew ; that, in 
the time of Antiochus Epiphanes and the Maccabees, the Hebrew was still written, though 
the Aramaean was the prevalent language ; and, on the contrary, about this time, and 
shortly after Alexander the Great, even the learned Jews found it hard to understand diffi- 
cult passages of the old writings, because the language had ceased to be a living speech. The 
reign of the Seleucidae, and the new influence of an Aramsean people, seem gradually to 
have destroyed the last traces of it ;" (47) and this about two thousand years ago ! 

(42) Bihlia Sacra Poli/glotla — complutentia Textas Originalis — Hetraicos cum Pentat. Samarit., Chaldaicos, 
Groecos, Versionumrjue Antiquarum — Samarit., Grajc. Sept., ChaldaiciE, Seriapoe, Lat. Vuli;., Arabicse, iEthio- 
pica?, Per.^icce. 

(43) Author of Vetus Testamentum Hehraicum; cum variis Lcctionibus ; Oxon. 1780; and of Disseriatio Gencr 
ralis in rdus Test. Heh.; 17S0. 

(44) I. Dissertation — State of the pnnted Hebi-ew Text of the 0. Test, considered; Oxford, 1753; p. 307. 

(45) Nott: Op.cit.; p. 134. 

(46) The Rev. Dr Howe, in The Southern Presbyterian Hcview, "conducted by an Association of Mini.sters;'* 
Columbia. S.C.; vol. iii. No. 3. ; Jan. 1850 — refuted by Dr.NoTi; "Chronology, Ancient and Seriplural," in 
Sotdhern Quarterti/ Peview ; Nov, 1850. 

(47) Gesexius, apud Parker's De WMe: i., Appendix, p. 457 — compare also p. 221. 



588 AKCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

Such is the position of Hebrew in the world's philological history as a spoken tongue: yet, 
" a knowledge of that language which is contained in the scanty relics of the Old Testa- 
ment has been preserved, though but imperfectly, by means of tradition. Some time after 
the destruction of Jerusalem in the Palestine and Babylonian schools, and after the eleventh 
century in those of Spain, this tradition was aided by the study of the Arabic language 
and its grammar. Jerome learned the Hebrew from Jewish scholars. Their pupils were 
the restorers of Hebrew learning among the Christians of the sixteenth century ; " (48) that 
is, on the continent; for, with the exception of Lively, who died, and Hugh Broughton, 
whose aid was refused, history does not record any man deserving the name of a Hebraist 
in England, even during 1603-11. Finally, "the name lingua sancta was first given to the 
ancient Hebrew in the Chaldee version [made long after the Christian era, when Hebrew 
had orally expired,] of the Old Testament, because it was the language of the sacred 
books, in distinction from the Chaldee, the popular language, which was called lingua 
profana. " (49) 

These citations here seem indispensable, lest dogmatism, peeping from out of its theolo- 
gical chrysalis, should feel itself again called upon to " astound " a reader by charging us 
with errors of its own commission : otherwise an apology would be due for this excursus. 
We return to Dr. Kennicott. 

After setting forth the causes of mistaken renderings in king James's version, he 
declares — "A Jfew Translation, therefore, prudently undertaken and religiously executed, 
is a blessing, which we make no doubt but the Legislature [!] within a few years will 
grant us." (50) Six years later, iinding his humble prayer unheeded, he comes out clamor- 
ously against " our authorized version " : claiming that some of the earlier English trans- 
lations were more faithful and literal, (51) and backing his appeal with the subjoined 
among other examples : 

Luke xxiii. 32. Christ made a malefactor ! " And there were also two other malefactors 
led with him to be put to death;" instead of "two others, malefactors." The Greek 
reads simply, " And two others, evil-doers." (52) 
Judges xv. 4. Three hundred foxes tied tail to tail, instead of wheaten sheaves placed 
end to end! "And Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took fire- 
brands, and turned tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails." 
The Hebrew is, "And Samson went and gathered three hundred sheaves of wheat, 
and taking torches and turning (the sheaves) end to end, set a torch in the midst 
between two ends." (53) 
1 Kings xvii. 6. Elijah not fed by ravens, but by Arabs! "And the ravens brought 
him bread and flesh," &c. In the Hebrew, " And the ORBIM (oRaB-zm) brought 
him bread and flesh." Kennicott thinks Orbim, inhabitants of Oreb, or Orbo — " villse 
in finibus Arabum," saj's St. Jerome: but, Arabs seem to us more natural and 
correct. In no contingency " crows " ! (54) 
It is superfluous now to continue our excerpta from Kennicott, or narrate how it comes 
to pass that, owing to nice appreciations of the Text that none of them could construe, 
the forty-seven (in Psalms cix.) have made pious king David (disputed author of that 

(4S) De Wette: Parlcer's transl.; Boston, 1S43; i. p. 128 — cited ty Nott, in the "Eeply." Comp. also, Pai/- 
frey: Academical Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures ; Boston, 1838; i. pp. 8-20 — "It is out of the question for 
any man to suppose, that he can be acquainted with Hebrew as familiarly and thoroughly, as he may be 
with Latin and Greek." 

(49) Conant's Gesenius: Hebrew Grammar; New York, 1846; p. 23. 

(50) Op. cit.; p. 567. Cf., also, McNK: Palestine; Pari.s, 1845; pp. 433-436. 

(51) ir. Dissertation; Oxford, 1759; pp. 579, 580, seq. 

(52) Sharpe: N. Test.; p. 165. 

(53) John Dove: Vindication of the Hebrew Scriptures; London, 1771 — in his furious assault upon the "Au- 
thorized Version," and lamentations at English ignorance of Hebrew, also derides the "foxes"; p. 71, se^. 
Glaibe: Livres Saints Tinges; Paris, 1845; ii. pp. 57, 58, contests the "fagots" — but vide Cahen: vi. pp. 
68, 69, note 4. 

(54) Glaiee: Op. cit.; ii. p. 85, reads " Arabes"; but Cahen, viii. p. 77, "corbeaux" — acutely adding, "Uni- 
versa historia fabularum plena est." 



TO THE THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 589 

rhapsody) (55) utter such fearful imprecations against his foes; when, in the "original 
sacred tongue," he actually complains that his enemies are heaping these outrageous male- 
dictions upon himself! 

AVell might the Reverend Doctor quote Michaelis — "I am amazed when I hear some men 
vindicate our common readings with as much zeal as if the editors had been inspired by 
the Holy Ghost!" Still better does he terminate his earnest work with supplications for 
a new Hebrew Text, and for a new English " authorized " translation. 

Reader, these things were published at Oxford and disseminated over Great Britain 
about ninety-four years ago — not in expensive folios veiled through the dead languages, 
but in two English octavos — not by a "skeptic" whose indignation at any kind of impos- 
ture impels him to spurn it, but by that Church of England Divine, collator of six hundred 
and ninety-two ancient Hebrew biblical manuscripts, (56) whose folios, together with the 
Bihlia Polyglotta of his illustrious precursor, Walton, are the only English labors on the 
Scriptures that receive homage from continental erudition, as performances on a par with 
the colossal researches of Germans, Frenchmen, and Italians, even unto this day ! 

Kennicott passed away. Other scholars followed in his footsteps. From a few of the 
latter we extract what they have left in print respecting king James's version, with a pre- 
fatory citation from Bellamy, to whom we owe the collection. (57) 

" It is allowed by the learned in this day and every Christian nation, that the authorized 
translations of the sacred Scriptures, in many places, are not consistent with the original 
Hebrew. - A few extracts are here given, from some of our most learned and distinguished 
writers, who were decidedly of opinion, that a New Translation of the Scriptures was abso- 
lutely necessary ; not only on account of the great improvement in our language, but 
because the Translators have erred respecting things most essential. The following are 
some of the eminent men who have left their testimony concerning the necessity of a new 
translation : — 

'Were aversion of the Bible executed in a manner suitable to the magnitude of the 
undertaking, such a measure would have a direct tendency to establish the faitli of thou- 
sands. . . . Let the Hebrew and Christian prophets appear in their proper garb : let us make 
them lioly garments for glory and for beauty ; . . . tlie attempts of individuals should be pro- 
moted by the natural patrons of sacred learning.^ — (Bishop Newcombe.) 

' Innumerable instances might be given of faulty translations of the divine original. . . . 
An accurate translation, proved and supported by sacred criticism, would quash and silence 
most of the objections of pert and profane cavillers.' — (Blackwell's Sac. Class. 
Fref, 1731.) 

'Our English version is undoubtedly capable of very great improvements.' — (Water- 
land's Script. Vindicated, Part 8, p. 64.) 

'Nothing would more eflFectually conduce to this end, than the exhibiting the Holy Scrip- 
tures themselves in a more advantageous and just light, by an accurate revisal of our vulgar 
translation.' — (Dr. Lowth's Visilat. Sermon, at Durham, 175.3.) 

' The common version has many considerable faults, and very much needs another review.' 
— (Bibliolh. Lit., 1723, p. 72.) 

' The Old Testament has suffered much more than the New, in our Translation.' — (Dod- 
dridge's Pref. to Family Expositor.) 

' Many of the inconsistencies, improprieties, and obscurities, are occasioned by the trans- 
lators' misunderstanding the true import of the Hebrew words and phrases, showing the 
benefit and expediency of a more correct and intelligent translation of the Bible.' — (I'ilk- 
ington's Remarks, 1759, p. 77.) 

' The version now in use in many places does not exhibit the sense of the Text ; and 
mistakes it, besides, in an infinite number of instances.' — (Durell's Crit. on Job, 1772, 
Pref.) 

'That necessary work, a New Translation of the Holy Scriptures.' — (Lowtu's Prelim. 
Dissert, to Isaiah, p. 69.) 

(55) Cf. De Wette: ii. pp. 520-529— and Cahe.n: xiii. p. 247, "Sommalre," and p. 219, note 20. 
(5B) jyiss. Oen. in Vet. T. Heh. ; 1T90: Tables, pp. 110-112. 
(57) Op.cit.: "General Preface"; 1S18. 



•590 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

'Whoever examines our version in present use, will find that it is ambiguous and incor- 
rect, even in matters of the highest importance.' — (Prof. Symond's Observations on the Ex- 
pediency of revising the present Version, 1789.) 

' At this time, a New Translation is much wanted, and universally called for.' — (Green's 
Preface to Poetical Parts of the New Test.) 

' Great improvements might now be made, because the Hebrew and Greek languages 
have been much better cultivated, and far better understood, since the year 1600.' — (Dr. 
Kennicott's Remarks, &c., 1787, p. 6.) 

' The common version has mistaken the true sense of the Hebrew in not a few places. 
Is it nothing to deprive the people of that edification which they might have received, had 
a fair and just exposition been substituted for a false one? Do we not know the advan- 
tages commonly taken by the enemies of Revelation, of triumphing in objections plausibly 
raised against the Divine Word, upon the basis of an unsound text or wrong translation?' 
— (Blaney's Prelim. Disc, to Jeremiah, 1789.) 

' They [the forty-seven'] are not acquainted with the Hebrew, without which no man should 
pretend to be a critic upon the writings of the Old Testament. It has some peculiar pro- 
perties and idioms which no other language has, with which every critic should be 
acquainted. . . . The Hebrew is fixed in nature, and cannot change. . . . He should be 
acquainted with the genius of the Hebrew tongue, and with its manner of expressing spi- 
ritual things, under their appointed images in nature.' — (Romaine's Works, no\. v. p. xvi.) 

' It is necessary that translations should be made from one time to another, accommo- 
dated to the present use of speaking or writing. This deference is paid to the heathen 
classics, and why should the Scriptures meet with less regard?' — (Purvee.) 

' The common English translation, though the best I have seen, is capable of being 
brought, in several places, nearer to the original.' — (Wesley.) 

For other arguments, continues our author, see Bishop Newcombe's "Chief reasons in 
support of a corrected English translation of the Scriptures for national use : " adding on 
his own account : — 

"Notwithstanding all that has been done, the translators have left it [our version] de- 
fective in mood, tense, person, gender, infinitive, imperative, participles, conjunctions, &c. ; and 
in many instances, almost in every page, we find verses consisting in a great part of italics; 
in some, a third part; in others, nearly half; as may be seen in the Bibles where the words 
for which there is not any authority in the original are always so mai'ked." 

Descending into works of less exclusive circulation, what do we encounter ? 

" It is not to be denied that a translation of Holy Scripture, if undertaken in the present 
day, would have many advantages superior to those which attended king James's transla- 
tion. The state of knowledge is much improved. . . . Our language has undergone some 
changes in the course of two centuries, by which it has varied from being precisely the 
same as when our translators wrote. Many words which were then polite and elegant, are 
now vulgar, to say the least. . . . Nor can we refrain from complaining also of the negligent 
manner in which the press has been conducted in all our public editions : what should be 
printed in poetry is set as prose ; what should be marked as a quotation, or a speech, reads 
like a common narrative. . . . And this perplexity is occasionally increased by improper 
divisions of chapters and verses, which but too often separate immediate connection. . . . 
Undoubtedly, the present version is sufficient to all purposes oi piety." — (Taylor's Calmet's 
Dictionary of the Holy Bible — voce "Bible.") 

" It is needless to pronounce a formal encomium on our authorized version. The time, 
learning, and labor expended on it were well bestowed. It far surpasses every other English 
version of the entire IJible in the characteristic qualities of simplicity, energy, purity of 
style, as also in uniform fidelity [.'] to the original. A revision of it, however, is wanted, 
or rather a new translation from the Hebrew and Greek, based vpon it [.'] " — ("S. D.," in 
KiTTO, ii. p. 919.) 

" No less than 30,000 various readings (58) of the Old and New Testament have been 

(58) Say rathc-r, with the Kev. Prof. Moses Stuaet — " Investigation has dissipated this pleasant dream. In 
the ITehrcw MSS., that have been examined, some 80,000 various readings actually occur, as to the Hebrew 
consonants. How many as to the vowel-points and accents, no man knows. And the like to this is true of the 
New Testament" — {Crit. Hist, and Defence of the O. Test. Canon; Andover, 1835 ; p. 192.) '• Nemo est, qui in uno 
aliquo codice, sive MSto sive impresso, textum incorruptum exhihcri arbitratur. lUderent docti; si quis codi- 
cem aliquem cum istis Apostolorum autographis, in omnibus, consentire dixerit" — (Kenmicott: Dissert. Gen.; 
par. 13, p. 6.) 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS, 591 

discoTered ; . . . iind putting alterations made knowinglj% foi" the purpose of corrupting the 
text, out of the question, we must admit, tliat from the circumstances connected with tran- 
scribing, some errata may have found their way into it ; and that the sacred Scriptures have 
in this case suffered the same fate as other productions of antiquity. ... In the last 220 
years, critical learning has so much improved, and so many new manuscripts have come to 
light, as to call for a revision of the present authorized version." — (Seaks, Ilisi. of the 
Bible, 1844, pp. 651, 065.) 

" The second thing which I would strongly recommend, is constantly to study and peruse 
the Original Scriptures ; the Old Testament in the Hebrew, and the New Testament in the 
Greek. . . . There is no such thing as any written Word of God independent on the word of 
man. The Lord Jehovah may have uttered the whole Law from Mount Sinai ; and, yet, 
Moses may not have accurately recorded it. . . . In like manner, the Gospel may have been 
fully preached by Christ; and, yet, the Evangelists may not have fully recorded it. . . . 
One painful conviction is, that the plain import of the Word of God has been most fan- 
taslically, ignoranlly, and wilfully perverted, as well in the translation as in the interpola- 
tions. . . . Many gross perversions, not to say mistranslations, of the Sacred Text have been 
occasioned by dogmatical prejudices and sectarian zeal." — (Rev. John Oxlee, Letters to the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, London, Hatchard, 1845; pp. 117, 137-8.) 

Fuerunt autem, relates Kennicott, qui de hac re uliler senscrvnt : among the non-extinct is 
the Rev. Dr. Home, who makes the fiercest battle in defence of "our authorized version;" 
quoting many writers on the opposite side to ours, whose combined " association," like the 
one prelauded, fails in authority for want of Ilebraieal knowledge in its parts ; but, when 
the best is done for it, he naively remarks on our translation — "It is readily admitted 
that it is not immaculate ; and that a revision, or correction, of it is an object of desire to 
the friends of religion " — and then the reverend gentleman breaks forth in rhapsodical 
glorifications and thanksgivings, that it is not worse! (59) 

Nor are the erudite among Christians alone the denouncers of king James's version. 
Anglicized Israelites hold it in estimation equally low, to judge by the following Editorial: 

" ^Vhat we should like to sec at the World's Fair. — It would give us a great deal of pleasure 
to see at the World's Fair a correct English version of the Bible, resting upon the solid 
fundament of the results of modern criticism ; reaching the elevation of modern science, 
and being accomplished by men of a thorough scholastic education, and free from every 
foreign influence, who take the letter for what it is without paying any regard to authorities, 
and without coming to the task with a certain quantity of prejudices. Such a work would 
reconcile science and religion ; it would reclaim many an erring wanderer to the straight 
path of truth ; it would evaporate many a prejudice and a superstition ; it would greatly 
modify many sectarian views, and would closely unite the men of opposite nations. It ap- 
pears, however, that the men for this task are not yet among the mortals; for the theolo- 
gians come to the Bible with an established system, which must lead them away from the 
true import of letters, where they find again their own system whenever it can be done 
conveniently; and wheie their sentiments frequently overbalance their critical judgment." 
— {The Asmonean, New York, July 22, 1853.) 

Thus we might go on, citing work after work wherein, if king James's version is not 
denounced for its perversions of the "original sacred tongues," its erroneous readings are 
more or less apologetically but thoroughly confirmed by many instances in which the 
erudition and fairness of the authors compel them to substitute their own translations for 
those of our "authorized" copy. Notable examples may be seen in the recent work 
of our much-honored fellow-citizen, Dr. McCulloh. (60). 

Albeit, as said before, if our version were decently accurate, why should so many labo- 
rious men run the risks of incurring some theological obloquy, coupled with pecuniary 
loss, in efforts to correct the false renderings of that superannuated edition by publishing 
eniendatory reiranslations in English? Among the many we have consulted may be cited: 

" The Holy Bible, according to the established Versions, with the exception of the sub- 
stitution of the oriyinal Hebrew names, in place of the words Lord or God, and of a few 
corrections thereby rendered necessary. (London, 1830 ; Westley and Davis.)" 

This book, however, seems to have closed at 2 Kings. The uninitiated may be informed 

(59) Op.ca.; u. pp. 77-S.3. 

(60) CroiibilUy of the Scriptures; Baltimore, 1S52. See particularly vol. ii. Appendix, " On the Human Soul," 
pp. 465-489. 



592 AECH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

that the word " Lord " of our version renders merely the Dominus of the Vulgate, and the 
Kvptos of the Septuagint, and does not directly translate the original Hebrew word leHOuaH ; 
the latter being suppressed, by "His Majesty's special command," in the "authorized" 
copies, only 6846 times ! The number of times it occurs in the Hebrew Text are 6855 : (61) 
on which hereafter. Another is : — 

" The Holt Bible, containing the authorized version of the Old and New Testaments, 
with twenty thousand [.'] emendations. (London, 1841 ; Longman, Brown & Co.)" 

Its title attracted our notice, as savoring of a Taurie genus known as Hibernian ; aptly 
illustrated in that "same old knife which belonged to 'my grandfather,' after having 
received thirteen new handles and seventeen new blades." The preface justified our first 
impressions, when we read — "This is our authoeizbd English version, which is char- 
acterized by unequalled fidelity, perspicuity, simplicity, dignity, and power. ... No one 
has yet detected a single error [in it!!!] in reference to those great and vital truths in 
which all Christians agree." After which, where the utility of 20,000 emendations? 
Suffice it, that, maugre this liuge amount, not perceiving any of the catalogue of " emen- 
dations" hereinafter submitted to the reader, we refrained from its purchase, after a 
morning's examination. 

A third, which we have long possessed through the kindness of its publishers, merits 
attention, and is ushered by a most excellent preface : — 

" The Holt Bible, being the English version of the Old and New Testaments, made by 
order of King James I., carefully revised and amended, by several Biblical Scholars. (Sixth 
edition, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1847.)" 

After a brief sketch of preceding translations into English, from 1290 to 1611, the' 
preface states — " From these facts, and from comparing the translation of king James 
with those which preceded it, nothing is more obvious, than that the common version 
is but a revision of those executed by Tindal, Coverdale, and others, and that, however 
excellent it may be, the paramount praise, under God, is due to William Tikdal and 
Miles Coverdale." In the above sentiments we heartily concur; having enjoyed oppor- 
tunities, in the course of our studies, of comparing some points in both of the latters' self- 
sacrificing editions with the so-called " revision" of ih.^ forty-seven. AvroiiSuKToi, however, 
like Abderitan Democeitus, in some branches of Oriental philology; and possessing, fur- 
thermore, an apparatus tolerably complete of continental criticism in biblical matters ; we 
prefer direct references to the Hebrew Text, now rendered accessible in a very handy form, 
and illuanined by Cahen's most useful parallel French translation. (62) 

From the nature of these premises it will be seen that, save under the scientific point of 
view and for the general cause of human enlightenment, the writer, as an individual, is 
not urgent in exacting another "authorized" version of Texts to which he has acquired 
(what any man who really is serious in such matters can acquire as he has) access for him- 
self. At the present day that in Protestant counti-ies, such as Great Britain and the United 
States, it has become a common practice to worship king James's translation, and " study 
divinity;" that our English version, with all the unnecessary deviations from its Hebrew 
prototype, is reverenced by the masses as a " fetiche," or viewed with a relic of that semi- 
idolatrous awe refused by Protestants to crucifixes, pictures, or images, our observations 
may perhaps seem indecorous to those who choose to cramp their intellects and continue 
to ignore the splendid results of continental exegesis. We should regret the fact, the 
more so because ofi'ence is unintentional; but, "the epoch of constraint has passed awaj' 
[in these United States] for ever: a freeman will be free in all things; material and political 
emancipation suffice no longer for him. He knows that there is a sublimer liberty, that of 
thought and belief. It is with sorrow that he beholds those sweet illusions fleeting away 

(61) Walton: Biil. Pohjg. ; Prolog. C. 8, § 8, p. 275. IIorne: Oj}. cit; i. p. 38. But, above all, L.iNCi: Para- 
lipomena; ISii; passim. 

(62) L.\ Bible.- Tradudim NouveUe ; 22 octavo volumes ; Paris, 1831-51. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 593 

that whilom had been the charm of his childhood ; but reason exacts it, and he sacrifices 
his illusions upon the altar of truth.'" (63) 

Of that wherein the aspirations of a Newcombe, a Lowth, and a Kennicott (to say nothing 
about others of the best of England's biblical critics), have been baulked, it would be at this 
day egregious folly to entertain further hopes, viz : that the British Lords, Spiritual and 
Temporal, will, in our generation at least, permit such a radically-correct re-translation of 
the Hebrew Scriptures as would supersede the vulgar version " appointed to be read iu 
churches." The Universities, especially the Oxonian, — part of whose support depends, 
like some institutions on this side of the water, — upon a "Book Concern," would oppose such 
violation of vested privileges. By the evangelical dissenting sects, sundry of whose various 
hierarchies derive subsistence from those very linguistic quibbles that a new standard 
version would obliterate, such a proposition would be repelled with devout horror. Exeter 
Hall shudders, even at the thought: "Bible Societies" whine that the reign of Anti-Christ 
is come indeed. As positivisf- we lament not that our brief span of life will have been, 
measured, long before a new English version may be "authorized;" because, through the 
slow but unerring laws of human advancement in knowledge, by the time that theologists 
shall have accomplished their metaphysical transition and have awakened to the stern reali- 
ties of the case, the development of science will have rendered any new translation alto- 
gether supererogatory among the educated who are creating new religions for themselves. 

In the utterance of these long-pondered thoughts, though written years ago, we have 
been somewhat anticipated by our learned friend McCulloh ; (64) with a quotation from 
whose admirable chapter on the "Value of Translations" we conclude this historical divi- 
sion of the two-fold evidence. 

" No emendation however of our common translation would affect the revelations made 
in the Scripture, upon any subject which Jehovah has directly addressed to the understand- 
ing or consciences of mankind, whether as regards their faith or practice. That a new 
translation would considerably affect our theological creeds, or our ecclesiastical institu- 
tions, there is no doubt; but this again is a most desirable object if such things are not 
accordant to the undoubted word of God. No Christian in his senses can wish to remain 
under any error respecting the import of Jehovah's revelations ; and hence nothing can be 
more absurd than to oppose a correction of our common translation, on the ground that it 
would overturn some of the inventions that theologians have heretofore constructed upon 
the comparatively defective Hebrew or Greek Texts upon which that translation has been 
made. 

" The popular objections of unlearned persons to the amendment of our present transla- 
tion, however, are often, unfortunately for Christianity, sustained by learned men and 
accomplished scholars, whose interests or whose prejudices are too deeply involved in the 
present condition of things to be willing to admit of any innovation. Their creeds, insti- 
tutions, and ecclesiastical establishments, for the most part, were constructed contempora- 
neously by divines or statesmen of similar theological or ecclesiastical views with those who 
made our authorized version. To change the terms or texts of Scripture that have been 
heretofore used as the basis for ecclesiastical institutions, or theological assumptions con- 
cerning divine truths, are shocks too violent, either for the pride or self-interests of men, 

to acquiesce in willingly Dr. Vicesimus Knox, (65) of the Church of England, 

says, ' For my own part, if I may venture to give an opinion contrary to that of the profound 
collators of Hebrew Manuscripts, I cannot help thinking a new translation of the Bible an 
attempt extremely dangerous and quite unnecessary. Instead of serving the cause of religion, 
which is the ostensible motive for the wish, I am convinced that nothing would tend more imme- 
diately to shake the basis of the Establishment ' {i. e., of the Church of England). ' Time,' 
says the reverend gentleman, ' gives a venerable air to all things. Sacred things acquire 
peculiar sanctity by long duration.' " 

And finally, the unlettered dogmatist who, possessing no knowledge of the real merits 
of the topics before us, would thrust into court "his" opinion, may as well be told by the 
reader, that : — 

"At the rational point of view, a sentiment such as is termed Christian conscience, a 

(63) Muxk: Examen, in Cahek's Exodus; p. iv. 

(64) Op. cU. ; i. pp. 281, i!83. 

(65) Annual Obituary; vi. p. 352; — Op. cit.; p. 2S3, note. 

75 



594 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

sentiment that reposes upon suppositions, has no voice in scientific discussions ; and, every 
time that it would meddle with them, it ought to be called to order through the simple dic- 
tum : Taceat mulier in ecdesia." (66) 

II. — The exegetical Evidence. 

" Eh ! datevi pace, o teologoni di vecchia scuola, che la veritS, vuol risplendere anche a 
traverse di quel denso velo che la ignoranza di alcuni di voi si presume di opporle. Intanto 
per apprendimento vostro fatevi or meco a leggere qualche altro versetto in cui . . . sara 
pure una di quell' esse novita che a' preoccupati leggitori fanno strabuzzare occhi e naso 
aggrinzare." (67) 

The foregoing section has prepared the reader for the " experimentum crucis " to which 
we now propose submitting various passages of king James's version, by way of testing 
the vaunted accuracy of its foriy-seven translators. Three of these instances have been 
already indicated ; (68) one of which, wherein Job longed that his speech should be 
"printed'va. a book," was noticed above. 

For convenience sake, having now a few more of these literary curiosities to present, we 
will tabulate them under alphabetical signs, and prefix to this initial gem the letter 

A.— Job xix. 23. 

One almost blushes to make this imbecility more palpable to general intelligence by recall- 
ing to mind that 6Zoc^-printing was unknown to Europe prior to a. r>. 1423, and printing in 
types before 1457 — although the former invention existed, according to Stanislas Julien,(69) 
in China at a. d. 593, and the latter about 1041. Yet, by this " translation," the patriarch 
must have foreshadowed the art six to ten centuries previously to the advent of Christ ! 
Like every writer comprised in the Old Testament Canon, Job knew as much of China as 
they all did of America; that is, to be frank, just nothing at all. How forty-seven able- 
bodied men could have overlooked this blunder while " correcting proof," surpasses com- 
prehension; unless we ourselves perpetrate another anachronism, as well as a pitiful conun- 
drum, and suppose that "Job-printing" may have suggested some inappreciable affinity 
between the Anglo-corrupted name of that venerable Arab and the glorious art. What more 
simple than to h&xe printed what the "original sacred tongues" read, "inscribed in a 



B. — Job xxxi. 35. [N. B. The first citations always present the textualities of king 

James's version.] 

" Oh that one would hear me ! hehold, my desire is, that the Almighty would answer me, and tlujt mine 
adversary had written a book." 

Can human intelligence understand what possible connection Job's supplication, that God 
should reply to him, can have with his individual craving that his own unnamed enemy 
should have indited a book? If this text be "divinely inspired" in king James's version, 
then "the Lord have mercy upon his creature" archmology ! Because, were these words 
authentic, logic could prove : — 

1. That, at least 2500 years ago, polemical works in the form of "books" were not 
unknown even in Arabia. 

2. That, inasmuch as Job could have no benevolent motive in such wish, vexed as he felt 
at the aggravations heaped upon his distressing afflictions by his proverbial comforters, 
and knowing, as he must necessarily have done, the power which a Reviewer has over 
an author, he longed, with vindictive refinement, as the most terrible retribution to be 
inflicted upon an adversary, that his particular enemy should actually write a booh, in 
order that Job might review him; probably, as Horace Smith conjectured, "in the Jeru- 
salem Quarterly." 

(66) Paul: 1 Corinthians xiv. 34; — Straxjss: Vie de Jesus; Littre's transl., Paris, 1840; ii. p. 378. 

(67) L.UICI : Op. cit. ; i. p. 160. 

(68) Nott; Op. di. ; pp. 136, 137. 

(69) Communication to L'Acad6mie; June 7 — London Athmceum; 19 June, 1847. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 595 

Cahen renders — 

" Alas ! that I hare not one who hears ! Behold my loriting — let the Almighty answer me — and the 
book edited by my adverse party." (70) 

This version (for reasons to be elaborated elsewhere) is unsatisfactory, like all we have 
seen, but Land's ; because among other oversights it does not afford due weight to the 
word TaU; vaguely rendered "sign" or "mark" in Ezekiel ix. 4. TalJ is the name of the 
last letter in the post-christian square-letter alphabet of the Jews; which 142 years b. c, 
on the earlier Maccabee coinage was cruciform ; sometimes like the Latin, at others like 
the Greek cross. (71) At the time when Ezekiel wrote in Chaldea, during the sixth century 
B. c, this cruciform letter was the one he must have used, no less than the shape of that 
"mark" which should be stamped upon the foreheads of the righteous. Its etymological 
and figurative meaning was "benediction" or "absolution;" just what its descendant, the 
" baptismal sign " (drawn with water on the foreheads of infants) signifies at this day. 
Ezekiel's TaU had no direct relation, beyond a distant resemblance in shape and perhaps 
an occult one in hierophantic mysteries, to the " Crux Ansata," or the sign for "Ankh," 
eternal life, of the more ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics ; but its original is now-a-days 
producible from the cuneiform monuments of Assyria; though our demonstration of the 
fact must be reserved to other opportunities. 

It is one thing to prove that the forty-seven were wrong in their appreciation of the "word 
of God:" quite another to emulate the presumptuous part of theologians and dictate dog- 
matically the English sense of ancient texts in themselves obscure. Our task limits itself 
to the former ofl&ce in this essay ; but, not to shrink from the utterance of what little we 
know, the following free rendering indicates a probable solution of this tortured passage, 
and combines Land's with other views: — says Job, "Who will give me one that will listen 
to me? [i. e., as my judge]. Behold! (here is) my TaU [i. e., he holds up masonically the 
cruciform emblem, as his " absolution"]. The Omnipotent will answer for me [i. e., guaran- 
tee me, be my surety, become responsible for me — " that I seek not to evade," understoodl. 
And now let my opponent write down his charge [i. e., let my accuser, my calumniator, put 
his accusations into writing — "that everybody may see them," understood^. 

And, while on the subject of TaU, we may continue our expurgations with other 
examples. 
C. — Psalms Ixxviii. 41. 

" Yea, they turned back and tempted God, and limited the Holy One of Israel." 

Bad as the Jews were, in this case they did precisely the contrary ! " The Psalmist," 
says Lanci, (72) " celebrates in this canticle the marvels which the Lord had done in behalf 
of rebellious Israel ; nevertheless, as the latter finished by conversion, God pardons him 
and spreads over the culprit the most ample bounties. Conversion, therefore, is the import 
of this verse, and then it is said — " they (became) converted, they supplicated the Puissant, 
and implored TaU [i. e., "absolution," or "benediction"] of the Holy of Israel." 

D. — 1 Samuel xxi. 10 — 15. 

'■ And David arose; and fled that day for fear of Saul, and went to Achish the King of Gath. — And the 
servants of Achish said unto him, Is not this David the king of the land ? did they not sing one to 
another of him in dances, saying, Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands? — 
And David laid up these words in his heart, and was sore afraid of Achish the King of Gath. — 
And he changed his behavior before them, and feigned himself mad in their hands, and scrabbled 
on the doors of the gate, and let his spittle fall down upon his beard. — Then said Achish unto his 
servants, Lo, ye see the man is mad: wherefore then have ye brought him to me? — Have I need 
of madmen, that ye have brought this fellow to play the madman in my presence ? shall this 
fellow come into my house? " 

Reminding the reader that David, besides being the warrior-king, was Israel's hard, we 
let Lanci speak for himself: — " The LXX (Greek) made a periphrasis at the first verse, and 

(70) Op. cit. ; vol. xv. p. 143. 

(71) Letkonsi:: Examen ArchicHnf/ique : 1846; plate i., and pp. 11-18. 

(72) Sa^a ScriUura lllustrcUa; Roma, 1827: eh. ix. Cahex, xiii. p. 173, note. 



596 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

added to the (Hebrew) Text by twice mentioning the gates of the city, first to make Dayid 
play upon his harp, and afterwards to cause him to fall against the said gates. There is 
perhaps no passage in Scripture that has been more completely denaturalized through the 
obscurity of a single word. It is evident that David had altogether a part more dignified, 
more reasonable, to adopt than to counterfeit a lunatic; and moreover that Achish did not 
display great esteem for his court by saying that madmen were not wanting in it. But the 
famous T«U, misunderstood, has thrown all interpreters into error. So we will give to it 
its veritable sense of to bless ; to this we add that ShSae [in Hebrew, as in vulgar Arabic 
now] does not signify 'door' in this passage, but poetry, as its Arabic root teaches: 
DALETH has the value of ' door ' in the same sense that Chaldees and Arabs call ' doors ' 
[b&b, biban] or 'houses' [bii/f, bei/odt] the strophes ; th&t is, those commencements of chapters 
and of strophes that we [Italians] call 'stanze' [and that in English is adopted for poetry in 
our word stanzas; a word that in Italian, like the above nouns in Oriental speech, has the 
double meaning of ' stanza ' and ' chamber ']. If it be insisted that David was raving, 
it will be, then, with ^oeft'c furor — the prophetic transport that animated him: but the 
Arabic root shagiq, which signifies to exhibit valor, bravery, courage, accords much better 
with the context. These few rays of light ought to be sufBcient to dissipate the thick tene- 
brosities which Translators have piled upon this divine narrative. We may thenceforward 
give to these verses a reasonable translation and worthy of the majesty of Scripture : — 
' David arose, and fleeing on that day from the presence of Saul, came to Achish the king 
of Gath. — Then the servants of Achish said to him, ' And is not this David king of the 
earth ? is it not in his honor that it was sung in chorus [not, at ancient Fandangos ! ] .• Saul 
has killed a thousand, and David ten thousand ! ' — David weighing these words in his 
heart, feared greatly in presence of Achish king of Gath. — It was for this that in his pre- 
sence, he [David] celebrated their power in a varied hjmn and in inspired verses ; and, at 
each commencement of a strophe he made TaU [i. e., he made 'benedictions' — he blessed 
theml ; and already the sweat was dripping upon the chin's honor [i. e., upon his beard, in 
Oriental phraseology] when Achish interrupted him, and said to his servant : ' hearken to 
this man who affects inspiration [literally, ' comes the inspired '] ; are poets [bards, improvi- 
satori'] wanting to me, that yon must bring this one to celebrate my power? and shall 
(such as) he come into my house ? ' Nevertheless, David escaped, and took the road that 
conducted to the cavern of AduUa." (73) 

Who seem most " cracked," David, or the bibliolaters of king James's version ? 

E. — Leviticus xi. 20. 

" All fowls that creep, going upon aU four, sliaV, he an abomination to you." 

To US, likewise! "Rarse aves," invaluable however to museums of Natural History. Not 
merely, were this prohibition authentic, did four-legged fowls exist in the days of Moses, 
but the inhibition to eat them would now be worthless to a Cardile Jew, because the breed 
is extinct. Cahen renders — "Every winged-insect [or literally, flying -creeping thing] 
that walks upon four \claws, feet, understood] is an abomination unto you." 

Dwelling not upon verse 21, although marvelling how "legs" could be placed anatomi- 
cally elsewhere than " above their feet," we refreshen ourselves with 

F. — 2 Kings, vi. 25. 

" And there was a great famine in Samaria : and, behold, they besieged it, until an ass's head was sM 
for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver." 

" Sternhold and Hopkins had great qualms 
When they translated David's psalms " ; 

but the sufferings of these poor men were infinitesimally small compared to those the forty- 
seven would have experienced had they partaken of that delicate repast, for about two- 
thirds of a pint of which the starving Samaritans paid such monstrous prices ! Pigeon's dxmg, 
or "doves'-dung," owing to the quantity of ammonia it contains, is still used throughout 



(73) Op. dt.; Ch. ix. \ 3. Cahen: vii. p. 86, preserves the old mistakes. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 597 

the East, in the absence of modern chemistry, to give temper to Damascene sword-blades, 
&c. It sharpens weapons, not appetites ! Can one conceive a human stomach, Jowever 
depraved by want, alimented upon "guano?" Bochart, (74) two centuries ago, showed 
that " pois chiches," in Italian ceci, in English "chickpea," — the commonest Oriental 
vetch, or pea, — is the rational interpretation of the word; and thus the only enigma pre- 
served is, how forty-seven Englishmen could have committed a mistake so extraordinary. 
The obsolete word "cab" aptly illustrates how imperative it has become, through una- 
voidable changes of language within 260 years, to issue a re-translation in our current 
vernacular, lest the illiterate should think that " ca6-riolets," 26 centuries ago, plied in the 
streets of Samaria ! Superstition is gradually elevating the vulgar Cockney speech of the 
age of King James into our "lingua sancta; " and the translation authorized in his reign 
will some day become unintelligible and useless in the " Far West," except to those who 
possess glossaries wherewith to read it. Theologers would act wisely to consider these 
things, while we pass on to 

G. — Leviticus xxi. 18 and 17. 

" He that hath a flat nose " — [is forbidden] — " approach to offer the bread of his God." 

A flat nose, in the Abrahamic type of mankind, among their "Cohenim" or priesthood, 
was, in the days of the Hebrew Lawgiver, as it is now among Israel's far-scattered descend- 
ants, too great a deviation of physical lineaments from the indelible standard of the race 
(portrayed as we exhibit them in our present work from the monuments of that epoch, and 
as we daily see them in our streets) not to excite suspicion that such cases testified to ad- 
mixtures of foreign (75) and consequently of " impure blood " ; and therefore to debar a 
priest with a "flat nose" from the Tabernacle was rational at their point of view. Negro 
families [as already demonstrated, siipral are unmentioned throughout the Hebrew Text ; 
and negrophilism may accordingly rejoice that the rendering selected by the forty-seven 
cannot now be applied to the former " de jure," where it is notoriously (in the Free States 
of this Federation, especially) " de facto." 

Happily — no thanks to our translators — " Snubs" of universal humanity may legally 
ofiSciate at sanctuaries; the word K/jRM (76) meaning only a '^mutilated nose:" and the 
inhibition referring to noses injured by deformity, accident, disease, or law, (77) our appre- 
hensions were futile, like their translation. 

An ethnological item has been touched upon involuntarily, and now we may as well give 
ventilation to another much-abused text. 

H. — Song of Solomon, i. 5, 6. 

"I am black, hut comely, . . . Look not upon me because I am black, because the sun hath looked upon 
me: my mothers children were angry with me; they made me keeper of the vineyards; but mine 
own vineyard have I not kept." 

The apocryphal "prologue" at the head of this chapter tells ns that here the Church 
"confesseth her deformity"! It were well if, before printing this acknowledgment (which 
it is not for us to dispute), the "Establishment " had corrected the deformity of their trans- 
lation : which has led our anglicized Nigritiana to claim this supposititious bride of Solomon 
as a Venus of their own species ! With equal reason, some commentators, even of modern 

(74) Saltebte; Sciences Occultes; i. p. 44. Cahen (whose nof^ are infinitely more valuable than his textual 
translations), viii. p. 127, rwtt, adds — "Selon plusieurs commentateurs, il s'agit ici d'une nourriture mise- 
rable, de quelque herbc k vil prix," Ac. 

(75) On retnrning from the Captivity, "the children of Habaiah, the children of Koz, the children of Bar- 
zillai, which took erne [sic, in our version !] of the daughters of Barzillai the Gileadite to wife, and was [/ idem] 
called after their name," were, "as polluted, put from the priesthood" — (Nehemiah vU. 63, 64.) 

(76) Cahen: vol. iii. pp. 99, 100. 

(77) "I cut off both his nose and ears," proclaims Dakius, of Phraortes, and of SitratachAes, at Behistun. 
(Rawusson: Persian Cuneif. Inscrip.; 1846; part i. p. 34.) Philanthropy need not shudder at atrocities of the 
fifth century b. c, for in Turkey such punishment is as common now aa it was 3300 years ago, if Moses 
wrote this passage. 



598 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

times, (78) infer tliat she was " an Egyptian princess ; " while others identify the lady with 
"Pharaoh's daughter;" for "King Solomon loved many strange women. . . . Moabites, 
Ammonites, Edomites, Zidonians, and Hittites," and what not! (79) It need hardly be 
mentioned that, the dynasty out of which the sage king selected additions to his hareem 
being yet unfound in hieroglyphics, the monuments of Egypt throw no light upon this 
otherwise very probable amalgamation. (80) 

The ^^ Canticle of Canticles of which of Solomon, that is to say, one of the Canticles of 
Solomon," as Lanci literally interprets its epigraph, (81) has suffered much at the hands of 
the forty-seven. They, and others, lost sight of the simple fact (to be exemplified in its 
place), that, in the ancient Hebrew Text, divisions into chapters, verses, words, or by punctu- 
ations, are absolutely unknown ; while, paralleled to this day in Arabic calligraphy, no 
notes of admiration, interrogation, &c., mark inflections of the sense. The context alone 
can indicate a query; so that a "crooked little thing which asks a question," added to 
fidelity of construction and acquaintance with Levant usages of the present hour, rescues 
our pretty Shulamite brunette from all Ethiopian hallucinations [supra, p. 483], 

"I am brown (Italic^ "fosca," dark, tanned) but pretty," says the girl coquettishly ; 
then [deprecatingly to her swain], " Do not mind that I am browned, because the sun has 
tanned me ; [which she explains by adding] the male-children of my mother [i. e. my step- 
bi-olhers ; who, in the East, control their maiden sisters after the father's death] having 
become free to dispose of me, placed me watcher of vines : [" don't you see ? " understood] 
my own vine, have I not watched it? " (82) 

One improvement heralds another : it is so in machinery : it is equally true in biblical 
hermeneutics, the moment a man's mind soars above the supernatural grade of ratioci- 
nation. From the simple proposition that they who expound the Scriptures should under- 
stand them, we hold that no one is competent to impugn these deductions who is unac- 
quainted, not merely with the original Hebrew and Greek languages, but with the noble 
achievements of Continental exegesis. Hear a living Church of England dignitary : — 

"Those who advocate the free use of philology in the interpretation of the Scriptures, 
find their fiercest and most uncompromising opponents in the ranks of those who are slaves 
to the Puritanical Bibliolatry, so common in this country. According to this school, every 
word in the canonical books of the Old and New Testament (in king James's version) pro- 
ceeds from a divine and miraculous inspiration. . . . By those who believe in the plenary 
and verbal inspiration of the (English) Scriptures, science in general and philological sci- 
ence in particular, are viewed with distrust, if not with abhorrence ; and the more so, if 
this bibliolatry is combined with a certain amount of ecclesiolatry." (83) 

It is a pity, certainly ; for if some expounders possessed the intelligence they would 
deplore their want of education : but we continue. 

I. — Habalckuk '\\. W. 

" For the stone shall cry out of the wall, and the beam out of the timber shall answer it." 
That a stone should cry out from a wall is an idea consonant with Oriental hyperbole ; 
but that a beam should answer out of timber seems to be an unpoetical and far-fetched con- 
ception, as it presupposes the proximity of a "timber-yard" to the wall aforesaid. It fur- 
thermore is not in unison with the context ; wherein the prophet, who " surpasses all which 
Hebrew poesy can ofi^er in this department," (84) declaims against Chaldasan flagitiousness. 
The propriety of his metaphor resiles to view through Land's rendering and notes of inter- 
rogation. 

(78) The Friend of Moses; New York, 1852; p. 468, note. 

(79) 1 Kings iii. 1 ; xi. 1. 

(80) EosELLiNi : on Osorchor of Manetho's XXIst dynasty. 

(81) La Sagra Scrittura; ch. T. J 4. Cahen: 3ut. 3, 4, has not seized the poet's meaning. 

(82) Lanci: Paralipomeni ; ii. p. 45. 

(S3) PaiLELECTHEBns ANGUCAjfcs : A Vindication of Protestant Principles; London, 1847; pp. 43, 44; — Gii»- 
DON : Otia JEgypliaca ; 1849 ; p. 93. 
(84) De Wette : ii. p. 466. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 599 

" Peradventure, shall the statue of stone [an Assyrian bas-relief?] from the wall cry out? 
The cricket [scarabteus, or beetle] from out of the wood will it respond ? " (85) 

There is a verse of another prophet that Lanci restores, in ■which our forty-seven have 
metamorphosed /amj'nM into "young men," and sorrows into " maids " ! 

J. — Zechaeiah ix. 17. 

" Corn shall make the young men cheerful, and new wine the maids." 

The " Sons of Temperance " may not be pleased with the moral, but the Daughters will 
not fail to appreciate an emendation that relieves their antique sisters from the charge of 
unfeminine indulgences. 

The old Vulgate had translated — " For, what is the goodness of God, what is his glory, 
if not the corn of the elect, and the wine which fecundates the virgins ?" Vatablus and 
Pagnini make " confusion worse confounded" by reading — "The corn which makes the 
young men sing, and the new wine of the girls." But, based upon radicals preserved in 
Arabic, our teacher proposes : — 

" What is more sweet and more agreeable than corn in scarcities, and wine that fortifies 
in aflBictions ?" (86) 

"Per saltum," inasmuch as in the chaos of our memoranda oi false-translations orderly 
classification is inconvenient, while to our objects quite unnecessary, we open — 

K. — Genesis xxiii. 9, 17, 19. 

" The cave of Machpela" 

purchased by Abraham for Sarah's inhumation — to remark, that the word Machpela 
which, according to our authorized verity, seems a " proper name," is grammatically, in 
Semitic tongues, "a thing contracted-far ;" so that, it is as vain for tourists in Palestine to 
search for Machpela, as for biblical chorographers to define its latitude and longitude. (87) 
L. — 1 Samuel xix. 13. 

"And Michal took an image, and laid it in the bed, and put a pillow of goat's hair for his holster, and 
covered it with a cloth." 

Manifold were the sins of David, but idolatry was certainly not one of the number ; 
although scandalous suspicions have been rife in regard to this image. Commentators have 
likewise expounded how the image being laid in the bed, and covered up with the bed-clothes, 
the messengers supposed that the invalid whom they were sent to slay (v. 11) was asleep 
therein : but we are told : — 

M. — 1 Samuel xix. 16. 

" And when the messengers were come in, behold, there was an image in the bed, with a pillow of goat's 
hair for his bolster : " 

■whence it is evident that the forty-seven deemed the " image " to be of the masculine 
gender. Their notions of an Oriental bed too must have been peculiar, in England, two 
hundred and fifty years ago, when a "pillow" was made to serve for a "bolster;" and such 
a hirsute contrivance ! However, having commenced rolling down hill, they reach the bottom 
through a series of cascades that would excite Homeric smiles were not " God's word " the 
sufferer: as may be seen by the subjoined restitution; after comprehending that Michal, 
the astute daughter of king Saul, was a princess in whose "trousseau" were doubtless 
many of the crown regalia : — 

" Michal took her casket full of jewels, and placed it upon the bed ; whence were reflected 
magnificent splendors ; and she hid them with a curtain [ ? coverlid]." ..." The messengers 
having arrived, surprise ! the jewels [being] upon the bed, from their summits was thrown 
out a magnificence of splendors." (88) 

(85) Op. cit. ; I. p. 283 ; — CAin:>f, xii. p, 115, also reads differently from our version ; but see his note 11. 

(86) Sag. Scrit. ; ch. ii. g 1 ; — Cahen, xii. p. 156, follows the Rabbis. 

(87) Paralip.; i. p. 144. 

(88) -S*7. Scril. ; ch. vii. 4. The note, 13, of ClHEN, vii. p. 76, shows how the text puzzled him. hisci, op. cit,, 
proves that in no place are TdeRaPAIM " idols." 



600 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

Humiliated at this sight, the assassins remembered that Michal was a royal daughter 
whose husband, escaped from their clutches, was just the man to reward them with a 
hempen neckcloth on his accession to the throne ; so, apologizing for their intrusion, the 
emissaries withdrew. 

Goats appear to have been favorites with our translators. Not content with transmuting 
jewels into " goat's hair " and filling the royal " bolster" with this rare, elastic, and odori- 
ferous article, they must needs metamorphose one of the sublimest Hebrew names of Deity 
into a ^^ scape-goat" ! 

N. — Leviticus xvi. 8, 10, 26. 

"And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the Lord, and the other for the scapegoat. . . . 
But the goat, on which the lot fell to be the scapegoat, shall he presented alive before the Lord, to 
make an atonement with him, and to let him go for a scapegoat into the wilderness. . . . And he 
that let go the goat for the scapegoat, shall wash his clothes," &e. 

AZAZL — (izazel — is the Hebrew word. "This terrible and venerable name of God 
(says Lanci) through the pens of biblical glossers has been ^ devil, a mountain, a wilderness, 
and a he-goat ! " (89) 

It will give an idea of the lucidity of Kabbinical criticism, to quote the following : — • 

" Aben Esra, according to his habitual manner when he is in trouble, enupciates in tlie 
style of an oracle : ' If thou art capable of comprehending the mystery of Azazel, thou 
wilt learn also the mystery of his name; for it has similar associates in Scripture; I 
will tell thee by allusion one portion of the mystery ; when thou shalt have thirty-three 
years, thou wilt comprehend us.' He finishes abruptly without saying anything more alle- 
gorically or otherwise." (90) 

The ante-Christian Hebrew text was undivided into words. Our preceptor re-divides 
AZAZcL into two distinct nouns ; AZAZ and EL. The latter, every sciolist knows, means 
the strong, the puissant par excellence, the Omnipotent. AZAZ, identical with the Arabic- 
Azaz, has its radical monosyllable in dZ, "to conquer" and "to be victorious;" wherefore, 
AZAZ-^L signifies the "God of victorg" — here used in the sense of the "Author ot death," 
in juxta-position to leHOuaK, the "Author of life:" to the latter of vrhich Authors the 
Jews were enjoined to offer a dead goat ; while, by contrast, to the former they were to 
offer a live one. Thus, death to the Life-giver — life to the Death-dealer. The symbolical 
antithesis is grand and beautiful. 

For the sake of perspicuity we submit a free translation to the reader: — "And Aaron 
shall place lots upon the two he-goats ; one lot to leKOuaH, and one lot to AZAZ-.E'L. . . . 
And the he-goat upon which the lot has fallen to AZAZ-£'L shall be placed alive before 
leHOuaH, to become exempted by him, to be sent forth to AZAZ-^L in the desert. . . . 
And he who shall have led forth the he-goat to AZAZ-^L shall cleanse his clothes," &c. 
In verse 9, the other he-goat offered to leROuaR was to be killed. 

Having thus entirely misapprehended the sense of the above passages, it was quite natural 
that our gifted translators, one Divine Name having vanished through their skill, should 
have been blinded to many others. Here is one of them : — 

O. — Job xxi. 15. 

" What is the Almighty, that we should serve him ? and what profit should we have, if we pray unto 
him?" 

We have illustrated, under the preceding letter N, the splendor of antithesis which He- 
brew literature conceived in the selection of Divine Names ; and herein leniency may be 
accorded to the English interpreters, because neither they nor early or later scholiasts, 
could have anticipated a discovery due to the profoundest Semitic savant of our genera- 

(89) Sagra Scrittura; ch. iii. g 1 ; — Paralipomeni ; ii. p. 354. 

(90) Cahen : iii. p. 68. It may be well to warn cavillers that this subject has been studied. We do not agree 
in Hengstenberg's idea (Egypt and the Books of Moses; pp. 169-184), that Ozazd is "Satan." For parallelisms 
on the sacrifice of he-goats to the God-Preserver and the God-Destroyer, conf. Righelliot [Examen; ii. p. 246); 
Movers {Die Phceniner ; i. p. 367) ; and Mackt (Genies Psychopompes ; Aug. 1845 ; pp. 295, 296 — and Personnage 
de la MoTt ; Aug. 1847 ; pp. 325, 326) in the Revue Archiologique. 




TO THE THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS, 601 

tion, the affable Professor (for thirty-nine years) of Sacred Philology at the Roman 
"Vatican.(91) 

The original of the substantive rendered "profit" is NUaiL — a noun which, occurring 
but once amid the 5G42 (92) words preserved, in the Hebrew and Chaldee Bibles, to our day 
(fragments, so to say, of the ancient tongue) — is unique; and consequently its significa- 
tion is recoverable solely through its extant radical in Arabian dialects. Its true root is 
viaal, " to be eminent" ; and its sense, " the most sublime." The prototype of "Almighty" 
is testually SAaDal ; literally, " the most valorous." Let the reader now compare king 
James's version with the subjoined : — 

"Who is the most Valokous (SAaDal), that to him we must be servants? who the most 
Sublime (NU«IL), that we should go [out of our way] to meet him ? " 

Variety is pleasing, so we skip over to 

'P.—Mkah, V. 2. 

" But thou Beth-lehem Ephrata, though thou he little among the thousands of Judah, yel out of thee 
shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel." 

The emendation suggested relates principally to the word rendered " thousands," of 
which the singular, in the unpunctuated Hebrew, is ALUPA. 

ALePA, X) first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in its Phoenician original is the tachygraph 
of a Bull's head ; and its name is derived from that of the animal, because the bull is 
"leader" of the herd.(93) Hence ALePA became a title as the "leader," general, dux, 
or chief; of which examples are numerous in the discrepant so-called "Dukes" of Edom, 
&c. ; corruption of the Latin "dux, duces": -which, with more propriety in English, should 
be rendered chiefs. Copying the Latin and Greek versions, without archfeological know- 
ledge of the Hebrew tongue, our translators have read Elf-lm "thousands," when Chiefs is 
its real meaning ; thus : — 

"And thou Bethlehem of Euphrata, [even] if thou art little among the Chiefs of Juda, 
I will cause to issue from thee the dominator of Israel." (94) 

Without regard to the fantastical and spurious headings to this Chapter in our version, 
we may add, that the reading of Chiefs is as old as the second century b. c, when the 
LXX Greek version was made by the Hellenistic Jews of Alexandria ; because about 68-69 
A. D. the author of the " Good Tidings according to Mailhew," in citing the above passage 
from Micah, read "Princes"; (95) and he does not appear to have been acquainted (96) 
with the Hebrew Text. Paulus and De Rossi even contend that the speech of Christ, 
XptdTos, was Greek. (97) But, we wander from our theme. 
Q. — Isaiah xviii. 1, 2. 

" Woe to the land shadowing with wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia; — That sendeth am- 
bassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters, saying. Go, ye swift messengers, 
to a nation scattered and peeled, to a people terrible from their beginning hitherto ; a nation 
meted out and trodden down, whose land the rivers have spoiled." 

We cite this passage not with a view of destroying the interpretation of the forty-seven, 
in this instance excusable enough, but by way of elucidating how meritorious it would be 
to reconstruct their time-worn edifice, guided by the lights which Oriental, and particularly 
Egyptian, researches of our living generation cast upon subjects until this century utterly 
dark. 

All interpreters here have been at fault. The LXX render 'Oval yris tt>.o('uv vripvyes — i. e. 
V(B terrce navium alls. The Vulgate — V<b terrce cymbalo alarum. Cahen substitutes — "Ah! 

(91) L.vxa: Op. cit.; p. 354, &c. 

(92) Leosden, apud Gesesius, in ParJcer's De Welte; i. p. 459; — Munk: Palestine; p. 436. 

(93) Gesenius: Script. Ling. Phtmicice; 1838; p. 19. 

(94) SagraScrit.; ch. i. g 2; — "Trop petit pour etre parmi les c?iefs de lehouda," CiHEx: xii. pp. 96, 97 — 
Bee note 1. 

(95) Matt. ii. 6; Sh.vrpe's New Test.; p. 3. 

(96) HExyELL: Origin of Christianity ; 1845; pp. 123, 124: and Christian Theism; pp. 82, 83. 

(97) Gesekius; Heb. Siprache und Sehrift; 1815; p. 46. 

76 




602 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

pays sous I'ombrage des voiles'; (98) and the late Major Mordecai Noah actually read 

— "Hail! Land of the (American) Eagle" ! 
Rosellini (99) was the first to indicate that 

here the prophet apostrophizes Egypt under riQ. o59. 

the metaphor of her national symbol — )C^° 

— the "winged globe"; as Birch defines it, 
"emblem of Kheper, the Creator Sun".(\OQ) 
We subjoin the learned Pisan's emendation, 
with a few additions : — 

"Ho! Land of the Winged Globe [Egypt] ! which art beyond the rivers, of KUSA [i. e. 
the " torrens ^gypti," on the Isthmus of Suez ; supra, p. 484] : that sendest into the sea, 
as messengers, the canals of thy waters ; and that navigatest with boats of papyrus on the 
face of the waves. Go, ye light messengers, to the elongated people [i. e. stretched out 
along the narrow alluvials of the Nile,] and shaved nation [the Egyptians were essentially a 
shaven population — vide Genesis xli. 14,]; to a people terrible from the time that was, and 
also previously : to the geometrical people [Geometry originated in Egypt], who treading 
[with their feet cultivate their fields] ; whose lands the rivers will devastate [referring to 
some unfulfilled prophecy]." 

R. — Ecclesiastes xi. 1 — 2. 

" Cast thy bread upon the waters, for thou shalt find it after many days. . . . Give a portion to seven, 
and also to eight ; for thou knowest not what evil shall he upon the earth." 

Unless there was some cabalistic key to the latter portion of these sentences, through 
which the Translators understood what they wrote, the super-refined meaning they attached 
to the numerals 7 and 8 surpasses our feeble comprehension : even Solomon, reputed 
author and groat magician, could not unravel their knot. Let us substitute: — 

"Cast thy bread where fruits are borne, because time will restore it with usury. . . . 
Give the measure (porzione) even to saturity and abundance, because thou knowest not what 
evil may come upon the earth." Here, comments Lanci, (101) the sage exhorts man to do 
good, and to charitable acts towards the poor who, satiated with abundant food, will cause 
to rain upon him, through the fervor of their prayers, ample benedictions during bad 
seasons. But, what can be expected from men who translate "Tor, Sus, and AgiXr" — ve 
TCUR ve SUS ve aGUR, 

S. — Jeremiah viii. 7, — by 

" the turtle and the crane and the swallow," 

— when the prophet meant " the hull and the horse and the coW' ? (102) 

T.—Zechariah v. 1, 2, 3. 

"Then I turned, and lifted up mine eyes, and looked, and behold a flying roll. . . . And he said tome, 
What seeet thou ? And I answered, I see a flying roll ; the length whereof is twenty cubits, and 
the breadth thereof ten cubits. . . . Then said he unto me, This is the curse that goeth forth over 
the face of the whole earth ; for every one that stealeth shall be cut off, as on this side according 
to it ; and every one that sweareth shall be cut off as on that side according to it." 

If the prophet had been so unfortunate as to receive the words of this angelic vision in 
English, he would have required a second revelation to understand its Translators' impene- 
trable meaning. 

A "flying roll"! Think of a parchment synagogue roll {MeGiLaS, MegMM), of such 
proportions, a.c'Taal\y flying through the air! Consider the amount of inspiration it must 

(98) IX. pp. 66, 67. 

(99) Monumenti Civili; ii. pp. 394-403. 

(100) Gliddon : Otia JEgypl. ; pp. 95, 96 : — " It is the Mcming Sun : it is often called the 'beam of light which 
rises, or ' comes out,' of the horizon " — Bikoh : Egyptian Inscription at the BiUiotheque Nationcie ; E. Soc. Lit. ; 
1852 ; iv. p. S. 

(101) Sag. Scrit.; ch. iv. ? 64. Cahen : xvi. p. 129, notes 1, 2. 

(102) Paralip. ; ii. p. 391. The " seasons " should be " rutting-times — although Cahen, x. pp. 30, 31, pre- 
fers the old reading. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 603 

have required to comprehend which side was mortiferous to thieves, which to swearers; for 
.in Aristotelian logic, "if the one is the other, the other must be the one:" and remember 
that iu the phrase "according to it" lies lost, forgotten, and entombed, one-half of the 
ineffable Tetragrammaton IHOH (Jehovah) ! that most terrible, the most occult monosyllable 
of the palindromic name vocalized as Adonai, the "Lord" ! Here is the sense, verbatim 
el UUeratim : — 

"And turning myself, I raised my eyes, and saw: and behold a iMrling disk [of fire — 
having a mystic relation to the Egyptian 'winged-globe,' emblem of Kheper, the Creaior- 
Sunl- (103) Then the angel said to me : 'What seest thou?' I answered, ' I see a whirling 
disk of twenty cubits in length and of ten in height' [its wings enlarging the lateral diame- 
ter]. And he said to me : ' This is the malediction [of God] which spreads itself upon the 
surface of the whole earth ; verily, every thief by this [the ivhirling disk'\ as ( if) by OH 
[deuterosyllable of IH-GH] shall be destroj'ed ; and every perjurer by this [the whirling 
disk] as (if) by OH shall be destroyed.'" (104) 

" The which, philologers will recognize as common sense and justness, if as much was 
not perceived by those wretched theologists (le.ologastri) who, in philological knowledge not 
surpassing the Hebrew alphabet, go hunting about through lexicons in order thence to spit 
forth a doctoral decision in people's faces " ; says Lanci.(105) 

But, as the time for the exposition of these recondite biblical arcana has not yet arrived, 
our meaning is best conveyed to the Illuminati (lOG) by amending 

U. — Psalms xxxvii. 7, 

'■Kest in the Lord, and wait patiently for him; fret not thyself because of him who prospereth in hi3 
way, because of the man who bringeth wicked devices to pass " 

as follows : — " Keep silence in (the secret of) IHOH, and take delight in it : dispute not 
with him who seeks to penetrate into the acquiring of it, nor with any vain man who 
attempts it." (107) 
V. — Psalms ex. 1 — 7. 

"The Lord said unto my Lord, Sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine enemies thy footstool.— 
The Lord shall send the rod of tby strength out of Zion; rule thou in the midst of thine enemies. 
— Thy people shall he willing in the day of thy power, in the beauties of holiness from the womb 
of the morning ; thou hast the dew of tby youth. — The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent, 
Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedek.— The Lord at thy right hand shall strike 
through k>ngs in the day of his wrath. — He shall judge among the heathen, he shall fill the places 
with the dead bodies; he shall wound the heads over many countries. — He shall drink of the 
brook in the way : therefore shall he lift up the head." 

This superb ode has by some been suspected to have been derived from hymns of pagan 
origin, sung during the season that Ezekiel (viii. 14) saw the "woman weeping for T<aM-UZ," 
about the winter solstice, or 21st December, where the Church almanacs place the anni- 
versary of the unbelieving St. Thomas. They refer to the fact that St. Jerome's Vulgate 
renders T/aM-UZ by Adonis, favorite god of the Phoenicians in Palestine and Syria, to 
justify their reading of "Says Jehovah to Adonis" (108) ! Others, again, take Melchi- 
sedek to be the Melek-Sadyc, the "just king," whose name Sydyc, with the title of "just" 
is preserved, by Sanconiathon, as the father of the Cabiri, &c. (109) St. Paul, however, 
cites this Psalm frequently in his Epistle to the Hebrews ; and whoever put the headings to 
the former in our authorized version has asserted that its language can apply to no other 
than the Messiah. With all deference, the subjoined paraphrase of Land's close Italian 

(103) See preceding page, under Q. 

(104) Laxci: Sag.Scrit.; ch.iii.J7; — Paralipomeni ; i. p. 97, seq.; ii.p.354; and 2^/rc dM.Prisse; 1847; 
p. 33. The,se views are later than Cahen's, xii. p. 144. 

(105) Paralip. ; i. p. 3. 

(106) Mackat: Free-Maton's Lexicon; 2d edit.; Charleston, S. C. ; 1852; voce JeJtovah, and Name: — also, 
Rockwell: Discourse before the G. L. of Georgia; Oct. 30, 1851; p. 27. 

(107) Paralip. ; i. p. 149 ; — Caben : xiii. p. 84, noU 7. 

(108 ) Compare Parkhurst : Hebrew Lexicon ; voce " Adonai " ; with Axthox : Class. Diet. ; 1841 ; pp. 26, 27 ; — 
also R. P. K^^GHT, to be cited hereafter. 

(109) Cobt: Anc. Frag.; pp. S, 9, 13, 16; " Sanconiatho." 



604 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

translation of the "Dixit Dominus," while it remoyes the senilities ot the forty-seven, shows 
that the composer of that ode dedicated it to some contemporary /)n'e«< called Melchise- 
DEK, living at the time of its composition. 

" Said leHOuaH to my Lord : ' Sit thou on my right until I make of thy foemen a 
stool for thy feet'. — leHOuaH from Zion will send the wand of thy glory: go, rule in the 
midst of thy foes. — Thy people will behold spontaneously, when thou shalt understand thy 
powerful qualifications for the splendor of the priesthood ; from the womb, the germ of thy 
birth was mysterious. — leHOuaH swore, nor does he retract his oaths: 'Thou, Melchise- 
dek, shall be, upon my word, Priest (a Cohen) forever! ' — My Lord at thy right hand slew kings 
in the day of his furor — At the ruling amid the Gentiles, the confines having been passed 
by force, the chief of vastest land swooned — He will pour himself out more than a torrent 
through (its) course ; wherefore will he raise his head." (110) 

As every departure from the literal Italian entails another remove from the original 
Hebrew, grace is here purposely sacrificed to fidelity; but, from the general tenor of the 
context, owing to the distinctions observed by the writer between the use of the terms 
"Jehovah" and "my Lord," one might infer, that this poetical eifusion commemorates 
some conquest over foreigners, with which the composer and his sacerdotal friend Melchi- 
SEDEK were familiar ; scenes in which the latter personage (named after the long-anterior 
" King of Salem") (111) had been an actor. We must console ourselves (under the expected 
charge that all this is mere conjecture) by reflecting how, if Land's shaft may have missed 
the bull's eye, the arrows of forty-seven able-bodied men flew wide of the target ; and that 
another nail has been driven into the latters' version, which we shall have the satisfaction 
of " clinching " under the succeeding letters. 

According to Cruden's laborious work, (112) the words "grove" and "groves" are 
" authorized " to re-appear in the English Bible about thirty-six times. Theologians of the 
lower grade naturally suppose that, in the "original sacred tongue," one single noun, 
repeated throughout the Text, as its substitute is in our version, must be the latter's repre- 
sentative. Vain illusion ! 
W. — Genesis xxi. 33. 

"And Abraham planted a grove in Beer-sheba, and called there on the name of the Lord, the everlasting 
God." 
He did nothing of the kind ! He, Abraham, " set up (SiyX, ASeL) a tablet (or stele) 
in Beersheba, and (XID, KaRA, read; also, wrote) engraved it with the name of leHOuaH 
to perpetual duration." (113) Here, take note, the original for " grove " is ASeL. 
X. — 2 Kings xxiii. 6. 

" And he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, 
and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder," Ac. 

A word occurs frequently in the Text, written in two ways, aST^URTi, and aSAT^RUTi; 
which is punctuated, by the Massora, Asidret, and Ashtarbl. At other times, according to 
the peculiar provincialism (patois) of each biblical writer, the same word appears in the 
form of ASeRA, or plural ASAeR-IM. These are all proper names of one person ; and 
that person is no other than the goddess Astaete of the Palestinians ; Hathob. of the 
Egyptians ; Sttr of the Himyaritic Arabs ; the VENUS of Grseco-Roman mythology, and 
of our vernacular. Now, here the word for " grove" is ASAeRaH: and our Translators' 
deed in rendering ASeL by " grove " in one place, and ASAeRaH by " grove ", in another, 

(110) Paralip. ; ii. p. 110. How extensively obscure is the sense of this Psalm may be seen from Cahen'8 
notes, siii. pp. 251-256, 355, 356. 

(111) Ccnests xiv. 18. "Salem," commentators tell us, was the name oi Jerusalem — YeRuS/taLaiM, from 
Terns, " heritage," and Shala'm, "peace," in the dual; literally, "She who inherit.? twofold peace" {Paralip.; 
in loc). They also tell us that Moses wrote Genesis, about the 14th — 15th century b. c. Perhaps their archae- 
oloi'ical ingenuity will explain how it came to pass that the old town of Jebus was called " Salem " before it was 
taken by the Jews of Joshua (Josh, xviii. 28; Judges i. 21; xix. 10, 11; &c.), long after Moses's death? Until 
they do, that Moses wrote XlVth Genesis is simply impossible ; as likewise the contemporaneousness of Abra- 
ham with a "King of Salem." Such anachronisms betray the modera age of this chapter; and render the 
older Melcbisedek very like the Phoenicians' " Sadtc the Just," whose place in history is mythological. 

(112) Concordance — from 10th Lond. edit.; Philadelphia, 1841; p. 254. 

(113) Paralip. ; i. p. 97, seq. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 605 

is cecity, if not worse. We pass over, therefore, the extraordinary circumstance how 
JosiAH could find a " grove " in a house, unless that grove was very small, or the house 
very large, which Solomon's temple, only ninety feet by thirty, was assuredly not — and 
how he could carry about and break up with facility an entire " grove" seems inexplicable. 
Not so when we read — " And he dragged the (wooden statue of) VENUS (AS/icRaH) (114) 
out of the house of leHOuaH;" — a proceeding which begins to reveal to us, what some 
"teologastri" have ventured recently to doubt, (115) viz., the infamous atrocities of ancient 
Jewish templar worship ; that we propose to lay bare in another place. " Ex abundantia," 
we give a correct but modest restoration of verse 7 of the same chapter, which intelligent 
readers can compare with the blundering performance of the forty-seven : — " And he 
(Josi.'vn) broke down the little chapels of the shameless priests that were in the house of 
leHOuaH, where the women spi-ead perfumes before the niches of VENUS " — for, says 
verse 5 — the Jews " had burned incense to Baal, to Shems, to the Moon, and to the Signs 
of the Zodiac, and to all the Asterisms of Heaven ! " 

It was the discovert/ (about 620 b. c), to say the least, of the "Book of the Law" of 
Moses, (116) lost and forgotten for some 700 years, which instigated the reforming Josiah 
to these vigorous measures : but pious iconoclasts had been shocked at similar abominations 
before ; as the following text clearly exhibits ; while it also relieves poor Joash, the 
worthy father of the valiant GiDEO>f, from the accusation of idolatry that forty-seven men 
stimulate " simple believers" to hurl at his innocent head. 

Y.— Judges \i. 25, 26. 

" And it came to pass the same night, that the Lord said unto him. Take thy father's yonng bullock, even 
the second bullock of seven years old, and throw down the altar of Baal that thy father hath, and 
cut down the grove that is by it: — And build an altar unto the Lord thy God upon the top of the 
rock, in the ordered place, and take the second bullock and offer a burnt sacrifice with the wood 
of the groTe which thou shalt cut down." 

Decency forbids that we should explain the sculptural obscenities that Gideon's eyes 
beheld. Orientalists, whose studies may have led them into antique pornography, will com- 
prehend us and the exactitude of the venerable Land's translation, (117) of which we 
submit a close but softened paraphrase : — 

"And it was in that night that leHOuaH said to him [Gideon]: 'Take the young 
bullock of thy father, and another bullock of seven years, and thou shalt fell, with the 
altar [supporter] of Baal [the obscene God] that [bullock] which is thy father's ; 
afterwards thou shalt break down the VENUS [Asheea, the foul goddess] which was 
above it. Then thou shalt build up, in regular proportion [i. e., according to Mosaic 
rules], an altar to leHOuaH, thy Eloh, on the summit of that [yonder] rock ; and, 
taking the second bullock, thou shalt burn it in holocaust with the wood of the VENUS 
by thee broken up.' " 

We may now inquire of th§ reader, in all good faith, whether, in every instance laid 
hitherto before his acumen, our emendations have not made plain sense of that which was 
utter nonsense ; and whether the Bible, properly translated, is not a much loftier book, far 
grander, as regards mere literary excellence, than the version, "authorized" exactly 250 
years ago, has ever made it appear ? 

If such be his candid opinion, he will feel a high gratification at the revisal, through 
the application of pure grammar and philology, of that imaginary text, on the authority 
of which the Copernican system was traduced by ecclesiastical ignorance ; while the tele- 
scopic discoveries of the immortal Galileo, a. d. 1615, condemned, as "absurd, false in 
philosophy, and formally heretical, being contrary to the express word of God," nearly 
■ brought him to those fagots whereupon, only fifteen years before, Giordano Bruno's living 

(114) Cahejj preserves "Aschera " in his translation (viii. p. 190, &c.) ; accurately remarking that, if the Rabbis 
bestowed more attention on '• AntiquiKs biUiques" — "there would not be then less respect for the sacred writ- 
ings, but they would no longer be regarded as the Pillars of Hercules of all civilization" (p. 205). 

(115) Inter alios, the Rev. Dr. Smtthe of Charleston, S. C: Unity; p. 112, note. 

(116) 2 Kings xxii. 8; and 2 Chron. ixxiv. 14. 

(in) Paralip. ; u. 2S-SI. Cahen: vi. p. 31, "Aschera." 



606 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

body was calcined " ut quam clementissime et citra sanguinis effusionem, puniretur." (118) 
Had Lanci never turned his vast Semitic acquirements to any other Scriptural text but 
Joshua Xth, 12, 13, astronomical posterity should weave for him a wreath of laurels. But, 
to appreciate his labors, one must bestow a final smile of pity upon th.^ forty-seven. 

Z. — Joshua X. 12, 13, 14. 

" Then spake Joshua to the Lord in the day when the Lord delivered up the Amorites before the children 
of Israel, and he said in the sight of Israel, Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon, and thou, Jloon, 
in the valley of Ajalon. . . . And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had 
avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jaaher? So the suu 
stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day. . . . And there 
was no day like that before it or after it, that the Lord hearkened to the voice of a man : for the 
Lord fought for Israel." 

So far "authorized version!" and, in lieu of examining whether the ancient Text has 
been truthfully rendered, those among whom knowledge has not yet advanced beyond the 
theological grade are lavishly vituperative of scholars who, knowing the English translation 
of this passage to be an absurdity, despise the commentaries upon it as a sham. 

To place the reader at our point of view, let us first ask the question— what is this "book 
of Jasher?" One of the twenty lost books of the Hebrews cited in the Old Testament, is 
the facile reply. "The book of Jasher, that is, the Eighteous. (Josh. x. 13; 2 Sam. i. 18.) 
This book must have been of no very ancient date, for it contained the Lamentations of 
David on the death of Saul and Jonathan. A spurious work with this title has come down 
to us, containing the history recorded in the first seven books of the Old Testament." (119) 
According to Cahen (vii, pp. 121-124; 2 Samuel i. 17-27), the verse runs — 

"17. David composed this lament upon Saul and upon Jonathan his son. — 18. And 
ordered to be taught to the children of Judah [the elegiac Lament called] the Bow; behold, 
it is written in the book of Jasher." 

Then follows the lament itself, from verse 19 to 27: in which David, in poetic strain, 
says {V. 22, 23) — 

" The how of Jonathan never retreated; 

The sword of Saul never returned empty : 

(Oh) Saul and Jonathan ! " 
Consequently, David, about b. c. 1056, had composed this beautiful ode; and a later writer 
says, " behold, it is written in the Book of Jasher;" that is, David's ode is. Ergo, this Book 
of Jasher was a collection of poems compiled after b. c. 105G. Now, the writer of " Joshua 
Xth" quotes, from this same Book of Jasher, the passage which in king James's version 
runs — "So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven and hasted not to go down about a 
whole day;" continuing his citation down to "the Lord fought for Israel." Hence it is 
positive that " Joshua-Jm-NUN," could not have been the author of the "Book of Joshua;" 
because, having departed this life about b. c. 1426, he could have known nothing of a sub- 
sequent collection of poems that contained the lamentations of David upon events that 
happened some 370 years after Joshua himself was dead and buried. Moses is the only 
man who is privileged by orthodoxy to describe his own demise : (120) a second instance 
cannot be tolerated. Now, this author of " the Book of Joshua " is utterly unknown, and 
its date is very modern, perhaps as low as the sixth century b. c. ;(121) as are likewise 
the "Books oi Samuel." 

The next point, to which attention is invited, regards the sentence — " Is not this written 
in the Book of Jasher ?" What was written in the said book ? Commentators, ignorant 
of Oriental usages, concur in the notion that those passages which precede the book cited, 
were contained in the said book. Such opinion is fallacious, because, as Orientalists know, 
it is the universal custom of Semitic writers to quote the authorities they introduce before 

(118) Humeoidt: Cosmos; transl. Olti; New York, 1S51 ; iii. p. 17. 

(119) De Wette : i. p. 411. 

(120) Deuteron. xxxiv. 5-12. N.B. The dates are from the margin of our English Bible. 

(121) De Wette : ii. pp. 186-191 ; and p. 228, for Samuel. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 607 

the extracts or citations they make from the latter's works ; so that, what follows the 
•words "Book of Jasher " must be the quotation from that book. 

The literary criticism of age, manner, and authorship, being briefly defined, we glance 
next at the topography; observing, that any proposed verifications of the latitude and longi- 
tude of Gibeon and Ajalon by tourists in modern Palestine are mere " traveller's tales :" for 
Gabd-Osi, " occultation of the sun," and Aial-Os, (122) " dawning of the sun," refer respec- 
tively, the former to the West, the latter to the East, as points of the compass. Now, sup- 
pose two towns, one on either side of a valley, opposite to each other ; the one, Gabd-OiS, 
on the western summit; the other, Aial-O^i, on the eastern; while a battle was raging be- 
tween Israelites and Ammonites in the valley between and beneath. Suppose, again, by 
anticipation of the text (and you have as much right to suppositions, in this case, as the 
forty-seven collectively), that the twenty-four hours during which this fight went on occurred 
at an equinox ; and that it so happened, by a singular juncture of the solar and lunar mo- 
tions, that, at six o'clock p. m. precisely, the sun set in the West at the same apparent mo- 
ment that a full moon rose in the East ; you would have light for twenty-four hours in the 
valley ; or twelve hours of sunlight through the day, and twelve hours of moonlight through 
the night. Such combinations are so natural, although rare, that if any tourist were to furnish 
an astronomer with the exact latitude and longitude of such a valley in Palestine, the latter 
could calculate the precise day when such celestial combinations occurred, and thus fix the 
era alluded to in the "Book of Joshua." Finally, in the Hebrew, these two lines are rhyth- 
mical, besides containing a play upon the words GB<2UN and AILUN, by poetic license : — 

"To the eyes of Israel, Sun! in the hills [B-GBdUN] even hide thyself: 
But thou, Moon! bo most resplendent in the [B-SMK AILUN] valley." 

We conclude with the lesson of that sage from whom both text and commentary are 
derived. (123) 

" In precisely that day that leHOuaH [the document is Jehovistic'] delivered up the Amo- 
rean in face of the children of Israel, Joshua spake to leHOuaH and said: To the eyes 
OP Israel, sun ! in the hills even hide thyself : but thou, moon ! be most 
RESPLENDENT IN THE VALLEY. And the suu Set, and the moon endured until the multitude 
glutted (their) vengeance upon their enemies : — And is it not written in the book [entitled] 
the Just? [here follows the quotation] 'The sun which, running along the meridional parti- 
tion of the heavens [i. e. along the equinoctial line], goes down [sets], was not as precise 
[true, exact], as by day, intent upon new-birth?' For certainly there was not before, nor 
after, a day equal to that in which, leHOuaH having listened to the voice of man, 
leHOuall (himself) fought for Israel." 

It may be prudent to observe that a passage in Isaiah, and another in Ecclesiastes, pro- 
perly translated, lend no support to the supernaturalist commentary. That of Habakkuk 
(iii. 11) has no relation to the event; as, with "one longing, lingering look" at king 
James's translation, we prove by the subjoined rendering: — "Sun and moon set at 
their season : by the light of thy arrows they shall march, by the splendor of the lightning 
of thy lance." (Referring probably to a night attack.) 

Thus vanishes "Joshua's miracle!" The late Rev. Moses Stuart, than whom as a 
Hebraist, and upright champion of theology, none superior have yet appeared in these 
United States, supplies this definition of a " miracle " — "I have it before me, in a letter 
from one of the first philologists and antiquarians that Germany has produced. It is this : 
'The laws of nature are merely developments, of the Godhead. God cannot contradict, or 
be inconsistent with himself. But inasmuch as a miracle is a contradiction of the laws of 
nature, or at least an inconsistency with them, therefore a miracle is impossible.' " (124) 

Reader! We have submitted seriatim to your judgment a positive example of the errors 
of our truly-vulgar version for every letter of the English alphabet. We have kept no 

(122) Like Bdli-OS — " House of the Sun " ; or ON, the Sun, Hebrew name for Bdiopdis. 

(123) Lan'ci: Paralipomeni ; ii. pp. 381-390. It is of no use to consult C.iHBN on these passages, except for the 
text (points deducted) ; vi. pp. 38, 39. 

(124) Cril Sist. and Defence, &e.; Andover; 1845; p. 19. 



"608 AECH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

account of digressional instances of other blunders, made by the forty-seven translators 250 
years ago ; although these are numerous, they are thrown in to make weight. The whole 
are taken, almost promiscuously, from our biblical portfolio, referred to years gone by. (125) 
You may now begin to think that we may be serious, when we affirm that our theological 
armory contains hundreds more, to prove that king James's translators were not "inspired ;" 
and that, whatever may be the fact as regards the " original tongues," the English version 
cannot be accepted by science as a criterion in matters concerning anthropology. 

The ladder of time has been ascended to the year 1600, when our " authorized version " 
■was not; but when many English translations, some in MSS., others in print, required but 
an act of Parliament to make them orthodox. With the former, chiefly Saxon versions, 
from Alfred the Great down to John Wtcliff, our inquiries do not meddle ; none of them 
having been seen by us : nor, indeed, do we take intense interest in the latter, save to 
remember how WiUiam Tyndal, "homo doctus, plus, et bonus," fov printing the earliest 
English translation of the New Testament, in 1526, and of parts of the Old, was rewarded 
by strangulation and cineration in the year 1536. Copies of his work, together with that 
of Myles Coverdale, 1535, have been before us for examination ; and it is a singular fact 
that, in the majority of cases, where king James's translators departed from the version of 
Tyndal, or more particularly from that of Coverdale, they commenced floundering in the 
mire ; and that where they have appropriated the readings of either, it has been done 
without acknowledgment. Fuller, the Church historian of those times, says of Tyndal 
that "his skille in Hebrew was not considerable: yea, generally, learning in languages was 
then in ye infancie thereof" — and we have shown (ubi supra) that Hebrew scholarship 
■was all but unknown in England until the generation of Walton ; that is, half a century 
later than the emission of king James's standard version. 

The period of English history embraced within the sixteenth century is distinguished on 
the one hand by the successive intellectual upheavals of the educated classes, each surge 
towering higher and higher ; and on the other by the mind-compressing enactments of the 
" Lords Spiritual and Temporal " in the repeated erection of barriers that gradually sunk 
lower and lower. Tyndal's body was burnt; that of Grafton, (126) guilty of printing 
"Matthew's Bible," was incarcerated; the Inquisition at Paris merely confiscated 2500 
copies of the edition afterwards known as "Cranmer's;" in 1546, an act of Parliament 
only forbade the possession and reading of either "Tyndal's" or " Coverdale's." The 
reaction now began to feel its weakness, the progressives their strength : and so long as 
the sacerdotal caste could keep before the popular mind a parliamentary idea that 
Tyndal's version was "crafty, false, and untrue," its sages, satisfied that resistance had 
begun to endanger the "Establishment," as it is still called, were preparing to give way. 
Unhappy Tyndal, as the first Englishman to trample upon theological impediments through 
publication, has ever remained the "bete noire" of High Church orthodoxy ; nor, owing 
to the obfuscations of history by ecclesiastical ■writers, has his memory yet received from 
posterity the justice that it merits. 

About 1542, an act permitting certain persons to possess the "AVord of God," as we 
term it now, " not being of TyndaVs translation," was graciously issued. It provides — 

" That no manner of person or persons after the first day of October, the' next ensuing, 
should take upon him or them to read openly to others in any church or open assembly, 
within any of the king's dominions, the Bible or any part of the Scripture in English, 
unless he was so appointed thereunto by the king, or any ordinarie, on pain of suffering a 
month's imprisonment. Provided, that the Chancellor of England, captaines of the warres, 
the king's justices, the recorders of any city, borough, or town, the speaker of parliament, 
&c., which heretofore had been accustomed to declare or teach any good, ■virtuous, or godly 
exhortations in anie assemblies, may use any part of the Bible or holie Scriptures as they 
have been wont ; and that every nobleman and gentleman, being a householder, msiy read, 

(125) NoTT : Bibl. and Phys. Hist.; 1849; p. 135. 

(126) See Hunt, History of JourrMlism, 1860, for the legal barbarities then perpetrated upon Printers gene- 
rally — Tautilations, hangings, drawings and quartei'ings, gibbets, and fagots! 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 609 

or cause to be read by any of his faniilie servants in his house, orchards, or garden, and 
to his own familie, anie text of the Bible or New Testament, and also every merchant-man, 
being a householder, and any other persons other than women, prentises, &c., might read 
to themselves privately the Bible. But no woman [except noble-women and gentle-women, 
who might read to themselves alone, and not to others, any texts of the Bible], nor arti- 
ficers, prentises, journeymen, serving-men of the degrees of yomen or under, husband-men, 
or laborers, were to read the Bible or New Testament in Englishe to himself, or any other, 
privately or openly, upon paine of one month's imprisonment." 

Three hundred years have effaced even the remembrance of such legislative prohibitions. 
The " general reader" of our day never dreams that "my Bible" was once forbidden to 
his plebeian use. He claps his hands at Missionary Meetings when it is triumphantly 
announced that myriads of translations of the Scriptures are yearly diffused among the 
Muslims, the Pagans, and other "heathen," printed in more languages than are spoken, in 
more alphabets than there are readers. Has it never struck him to inquire, when the 
clamor of gratulation has subsided, whether these mjrionymed versions are correct ? If 
they are, what is commonly the case, mere servile paraphrases of king James's English 
translation, as we have proven the latter's woeful corruptions {uhi supra), must not the 
mistranslations of that text be perpetuated and increased by transfer into another tongue ? 
and if so, is not that one of the providential reasons why the spiritual effect of these 
versions among the " heathen " falls below that material one produced by drops of rain 
on the Atlantic ? Or, if the Missionary translators of the Scriptures into Feejee, Kamicha- 
dale, or Patagonian, possess (what is so rare, as to be a pleasant proverb) sufficient Hebrai- 
cal erudition to translate into the above, or any other tongue, direct from the Text, do not 
these excellent men "ipso facto" confirm all we have asserted in regard to our "authorized" 
version, by leaving its interpretations aside ? 

There are (although few Anglo-saxons know it) human dialects, orally extant, wherein 
there is no name for " God," no appellative for " Heaven," because such ideas never entered 
the brain of those low "Types of Mankind " for which a Missionary version has been manu- 
factured. The highly-cultivated Chinese remained impenetrable to the disputes, sustained 
by the learned Jesuits and the evangelical Dominicans with the quintessence of " odium 
theologicum," on the following heads : — 

"1st., if, by the words Thian, and Chang-ti, the Chinese understand but the material sky, 
or if they understand the Lord of Heaven? — 2d., if the ceremonies made by the Chinese 
in honor of their ancestors or of their national philosopher Khoung-tseu, are religious ob- 
servances or civil and political practices ?" (127) 

Unable to settle the first problem by reference to Chinese lexicons, those Catholic Mission- 
aries submitted it to the decision of the Emperor Khang-hi; and the solution of the 
second dilemma was referred to the Pope ! 

Regarding this "Foreign Missionary" discussion from the same point of view, as here 
in the United States we should look upon a dispute between Chinese Bonzes as to what we 
mean by "Providence," or in what light we celebrate the " Anniversary of Washington" ; 
and feeling the same sort of astonishment that would fill ourselves were we told, that by 
one Chinaman the first doubt had been submitted to His Excellency the President, and that 
the settlement of the latter had been left by the other Chinaman to His Holiness the Dalai- 
Lama of Thibet: — the wise and jocular Emperor wrote in autograph beneath the Pope's 

Constitution ; — 

* 

" This species of decree concerns none but vile Europeans : how can it decide anything 
upon the grand doctrine of the Chinese, of whom these people in Europe do not understand 
even the language ? " 

And then enforced his jest by banishing both Jesuits and Dominicans, about 1721, to Macao 
Protestant successors in the Celestial Empire are still perplexed with the same linguistic 
obstacle ; for about 1844, it was proposed to invent a new name for Deity, (that is, neither 

(127) Padthier: Chine; pp. 446— 448. 

77 



610 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

Cbinese nor English,) and compromise the matter by writing YAH ; (128) while the papers 
have since held out hopes that the scruples of converted neophytes in China are about to 
be overcome by adopting '^ Shin." 

On the African coast the Sooahelee dialect, so restricted in its barbarous jargon that all 
its vocables implying civilization are borrowed from the Arabic, (129) a Missionary, who 
translates the "First three Chapters of Genesis" into the native tongue, can find no more 
euphonious rendering of our word " God " than Mooigniazimoongo. (130) And, in Ame- 
rica, no idea of "Original Sin" can be conveyed to an Ottomi-lndia,n, without the aggluti- 
nation of monosyllables into TLACATZINTILIZTLATLACOLLI; nor will the last Dela- 
ware's heart experience " Repentance " until his mind has perceived the meaning of 
SCHIWELENDAMOWITCHEWAGAN. (131) But, we apologize for the digression. 

During the second half of the sixteenth century, the frail hedge planted around the pop- 
ular accessibility of the Scriptures vanished beneath the spades of the accumulating delvers 
for knowledge. At the Convocation of Hampton Court, in 1603, those measures were 
adopted that have placed the Bible before the people. Far, far, be it from us to under- 
value the " Great Fact" — still farther to contest its vast educational utility. Would that 
all the " Sacred Books " of the East were equally accessible and equally read ! The canon- 
ical literature of the Hebrews would be elevated infinitely beyond its present scientific esti- 
mation by such free comparisons ; but not so its English " authorized " translation, and 
that is the only point for which these paragraphs contend. 

In the years 1603-11, then, our Forty-seven Translators had before their eyes many 
English translations of the Old Testament. They possessed, furthermore, the Latin Vul- 
gates, first printed in 1462, and revised in the Sextine edition of 1.590, and the Clementine 
in 1592 : together with numerous editions of the Greek Septuagint, both printed and manu- 
script. Their critical apparatus was copious enough wherewith to study the Original 
Hebrew Text, which lay before them in a variety of editions, more or less accurate, printed 
between the years 1488 and 1661 ; besides Jewish Manuscripts. If to their unquestioned 
knowledge of Latin and Greek, had been added a little Hebrew of the genuine school, which 
might very easily have been imported from the Continent, their version would have been 
better ; but the confession of ignorance to themselves was as irksome, as to their race and 
country anti-national. They completed their labors without the contemporary aids within 
call; and "His Majesty's Special Command" has consecrated them for two hundred 
and forty-two years. " Undoubtedly, the present version is sufficient to all purposes 
of piety " ; (132) our part is to show that it has long ceased to be adequate to the require- 
ments of science. 

It seems, therefore, considering the facilities they enjoyed, and still more the many they 
disdained, that errors so tremendous as those which modern criticism exposes should have 
been backed by orthodoxy with praises less extravagant ; because, their Hcbraical qualifi- 
cations for the task being nil, the multiplicity of foreign versions, without that discrimi- 
nating criterion, could but augment the multiplicities of their mistakes. (133) 

The earlier English versions, if here and there superior to readings adopted by the Forty- 
Seven, were radically defective, owing to the same natural causes that precluded the possi- 
bility of making a direct translation from the Hebrew in 1611 ; viz. ; small acquaintance 
with the vocabulary and grammar of the language itself. Fuller, for instance, infers that 
poor Tyndal rendered the Old Testament from the Latin, "as his friends allowed tl^t he 
had no skille in Hebrew"; and the same authority explains that the reason why king James 

(12S) Dr. Bowring: in London Literary Gazette. 

(129) Guddon: OUa; p. 126. 

(130) Rev. Dr. Krapf : Jour. Amer. Oriental ^oc. ; iii. ; Boston 1847; pp. 261-27i. 

(131) Gallatin: Trans. Anier. Ethnological Soc; New York, 1845; i. pp. 28-35. 

(132) Taylor : in both the English and American editions of Calmel's Dictionary ; voce " Bible." 

(133) After this was written, a friend aslied us to read " The Translators Sevived; a Biographical Memoir of 
the Authors of the English Version" ; by A. W. McClube; 12mo; New Yorlc, 1853. It merits nothing here beyond 
this mention, but a review in any newspaper is much at its author's service. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 611 

appointed Fifty-Four Translators was because "many and great faults" •were already noto- 
rious amid the earlier translations. 

The Samaritan text was unavailable to them for two reasons ; one, that no copy had 
reached Europe until 1623, or twelve years later than the publication of king James's ver- 
sion; (134) the other, that those whose Hebraical accomplishments were so slender could 
have elicited nothing from any cognate Oriental idiom. It is superfluous, therefore, to 
speculate upon what philological feats our Forty-Seven might have performed through Sa- 
maritan contexts. 

As the oldest of all " printed" books, a. d. 1462, the Latin Vulgate must have riveted the 
attention of men whose reverence for the invention induced them to carry the antiquity of 
moveable types back to the age of Job (xis. 23 ; ubi supra). With the numerous Latin ver- 
sions, (135) made prior to St. Jerome, from the Greek, our translators did not trouble 
themselves; nor need we, because this first of Hebraists among the Fathers declares — 
" For the most part, among the Latins, there are as many different Bibles as copies of the 
Bible ; for every man has added or subtracted, according to his own caprice, as he saw fit." 

To remedy this evil, Jerome completed a retranslation of the Old Testament, directly 
from the Hebrew, between the years 385 and 405. (136) His contemporaries loudly pro- 
tested against such profanity, lest it should sacrilegiously disturb that bibliolatry with 
which Christian communities then regarded the Sepluagint ; but, about 605, Pope Gregory 
invested it with respectability, by adopting its lections along with the old Italic version. 
The consequence was that the monastic scribes, having equal authority for either, began to 
correct the first by the second indiscriminately ; and succeeded in fusing them both so inex- 
tricably into one, that the emendations of Alcuin in the ninth, of Lanfranc in the eleventh, 
and of Nicolaus in the twelfth centuries, failed to establish any uniformity among manu- 
scripts which, in the words of Roger Bacon, "every reader alters to suit his own whim." 
Such was the state of the Latin version current until the sixteenth century, when Stephens 
undertook to castigate its errors in his printed editions : Clarius, in the meantime, submit- 
ting a schedule of 80,000 mistakes for the edification of the Council of Trent. However, 
on the unlettered side, fanciful substitutions ; on that of scholarship, ruthless expurga- 
tions; impelled Sixtus V. to volunteer the office of "proof-reader:" and, in 1589, a copy 
of the Vulgate issued from the Vatican, wherein " eaque res quo magis incorrupte perfice- 
retur, nostra nos ipsi manu correximus: " i. «., the Vicar of God corrected the press him- 
self. Alas! Such condescension only made the innumerable faults of that edition "noto- 
rious as ludicrous. Bellarmine luckily hit upon a plan to correct the errors, and save the 
infallibility of the Pontiff." New recensions were executed, " quod vix incredibile vide- 
batur," in nineteen days ; and the year 1592, during the apostolic vicarage of Clement VIII., 
brought out a standard Papal copy, wherein the odium of all errors patent in the former 
Pope's edition was charged upon the " printer's devil." 

This Romanist finality abounds with misinterpretations if collated with the Hebrew Text ; 
and when placed before the Forty-Seven, some ten years after its appearance, could only 
have served to lead them more astray ; even if the fear of Papistry did not prevent adop- 
tion of such of its readings as attracted rather their fancy than their septi-quadrigentesimal 
criticisms. Consequently, the Divine Afflatus did not penetrate into king James's version 
through the Vulgate; which fact renders nugatory, as regards the Latin language, any 
inference derivable from their Preface in favor of the peculiar sanctity of this among the 
"Original Sacred Tongues" whence "one more exact translation" was by them made. 
Perhaps some streams of the apostolic imponderable reached our translators by transmis- 
sion through the Greek ? 

At least three, and probably more, printed editions of the Greek Septuagi7ii(137) were 
procurable by our Translators in the year 1603; independently of such manuscripts as they 
may have consulted ; from the number of which last must be deducted the Codex-Alexan- 

(134) IvEyxicoTT; Dissert. Gen.; p. 475. (136) Ibid.; i. p. 257, seq. 

(135) De Wette: i. pp. 18-3-191. (137) De Wette: i. pp. 81-82. 



612 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTEODUCTION 

drinus, (1 38) now in the British Museum ; because it did not arrive in England until the 
year 1628.(139) The printed editions issued during the sixteenth century were naturally 
copies resulting from the collation of such manuscripts as to their respective editors vrere 
more or less accessible ; and if the originals were defective the transcriptions must be still 
more so. We can utter no opinions on the critical value of the printed editions, before 
ascertaining what scholarship may have decided upon the archsaological merits of the manu- 
scripts themselves ; nor is it in our power to enumerate what copies of the latter may or 
may not have been consulted by our translators ; chiefly because our own note-books do 
not afford the dates at which many celebrated Greek MSS. were known throughout Eu- 
rope. (140) We presume they used copies of the Codex -Vaticanus (printed in 1587, by 
Cardinal Caraffa), of which the antiquity is estimated by Kennicott at a. d. 887, while 
others suppose " a few years later: "(141) among them Montfaucon and Blanchini, who 
refer it to the fifth century. None of other Greek Codices extant can possibly antedate, 
in any case, the fourth century; for even the oldest, the Codex- Cottonianus, once conjec- 
tured to have been Origen's property, is now proved to have been calligraphed towards the 
end of the fourth or the commencement of the fifth century. Its fragments lie in the 
British Museum. (142) This falls within the lifetime of St. Jerome, a. d. 331-422 ; (143) 
who laments that, in his day, " the common (Greek) edition is difi'erent in different places, 
all the world over;" and reiterates, "It is corrupted everywhere to meet the views of the 
place and time, or the caprice of the transcribers." (144) 

" Thus it seems that, in the time of Jerome, three different editions of the LXX were in 
use under the sanction of the several churches, and with their authority, viz. : Origen's 
Hexapla in Palestine, the text of Hesychius in Egypt, and that of Lucian in Constantinople 
and its vicinity. No wonder the existing manuscripts have come down to us with so many 
corruptions." (145) 

Such asseverations, when once recognized to be true in fact, sufBce to damage the accre- 
dited uniformity of the Greek versions ; but a little further inquiry will evince that it was 
impossible, through the very nature of human things, that any Hellenic translation from 
the Hebrew could be "inspired." 

If, then, only four centuries after the Christian era, the Greek translation (finished about 
the year 130 b. c, at Alexandria) no longer existed in its " editio princeps," but its later 
recensions alone had flowed down to St. Jerome's time in three turgid streams, each one 
essentially corrupt, it follows that all MSS. now extant, no less than all printed editions 
made from such MSS., must be still more blemished, owing to later mistakes, than even 
the best exemplar known to St. Jerome. It is in this vitiated state that the Septuagint 
reached our translators in the year 1603 : — 

" No one of these recensions is found pure ; for they have flowed together, and become 
mixed also with the other Greek versions. . . . The criticism of the Seventy has hitherto 
advanced no farther — and perhaps it never can — than to a collection of the various 
readings. The editions hitherto published do not afford the true and exact text of the 
manuscripts." (146) 

But, not merely does the Greek version falter in its historical traditions. Its deviations 
from the Hebrew original render objections to its plenary authenticity unanswerable. 

" As a whole, this version is chargeable with want of literalness, and also with an arbi- 

(138) TV'oiDE thinks its age to lie towards the end of the fourth ; but if Kennicott selects A. D. 395, he reports 
other opinions as low as the ninth century (1st Dissert. , pp. 306, 307). 

(139) Taylor's Calmet; voce "Bible." 

(140) Porter {Principles of Textual Ch-iiicism, Dublin, 1848) might supply deficiencies ; but memory is treacher- 
ous, and we have not now his most excellent work: vide Otia, pp. 111-113. 

(141) Kennicott: lid Dissertation; p. 407. 

(142) HORNE : Introd. ; i. pp. 105-107. 

(143) Anthon: Class. Diet. ; voce "Uieronymus"; p. 625. 

(144) De Wette : i. p. 181. 

(145) Ihid.; p. 180. 

(146) De White; i. pp. 181-183. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 613 

trary method, -whereby something foreign to the text is brought in. In general, it betrays 
the want of an accurate acquaintance with the Hebrew language, though it furnishes many 
good explanations. (147) 

" The character of this version is different, according to the different books. It is easy 
to distinguish five or six different tran.slators. . . . Indeed, the real value of the Soptuagint, 
as a version, stands in no sort of relation to its reputation. All the translators engaged ia 
it appear to have been wanting in a proper knowledge of the two languages, and in a due 
attention to grammar, etymology and orthography. Hence they often confound proper 
names, and appellations, kindred verbs, similar words and letters, &c., and this in cases 
where we are not at liberty to conjecture various readings. The whole version is rather 
free than literal," &c. . . . The Text of the Septuagint has suffered greatly. Through the 
multitude of copies, which the very general usage rendered necessary, and by means of 
ignorant critics, the text of this version, in the third century, had fallen into the most 
lamentable state." (148) 

" Although we cannot say from whom it (the LXX) emanated, it is certain that it is the 
work of one or several Jews of Egypt, of Greek education (if always our version called 
(he SevenI// be exactly the same as the one that was made at that epoch) ; because one may 
discover in it traces of that philosophy which afterwards developed itself among the Alex- 
andrian Jews, and of which Philo is for us the principal representative. It does not 
appertain to us to characterize here the translation under its philological aspect; we must 
content ourselves with establishing that, in many places, it differs sensibly from our Hebrew 
text, and that vei-y often its variants agree better with the text of the Samaritans. Never- 
theless, the latter does not sufficiently conform to the version of the Seventy, that one could 
imagine a common source for both compilations." (149) 

It results from Talmudic exegesis that its authors, beyond vague impressions of errors 
contained in the Greek version, not only did not know, save through hearsay, the S<?ptua- 
gint themselves (although they suppose its Translators to have been seventy-two), but 
that it was impossible for the Palestinic Jewish Kabbis to read it, owing to their igno- 
rance of the Greek tongue. (1-50) Not a word in the Mishna and the two Guemeras refers 
to Aristobulus, or Philo, or to the Apochryphal books ; neither to the Essenes, nor to the 
Therapeutw. The Jews of Palestine were separate people from those of Alexandria ; and 
it was a concern exclusively interesting to the latter to defend the many false renderings 
of the Septuagint, of which remarkable examples are exhibited in the learned treatise of 
Franck, whence we condense some facts into a foot-note. (151) But hear Sharpe : — - 

" It will be enough to quote two passages from this (LXX) translation, to show how the 
Alexandrian Jews, by a refinement of criticism, often found more meaning in their Scrip- 
tures than ever entered the minds of the writers. Thus when the Psalmist, speaking of 
the power of Jehovah, says with a truly Eastern figure {Psalms civ. 4, Text), ' lie makelh 
the winds his messengers, and the lightning his servants,' (152) these translators change the 

(147) Ibid. ; p. 147. 

(148) Taylor's Calmet; voce " Versions." 

(149) McNK; Palestine; p. 487. Cf. also, Ampeke: Becherches en i'gypte, &c., 2ie part.; Rev. des D. Mondes, 1846. 

(150) Feaxck: La Kabhale: Paris, 1843; pp. 273, 329. 

(151) "Already the Thalmud had a vague knowledge (Thalm. Bahyl. Tract, ileguillah; fol. 9, ch. i.) of the 
numerous infidelities of this antique translation [viz., of the LXX]. . . . Thu.'!, when the sacred Text says posi- 
tively {Exod. sxiv. 9, 10) that Moses, his brother, and the seventy elders, saw the God of Israel upon a throne 
of sapphire; according to the (Greek) tran.elation, it is not God who was seen, hnt the place which he inUabils, 
When another prophet, Isaiah, sees the Lord seated on his throne and filling the temple with the folds of his 
robe (Isaiali, vi. 1), this too-material image is replaced by the glmy of God. . . . When it concerns Adam and 
Eve, (the Greek interpreter) would carefully avoid saying, with the Text, that God created them male and 
female (Gen. i. 27); hut this double character, these two halves of humanity, are united in one and the same 

being — 'Apacv Kal 6rj\v e-olriatv avrbv ' Who has created all things?' asks the Hebrew prophet {Isaiah 

Ix. 26); 'Who has rendered them inviii'Wfi.'' says the Alexandrian interpreter" (Fraxck: La Kabbah; Paris, 
1843 ; pp. 329-331). Our author furnishes several other examples of downright perversions committed by those 
Alexandrines called " the LXX" : of which our space denies insertion. After our own conclusions were formed, 
it was most gratifying to find them all confirmed by RunEXSon.x (" Origin and Structure of the Septuagint" — 
Christian Exumincr ; Boston, March, 1S53; pp. 165-187), who truthfully observes— "Such a version — if it 
should be thus designated — is not only conformable to the spirit of those times, but there are many indica. 
tions that the Greek version was originally intended only as an auxiliary book for the use of the Alexandrian 
Jews." 

(152) So also Cahen, xiii. p. 229, and note 4 — "des flammes brtllantes, ses ministres." St. Paul too, although 
said to have been " a Hebrew of the Hebrews," follows the Septuagint in quoting this passage {Epist. to the He- 
brews; i. 7) even to Jews! (Sharpe's JVcJti Test. ; p. 395) — a passage non-existent In the Hebrew Text. 



614 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

sentence into a philosophical description of the spiritual nature of angelic beings, and say 
(in the Greek), ' He maketh his angels into spirits, and his servants into a flavie of fire.' Again, 
■when the Hebrew text, in opposition to the polytheism with which the Jews were sur- 
rounded, says (Text, Deut. vi. 4), ' The Lord is our God, the Lord alone ' [literally, ' Hear, 
Israel! leHOuall, our God, leHGuall (is) onef} ; the translators turn it to contradict 
the Egyptian doctrine of a plurality of persons in the unity of the Godhead, (153) by 
which the priests said that their numerous divinities only made one God ; and in the Alex- 
andrian Greek this text says, ' 2%e Lord our Ood is one Lord.' " (154) 

Should the reader now turn to the above passages in our " authorized " version, he will 
perceive that the foriT/- seven have rendered into English the exact words of the Greek; and 
thus he will behold a little of the damning evidence produceable that these worthies could 
not construe a simple line of the Hebrew Text ; but have palmed off upon us, as genuine 
"inspiration," language that, being Alexandrian forgeries, cannot be Divine; confessions 
of creed that, not being in the original Hebrew, cannot be "inspired." 

Here, as concerns king James's translation in its relations to the Greek versions, we 
might bring our inquiries to a close : the seal of condemnation has been so legibly stamped 
upon it. But, inasmuch as some data respecting the origin of these Grecian documents 
may be useful to our researches into the Hebrew Text, it is desirable to reach that epoch 
when the Sytuugint had not yet been manufactured. 

Ascending from St. Jerome in the IVth century to the great Origen in the lid, we find 
him complaining of the corruptions manifest in the Greek MSS. of his day — "But now 
there is obviously a great diversity of the copies, which has arisen either from the negli- 
gence of some transcribers, or the boldness of others — or from others still, who added or 
took away, as they saw fit, in making their corrections." (155) 

"From the time of the birth of Christ to that of Origen," continues Eichhorn, "the 
Text of the Alexandrian version was lamentably disfigured by arbitrary alterations, inter- 
polations, omissions, and mistakes. Justin Martyr had a very corrupt Text, at least in the 
minor Prophets." (156) He was decapitated in a. b. 164, having been converted about the 
year 132 ; thus sealing his convictions with his blood. 

The works of Origen's predecessors in the first century, Flavius Josephus, born a. d. 87, and 
of Pliilo Juda3us, who flourished about a. d. 40, exhibit through their citations, (both being 
HellenizedJews writing in Greek rather for Grecian and Roman readers than for their own 
countrymen,) that some alterations had already been made in the copies of the Septuagint 
respectively used by them : at the same time that the writers of the New Testament, by 
quoting the Greek version, in lieu of the Hebrew, have invested the former with a tradi- 
tionary sanctity, fabulous when claimed for extracts from the Old Testament not cited 
directly from the Hebrew Text. (157). Its discussion would lead us astray from the inquiry 
as to when and by whom the Original Greek translations were made ; and the fact is noted 
merely to establish the existence of the latter, in what state of literal preservation no man 
can tell, at the Christian era. 

"All we can determine with certainty is, — that the whole, or the greater part of the 
Old Testament, was extant in the Greek language in the time of Jesus the son of Sirach. 
[Sirach presupposes that 'the Law and the Prophets, and the rest of the books,' were 
already extant in his time ; that is, in the 38th year, which is probably the 38th year of 
Evergetes II., about 130 b. c] " (158) 

This year before Christ 130 is recognized, nowadays, by all biblical scholars, to be the 
minimum epoch at which Greek versions of certain books of the Old Testament canon were 
already in circulation at Alexandria. Tradition, itself, claims no date for the existence of 

(153) Compare Burnap: Expository Lectures ; Boston, 1845; p. 9; — and CHENEvniRE: Systcme TlUdogiqwde 
la Trinite; Geneva, 1831; passim. 

(154) Shaepe: Hist, of Egypt ; 1846; p. 196. 

(155) De W ette : i. p. 165. 

(156) De Wette: i. p. 166. 

(157) Strauss: Vie de Jesus; and Hennell: Oriffin, kc; enlarge upon these themes. ^ 

(158) De Wette: p. 146; — also, Stuart; Crtt. Eist. and Defence; pp. 241, 423. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 615 

same circum&tances earlier, as the maximum, than the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; and 
about 260 years b. c. suffice for a chronological stand-point that reconciles scientific proba- 
bilities. The medium suits well with the dispersion of some Plebrew exemplars after the 
laocage of the temple by Antiochus, b. c. 164; and is parallel with, the literary restora- 
tions of the Maccabees. 

To read (as we ourselves formerly did with confidence) the works of some leading Eng- 
lish Divines in quest of information about the Septuagint, and the chronology erected upon its 
numerations, one would actually suppose, from the positive manner in which statements 
are put forward, that they had studied the subject ! Hales, (159) for instance, assures us that 
Seveniij, or Seventy-two, elders of the Jewish congregation, after the reception by the king 
of a copy of Law from Jerusalem written in letters of gold, sat down at Alexandria, and did 
the Hebrew into Greek in 72 days, " d 'una sola tirata"; with many episodes equally 
romantic. Half a century has elapsed since any Continental critic of biblical literature 
who ventured to give further currency to such wretched stories would have been jeered 
into silence and overwhelmed with literary obloquy. The reader is referred to De Wette 
for facts and authorities, (160) and to Bunsen(161) for endorsement of the following sketch ; 
after remarking that wherever the number "70," or its cabalistic equivalent "72," occurs 
in Jewish connections, it carries with it more cogent evidences of historical untruth than 
even the forties, or " Erbainat," so common in Hebraical literature. (162) 

The origin of the Greek version, stripped of verbiage and exaggerated traditions, was 
the natural consequence of the great influx of Jews — a people ever partial to the fleshpots 
of Egypt — into Alexandria, immediately upon the foundation of that city by Alexander 
the Great, about b. c. 332. Enjoying privileges under the early Ptolemies, the number of 
Jewish colonists constantly augmented: at the same time that incipient intercourse with 
their Greek fellow-citizens superinduced first the disuse and next the oblivion of that Syro- 
Chaldee idiom the Israelites had brought back with them, from Babylonish bondage, in lieu 
of the Old Hebrew orally forgotten; and led their Alexandrine descendants to adopt the 
Greek tongue, together with much of Grecian usages and Philosophy. They became Hel- 
lenizing-Jevrs (163) at Alexandria, without ceasing to be Hebrews in lineage or religion ; 
just as their present descendants are Germanizing, Italianizing, or Americanizing Israelites, 
according to the country of their birthplace or adoption. 

The conquests of the JIacedonian are to us the most salient causes of the transmutations 
that took place throughout the Levant owing to the wide-spread of Grecian influences ; but 
Pythagoras, Plato, and Herodotus, are earlier prominent expressions of Greek infiltration into 
Babj'louia and Egypt during the fifth and sixth centuries b. c, which was far more exten- 

(159) Analysis of ClironoJogy. 

(160) Op. cit. ; i. pp. 136-144. 

(161) Egi/pCs Place in Universal Hist; 1848; i. pp. 134, 185. . 

(162) Lepsics; Ciironologie der ^JSgypler; 1849; i. p. .365. We find the subjoined to the purpose among "Tal- 
mudical statements : — In Megilla, ix. a, we read the following account : ' Ptolem}' the king called seventy-two 
old and wise men to Alexandria, and confined each in a separate room, without telling them the reason of their 
being called. He afterwards visited each of them, and directed them to write down iu Greek the words of 
Moses. God inspired them with a sameness of ideas, so that their translations literally agreed.' In Sfyphrim, 
J 1, we read another passage: 'Five sages were called to Alexandria by the king Ptolemy, to translate the law 
into the Greek language ; this day was as oppressive to Israel as the one when the golden calf was made, for 
they were unable to do justice to the subject. Then the king assembled seventy-two sages, and set them ia 

seventy-two cells,' Ac In Taanith occurs the following passage, which also Be Kossi quotes (Imrai Sinah, 

g 7) : ' There arc certain days on which we fast on account of the law : such a day is the eighth day of Thebeth, 
because on that day the law was translated into the Greek under the second Ptolemy, king of Egypt, and dark- 
ness covered the earth for three days.'" — (" Greek Versions of the Bible — the passages extracted from Laxdad's 
Vorwort mm Aruch" — Tlie Asmonean ; New York, 5 Aug. 1853.) Little historical criticism is required to per- 
ceive that the writers of these Talmudic legends, several centuries after Josephus, had merely given another 
Ehape to the same baseless tradition of the false Aristeas: and wo may class Justin Martyr's evidence {Admoni- 
tione ud Grcecos) that "he saw the 72 cells into which the translators were locked up"; and Epiphanius's {De 
mensuris et ponderibus) that these cells were 36, each for two translators; — with St. Auqustine's, where he 
Bays " Vidimus — we have seen" men with an eye in the pit of their stomachs. 

(163) According to Philo, the .Tews exceeded a millioQ at Alexandria alone (Rapaport's Erech MUin; quoted 
in TAe Asmonean ; New York, July 20, 1S53). 



616 ARCHJilOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

sive commercially than until recently accredited ; while Greet condottieri had been employed 
in Egypt from the seventh century by Psametticus : nor yias Xenophon the first General, 
nor Ctesias the first Doctor, who volunteered their services to the Achoemenidre of Persia. 
Into Jerusalem itself, Greek ideas had penetrated very soon after the erection of the Second 
Temple in the fifth century. These result from the history, and are stamped upon the 
proper names of the Jews of Palestine, particularly after Alexander's era. Nor were such 
Hellenic infiltrations without a certain influence upon the canonical literature of Judaism ; 
for the "political satire" (164) entitled the ^^ Book of Daniel" betrays, through its Greek 
words, as much as by its exegetical adaptations, an author of the age of Antiochus Epi- 
phanes, not earlier than the plunder of Jerusalem by that king about 164 years b. c. Con- 
tinental scholarship long ago placed this fact beyond dispute ; (165) and the Hebraical eru- 
dition of the late Rev. Moses Stuart (166) induced him to fortify it vfith his customary 
skilfulness. 

So much nonsense still passes currently, in regard to the various dialects spoken by the 
Jews after their return from the Captivity, that we must here digress for a moment. Inde- 
pendently of books read and others cited, we have sought for information on these subjects 
from some of the most cultivated Hebrew citizens of the United States, and have invariably 
met with the kindest readiness to enlighten us. We possess not (merely because we omitted 
to ask for it) the sanction, of the many very learned Israelites consulted, to publish their 
honored names ; but not on that account are the hints with which all have favored us the 
less appreciated by ourselves nor the less useful to readers. No interdict being Laid by 
one of the writer's valued friends, Mr. J. C. Levy of Savannah, upon the many indices to 
knowledge for which his goodness has rendered us his debtor, we condense the substance 
of two recent communications ; coupled with regrets that certain inexorable limits of typo- 
graphical space should compress what ought to be in " Brevier" into "Nonpareil." (167) 

(164) New York Daily Tribune ; Feb. 10, 1853. The attribution to "Discoveries" at Babylon is fabulous. For 
that of the Decalogve, conf. Gliddon, Olia, 1849; p. 19 : — extended in New York Sun, "Historical Sketches of 
Egypt," Nos. 6, 7 ; Jan. 19 and 25, 1850. 

(165) Munk: Palestine; p. 420; — De Wette: ii. pp. 483-512 ; — Cahen: Notes cm Danid. 

(166) Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy ; Andover, 1842 ; pp. 71-108. 

(167) Extract 1. — " The information I promised barely is, that the Babylonian Captivity lasted from 538 — 486 
B. c, when Zerubabel, with 50,000 men, went to Palestine with the permission of Cyrus. A second colony fol- 
lowed in the year 458, led by Ezra, under the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. He was, again, followed by 
Nehemiah, 444. During the Captivity, by good treatment, they adopted Babylonian customs and manners, 
and amalgamated with their conquerors (Ezra v. ; Nehemiah xiii. 1-3), and forgot their native Hebrew. Besides 
this, the Samaritans speaking an Aramaic (Chaldaic) dialect, as well as the Syrians who ruled for a long time 
in Palestine, exercised great influence over the Jews ; so that the Hebrew soon disappeared as the vernacular 
(Nehemiah xiii. 24) to yield to the Chaldaic, and the mother-tongue probably was the language of their real 
mothers. This may be best proved by the fact, that all civil acts, oiiicial documents, and legal formulas, were 
written in that language, and that the Talmud itself is written, to a great extent, in this tongue. Further- 
more, numerous proverbs originating at this time, and popular books of that age, are all in the same language. 
The chief prayers of the Jewish Service, composed by Ezra, are in the Chaldaic language. Already at the con- 
secration of the Temple on the 1st of the 9th month and in the 24 days of its duration, it was found necessary 
to accompany the reading of the Law with translations and explanations (Nehemiah viii. 8, 12) ; the latter being 
the beginnings and foundation of the Talmud, or traditional oral law, which was first prohibited to be written 
down, in order to preserve life and motion for the letter of holy writ. That this prohibition was afterwards 
transgressed much to the injury of the development of Judaism, and caused all schisms among the Jews, is 
well known. Had these explanations, which are mostly contradictory of each other, not been collected and 
made a code of, all strife might have been avoided. 

" Written Chaldaic translations were in existence in the time of the Maccabees — the first known is that of 
Onkelos, disciple of K. Gamaliel (53 after X), and fellow-student of the Apostle Paul. This translation is para- 
phrastical, especially in the prophetic and poetical parts of the Bible. More explanatory is that of Jonathan- 
bex-Ngooziel. A third translation is the Targum Jerushalme (Jerusalem translation), fragmentary, and exhi- 
biting a commentary in accordance with the reigning ideas of the age. Macedonian and Egyptian rule in 
Palestine produced among the Jews Grecian manners, customs, and ideas, also language; so that translations 
of the Bible were soon necessary. The oldest mentioned is that of Akilas, often referred to in ancient writings, 
to explain Chaldaic parts of the Bible; there you have the Greek translation of the LXX. Philo, Josephus, and 
other Jewish authors wrote in Greek, proving their ignorance of Hebrew by the blunders in translation and 
explanation of the Text. Greek technical terms are even to be found abundantly in the Talmud." 

Extract 2, — " I am not satisfied with the meagre reference given you regarding the ignorance of the Jews 



TO THE THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 617 

Returning to the LXX. — Some precursory events had prepared Jewish Alexandrian 
immigrants for the adoption " nolens volens" of the Greek tongue and alphabet, consequent 
upon the oblivion of the Aramaean dialect which their progenitors had re-imported into 
Palestine. The children were growing up in ignorance of a "Law" their Alexandrian parents 
could no longer read in Hebrew. To have paraphrased that " Law " into Syro-Chaldee, like 
their brethren in Palestine and Babylonia, would at Alexandria have been useless; because 
the parents had forgotten Syro-Chaldee, and the childi-en already talked Greelc, by the reign 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. c. 284-45. What more in unison with the instinctive charac- 
teristics of that " Type of Mankind" which, beyond all others (from the days of Abraham), 
changes its language with most facility, while it repels admixture of alien blood and tena- 
ciously adheres to its own religion, than that one of its branches, the Alexandrian Hebrews, 
should cause the sacred writings of their forefathers to be translated into Greek ? This 
was precisely that which they did, although the exact year of the commencement of such 
translations can no longer be fixed : but the style and idioms of the several books, to which, 
after collection into one canon, the name of Septuagint was subsequently given, indicate 
diflFerent times and divers hands. (168) 

While confined to Judaism in Alexandria, this Greek translation was reputed orthodox 
by the Hellenizing Rabbis as much as the Hebrew Scriptures themselves ; and more autho- 
ritative, because they could read no other. It was read in the Synagogues of that city, 
and wherever Jewish congregations were planted under similar Grecian circumstances ; but 
a Greek version was of no use, and therefore of little value, to the Jews of Palestine, 
Syria, and Persia; who understood not the Greek tongue, but spoke Chaldaic "patois." 
The Greeks themselves, regarding all languages but their own as barbarous, Hebrew inclu- 
sive, never troubled their heads about the Septuagint until after apostolic missions had pro- 
pagated the New Testament, composed in Greek by Hellenized Jews also; when the recur- 
rence of quotations from the Old Testament, in the evangelical books, instigated its readers 
to reference to that Code ; and as these Christianized readers were ignorant of Oriental 
idioms, of course the Septuagint version was the only one accessible to them : while, to give 
it an air of antiquity and of royal respectability of origin, both Grsecized Jews and Juda- 
izing Christians coincided in attributing its authorship to " 70 " translators, appointed (like 
our forty-seven English translators by king James) under the hand and seal of Philadel- 
phus ; whose encouragement of literature was testified by munificent donations (cost to 
himself, nothing) to the Alexandrian Library. A pseudo-Aristeas " reported " a fable so 
flattering to Alexandrine pride, to Jewish respectabilities, and to Christian orthodoxy ; 
while the real tradition seems to have reached us in an account that the authors of the 
Septuagint were but "five:" (169) and so, veneration for the Septuagint increased from day 
to day in the ratio that time rolled onward, and that the remembrance of its natural origin 
faded from the " memory of the oldest inhabitant" of Alexandria ; nor would the harm- 
less legend have been disturbed, had not proselyting furor on the part of new converts 
to Christianity led them to provoke rabbinical susceptibility by appeals to the Greek version 
of the Old Testament in support of novel doctrines promulgated in the New : the two texts 

everywhere of Hebrew after the Captivity. ... I offer you what your opponents cannot object to — that is, the 
Xlllth Chapter of Neuemiah (the chronology of the book you know better then I do). Jewish or Christian 
chronology make it about 450 before X. This chapter will show you, that the Dragoman [Arabice Tmyemdn, 
"Interpreter"] was necessary in reading the Book of the Law. Gibbon (vi. vol. chap. 50, p. 262) quotes, in a 
note, Walton {Prolegomena ad Bihl. polyglot., pp. 34, 93, 97 ; also, Simon, Hist. Critique du V. et dii J\^. Testa- 
ment), to illustrate that the Bible was translated into Arabic at a much earlier period than the time he is 
treating of (about 550 after X); and he proves the fact 'from the perpetual practice of the Synagogue of 
expounding the Hebrew Lesson by a paraphrase of the vulgar tongue of the country.' ... I think these very 
respectable authorities, if you need them." Jlr. Levy's views are amply supported by Gesenius {Geschichte der 
Heb. Spraclie, &c. ; p. 198). 

(16S) De Weite; i. p. 145; — Taylor's Calmet; voce "Versions." 

(109) Ibid.; p. 150 — note from the Talmud, Tract Sopherim, ch. i. — "The work of the/i'e elders, who wrote 
the Law in Greek, in the time of King Ptolemy " : unless they meant the Pentateuch, attributing one book to 
each elder ? Conferre, also, the high Jewish authority of Rapaport, in " Erecli Milin " — New York Asmonean • 
July 29, 1S53. 

78 



618 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

Laving been made singularly hai-monious ; owing to scrupulous care on tlie part of the 
apostles to cite each passage according to its Greek coloring in the Septuagint ; for a long 
time held in common to be canonical as well by Jews as by Greeks. 

Bewildered for a time by these dexterous sophisms, and mystified through literary am- 
buscades which it required a Grecian intellect to comprehend, the worthy old Rabbis (taken 
in reverse) had no resource but to proscribe the Septuagint, and ostracize its readers. 
" The law in Greek ! Darkness ! Three days fast ! " (170) Because, says the Talmud, ■" on 
that day, in the time of King Ptolemy, the Law was written in Greek, and darkness came 
upon the earth for three days." (171) Little by little, however, their perceptive faculties 
expanded to the true posture of affairs ; and by proving incontinently that many things, 
which looked one way in the Greek, looked quite anotlier in the Hebrew, the Rabbis soon 
defeated their assailants ; routing them so repeatedly, that gradually the latter thought it 
safer to let such doughty controversialists alone : a method of repulsion continued with 
never-failing success by Israel's wide-spread posterity even now ; who, when summoned by 
anxious "Missionaries for the Conversion of the Jews" to adopt a Trinitarian faith which 
Semitic monotheism (172) despises, have merely to show such well-meaning persons that 
king James's version does really copy the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew, to see these 
itinerant simplicities pocket their English Bibles and slink off. Some day, perhaps, when 
the rules of archoaology through popular diffusion have augmented, all over Anglo- 
Saxondom, that mental element termed " common sense," sundry excellent persons, in the 
language of Letronne, " sentiront, je pense, I'inutilitg, la vanite de leurs efforts." (173) 

The above conclusions on the Sepluagiiit, long known to scholars, if not previously ex- 
pressed in print with the same " brutale franchise" habitual to writers who believe they 
speak the truth (so far as ratiocination can deduce logical results from known premises, — 
humanum est errarc), have enfeebled its value — except for purposes of archseological restora- 
tions of the Hebrew text — to such degree that, in this discussion, the ablest theologians 
have advanced into the posilivist's stage of philosophy. No scientific exegetist of the present 
generation — save for purposes aforesaid — perils his Continental reputation on the letter of 
any Greek version, unless chronological computations be the objects of his research. An- 
other Essay (III. ) of this book gives parallel tables wherein the Septuagint system is compared 
with others ; but, to evince the numerical discrepancies between Text and versions, it suf- 
fices here to note, that, from the creation of Adam to the " Deluge," computations (based 
upon the Hebrew original, as now extant) generally yield 1656 ; upon the Samaritan Pen- 
tateuch, 1307 ; and upon the Septuagint, 2242 years. 

The indefatigable labors of a profound Hellenist and Egyptological scholar, enable us to 
sweep away any chronological superstitions, yet in fashionable vogue, built upon the Sep- 
tuagint : — 

"The chief disagreement between the [Hebrew] original and the [Greek] translation is 
in the chronology, which the translators very improperly undertook to correct, in order to 
make it better agree with Egyptian history and the more advanced state of Alexandrian 
science. They only made the Exodus of Moses 40 years more modern ; but they shortened 

(170) BuNSEX : Op. cit. ; p. 1?5. 

(171) De Wette : Note, p. ISO ; — IIenxell : Origin of Cliristianity ; pp. 454, 455, note. 

(172) "Bear witness! God is one. He is tlie God eternal. He never has begotten, and was never begot" 
(Kur'dn ; Sura cxii). 

(173) Recueil des Inscriptions; Pai-is, 1843; Introd., i. p. xliii. We clip the following from the London /n- 
quirer, 1853: " The Cost of Converting a Jew.— After some twenty years of labor — after the erection of a church 
on Mount Zion, at an enormous cost — after the expenditure of hundreds of thousands of pounds, the 'London 
Society for promoting Christianity among the .Tews ' (a mission presided over by a bishop and endowed by the 
joint efforts of the kingdoms of Prussia and England) produces as its fruits, according to its own statistics, a 
congregation of just thirty seven Jewish converts. During the whole of last year, the result of its labors was 
the conversion of one Jew. The cost of this one convert was the annual outlay at Jerusalem alone, besides the 
bishop's stipend, of £1228 expended on the mission, £445 on the church, £1173 on the hospital, and £400 (wo 
beg pardon, £399 19s. lid. ; see lieport, p. Ill) on the house of industry. The Jerusalem Mission, then, if we 
add to its cost the £1200 per annum paid to Bishop Gobat, arising from the endowment, has actually, in the 
past year, baptized converts at the moderate rate of only £4443 7s. 2d. per head." 



TO TUE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 619 

the residence of the Jews in Egypt by 275 years, allowing to it only the more probable 
space of 155 years. But having thus made the great Jewish epoch, the migration of Abra- 
ham out of Chahlrea, 315 years more modern, they thought it equally necessary to make 
such a large addition to the age of the world as the history of science and civilization, and 
the state of Egypt at the time of Abraham, seemed to call for. Accordingly, they added 
to the genealogies of the patriarchs neither more nor less than a whole Egyptian cycle 
[Soifiic-period] {174) of 1460 years; or 580 between Adam and Noah, and 880 between 
Noah and Abraham, though in so doing they carelessly made Methuselah outlive the 
Flood, [lib) 

This plain matter-of-fact solution of the reasons why the Scpluagint chronology differs 
from that of the Hebrew — between Adam and the Beluffe — upon popular computations 
only 586 years! — relieves us from the bootless trouble of attaching any importance to 
opinions current at Alexandria among those successors of the Founder of chronology ; who, 
with the original copies of M.\netho(176) before them, paid homage to his accuracy in 
thei;: endeavors to assimilate their own foreign estimates of time to his. 

ArchtBological rules also permit two deductions to be drawn from these premises : — 
1st. That the differences of numerical results among early Christian and Judaical com- 
putators of the Septuagint proceed less from wilful perversions of numbers (as here- 
tofore attributed to Josephus and others), than from radical discrepancies then existing 
between the manuscript consulted by one computator, and those exemplars whose 
numeration was followed by his compeers. This becomes obvious by comparing the 
eras severally reached by modern computations upon manuscript and printed copies 
now extant. 

Creation B. c. Deluge b. c. 

Hales's Septuagint computation — edition to us unknown — 5586 3246 

Alexandrinus IMS. ...... 5508 

Vaticamis MS 5270 

Josephus, on some lost MS. — probably .... 5555 3146 

2d. That already in the time of Josephus, during the first century after Christ, the 
manuscript he followed must have differed in numeration from the parental exemplars 
of those transcriptions that, under the modern names of various codices, Cottonianus, 
Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, Bezm, &c. (none earlier than a. d. 500), have reached our 
day ; and ergo there must have been many corruptions and variants among Septuagint 
MSS., about and prior to the Christian era. 
Hence we conclude, that it is as vain a task for computators, now-a-days, to recover more 
than a vague approximation of chronological notions (deducible from the Septuagint) current 
at Alexandria before the Christian era, as, after the foregoing analysis of the natural origin, 
history, and manifold corruptions of Greek codices, it would be to insist upon Divine 
authenticity for king James's version ; on the plea that, in the majority of cases, its forty- 
seven translators rendered from the Greek of editions, or manuscripts, so rotten in basis as 
those of the Septuagint. 

We proceed to the Hebrew Text; with the remark that, although we now know that it 
could have had little to do with the formation of our " authorized version," we shall examine 
it under the hypothesis (customarily put forward) that it had a great deal. 

In the year 1603, at the time when king James authorized a new English translation, 
there were numerous printed editions of the Uehrew Text familiar to biblical scholars. 
That of Soncino, 1488, the first printed; of Brescia, 1494, used by Luther for his transla- 
tion ; Bomberg's, 1518-45; Stephens's, 1544-46; Munster's, 1546; are the most promi- 
nent of the number. Whether the translators consulted any, or what, Hebrew majiuscripts, 
does not appear from works within our present reach. We have shown how trivial was their 
acquaintance with the language of the editions, and may be persuaded that they did not 

(174) CnAMPOLLiox-FiOEAC : Eg'jpte Ancienne; 1840; pp. 236-240; — Gijddox: Cliapterson Early Egyptian His- 
tory; 1843; pp. 50, 51, 52, 61; — Lepsios: Clironotogie ; 1849; i. pp. 105-180. 

(175) Sharpe: Op.cit.; p. 196. 

(176) BcxsE.\: Op. oil.; pp. 5096. 



620 AECHJilOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

greatly distress themselves about the latter ; for, a century and a half elapsed before Ken- 
nicott proclaimed how — "the Hebrew Bible was printed from the latest, and consequently 
the worst manuscripts;" (177) thus corroborating his previous acknowledgment— "that the 
Sacred Books have not descended to us, for so many ages, without some mistakes and errors 
of transcribers.' ''{17 8) He enlarges upon the certainty of corruptions in the printed Hebrew 
Text, powerfully refuting those who claim textual unity; and then passes on to establish 
the absurdity of attributing perfection, either, to the manuscripts. (179) 

Of all men down to his epoch, 1780, Kennicott had the best right to speak decisively; 
his conclusions being drawn from the collation of no less than 692 manuscripts of the 
Hebrew text; whereof about 250 were collated by himself personally, and the remainder 
by Mr. Bruns, under his direction. Of the most ancient relics, but two were assigned by him 
to the tenth century after Christ ; to the eleventh or twelfth centuries, only three; while all 
the rest ranged between the years 1200 and 1500 a. d. (180) The bulk of his work, its 
costliness and comparative rarity, combine with its Latin idiom to render it inaccessible to 
ordinary readers, save at second-hand. But few of the facts established by this great and 
upright scholar are popularly known ; or they have been misrepresented, more, or less, by 
some of the ecclesiastical mediums (181) through which they have reached the public eye. 
Cardinal Wiseman, (182) for example, would lead his readers to infer, that the innumerable 
variants and corruptions of the Hebrew Text, verified by Kennicott, were of small import- 
ance ; and even the Rev. Moses Stuart (183) slurs lightly over those depreciatory results 
which it will be archseology's duty presently to enumerate, in saying: — 

" Indeed, one may travel through the immense desert (so I can hardly help naming it) 
of Kennicott and De Rossi, and (if I may venture to speak in homely phrase) not find 
game enough to be worth the hunting." So again, "Have they (the Jews) added to, or 
diminished from, their Scriptures during all this period of 1800 years? Not the least. . . . 
Their Bible has remained inviolate." 

Now, to continue the sagacious Professor's simile, the quantity of game to be found in a 
given wilderness frequently depends upon the keenness of the huntsman ; its quality upon 
his individual tastes; some sportsmen being partial to tomtits, whilst others sigh that 
nothing fiercer than grizzly-bears encounters their ferine combativeness. And, with respect 
to the " inviolate " state of the Text, Kennicott shall speak for himself, after we have 
opened a volume of De Rossi. 

G. Bernardo de Rossi, of Parma, was that august Italian critic who resumed investiga- 
tion into the actual condition of the Hebrew Text at the point where his English prede- 
cessor had left off; recasting also (wherever the same MSS. could be reached by him) the 
work of the illustrious Oxonian. Written in Italian, and intended solely for the lettered, 
his books are not very familiar to the general reader. A quotation or two, therefore, may 
place matters in their proper light: 

"Here it suffices to observe, that the totality of manuscripts collated is 1418, of editions 
374; that to the English 577, and 16 Samaritan, I have added 825; of which my cabinet 
alone furnished 691, and 333 editions; besides the ancient versions, the commentaries, the 
works of criticism and other sources that are also themselves in the greatest number." (184) 

In another work he states: — "Of the manuscript codices most ancient of the sacred 
Text" . . . the oldest, that of Vienna, dates in a. d. 1019 ; the next is Reuchlin's, of Carls- 
ruhe ; its age being a. d. 1038. There is nothing in manuscript of the Hebrew Old Testa- 



(177) State of the printed Heh-ew Text; 2d Dissert. ; Oxford, 1709; p. 470. 

(178) Ibid.; 1st Dissert; 1753; Introd. 

(179) llnd. ; pp. 234, 263. 

(180) Disscrtatio Generalis in Velus Testamentum Hebraicum; Oxford, 1780; in folio; pp. 110-113. 

(181) "By 'ecclesiastical persons' are understood such as are indeed subjects, yet their office and works is 
[sicll in matters of Religion; they act between God and man, as messengers, and mediators between them. 
They deliver God's mind to men; and offer men's prayers and ffifts to God"; says the Kev. George Lawso.v, 
Protestant Rector of More (Politica Sacra et Cimlis ; London, 1660 ; p. 230). 

(182) Connection between Science and Sevealed Religion ; 1844 ; ii. pp. 168, 169. 

(183) Crit. Hist, and Defence of the 0. T. Canon ; Andover, 1845 ; pp. 193, 239. 

(184) Compendia di Critica Sacra; Parma, 1811 ; ii. p. 37. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 621 

mentnow extant of an earlier date than the eleventh century after Christ. (185) And, " of 
the most ancient manuscripts of the Greek Text of the Kew Testament," . . . the oldest 
are the Alexandrian and Vatican, which may ascend to the fourth, but cannot be much 
later than the fifth century after Christ. 

Considering such circumstances, our credulity is not strained by accepting what De 
Rossi asserts, as rather more authoritative than the fiats of some "teologini" we might 
name ; for he, at least, had advanced by studious discipline to the positive stage of philo- 
sophy. These are his Italian views rendered into English : — under the head of " Premure 
degli Ebrei per loro Testo : " — 

" It is known [ ? ] with what carefulness Esdras, the most excellent critic they have had, 
had reformed [the Text] and corrected it, and restored it to its primary splendor. Of the 
many revisions undertaken after him none are more celebrated than that of the Massoreles, 
who came after the sixth century [.4nnis d.]; who, in order that the Text should not in 
after time become altered, and that it might be preserved in its integrity, numbered all the 
verses, the words, the letters of each book, together with their form and place. But their 
fatigues being well analyzed, one perceives that they had more in aim to fix the state of 
their Text, than to correct it; that, of infinite interesting and grave variants they do not 
speak : and that, ordinarily, they do not occupy themselves but with minutiae of orthography 
of little or no weight : and all the most zealous adorers and defenders of the Massora, 
Christians and Jews, while rendering justice to the worthiest intentions and to the enor- 
mous fatigues of its first authors, ingenuously accord and confess that it [the JIassoretic 
Text], such as it exists, is deficient, imperfect, interpolated, full of errors ; ... a most unsafe 
guide." (186) 

AVhy, "the single Bible of Soncino [earliest printed Text] furnishes more than tivelve thou- 
sand (variants) ! " Which said, our authority continues through above eleven 8vo pages 
to deplore and make manifest "the horrible stale of the Text," resulting from his own compa- 
risons of 1418 Hebrew manuscripts, and 374 printed editions. Such being the truth, 
published a quarter-century before the Rev. Dr. Hales's "Analysis of Chronology," (187) 
the reader can qualify the following attestation of an ecclesiastic by what epithet he 
pleases : — 

" It is not more certain that there are a sun and moon in the heavens, than it is, that not 
a single error of the press, or of a Jeu-ish transcriber, has crept into the present copies of 
the Masorcle Hebrew Text, to give the least interruption to its chronological series of 
years." 

And yet, so devoid of consistency is this theologer, that he designates the Hebrew chro- 
nology as "spurious," and actually follows that of the Septuaginl! 

From the loud denunciations of one of the most learned Church-of-England Protestant 
divines, and the sterner sorrow of an Italian Catholic cenobite, turn we to the wild despair 
of the Hebrew Rabbis: — " Peruit consilium! Computruit sapientia nostra! Oblivioni 
traditas sunt leges nostrae ! Multie etiam corruptelce, et errores, ceciderunt in Legem nos- 
tram sanctam ! " (188) 

But Kennicott substantiates that the disorderly condition of the Hebrew Text, and its 
multitudinous vitiations, resile from the works, or are lamented in the language, of all 
claimants to biblical knowledge for 1700 years previously to the Rabbis and himslf ; equi- 
valent to 1730 prior to De Rossi. Here is a skeleton of his list, omitting citations: — 
"Justin Martyr, died a. d. 165 — TertuUian, 220 — Clemens Romanus, 102— Origen, 254 — 
Eusebius Csesarienensis, 340 — Eusebius Emisenus, flourished 350 — Ephraim Syrus, died 
378 — Hieronymus, 420." We pause to illustrate. 

1st. King James's version. — Paul, Galatians, iii. 13: — "for it is written. Cursed is 
every one that hangeth on a tree." [The English of the Greek passage in Griesbaeh's 
text is, apud Sharpe, "(for it is written; cursed is evert/ one thai is hanged on a free;)"]. 

(185) IntroduzUme aUa Sacra SmUura ; Parma, 1817 ; pp. 34, 47. 

(186) Compendio; ch. iv. p. 7; and pp. 9-22. De Rossi furthermore proves these positions in his "Specimen 
Variarum Lectionum Sacri Textus"; Uome, 1782. 

(187) Analysis; 2d edit.; 1830; i. p. 277. 

(188) Hebrew ediiion of 1751; the preface, cited ia Dissert. Generalis ; p. 27. 



622 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

2d. This is a quotation by the Apostle from Deuteronowy xxi. 23 ; which, in king James's 
Tersion stands — " (for he that is hanged is accursed of God;)" [The French of 
Cahen reads — "car un pendu est une malediction deDieu" (v. pp. 93, 94); which 
conforms better to the context, and resembles current superstitious aversion to gibbets.] 

Apart from illiteral citation, the New Testament, in this passage, leaves out the word 
ELoHIM, ' God.' Tbeologists who combat for "plenary inspiration" can doubtless answer 
the following interrogatories. If those words be Paul's (always provided for), did he quote 
from memory ? then his recollection was faulty. If he copied the LXX, then, in his day, 
the Greek already differed from the Hebrew ; and who can tell which of the two transcripts 
preserved the original reading ? 

The catalogue continues with — " Epiphanius, 403 — Augustine, 430" — but we abridge 
twenty-two folio pages of extracts from later Christian writers, who protest to the same 
effect, into a line : epitomizing the series by one name — Ludovicus Capellus, founder of 
sacred criticism in 1650. 

All the subjoined commentators vouch for inaccuracies in the Text: viz^ — "Raymond de 
Pennaforti, 1250 — Nic. Lyranus, 1320 — Rudolphus Armachanus, 1359 — Tostatus, 1450 — 
Jacob Perez de Valentia, 1450 — Marsilius Ficinus, 1450 — Baptista Mantuanus, 1516 — 
Zuinglius, 1528 — Martin Luther, 1546 — Bibliander, 1564," &c. The same corruptions are 
certified through the decrees of the Council of Trent, 1546; through the Vulgate of Sixtus 
v., 1590; and through king James's version, 1604-1611: on which the Oxonian critic 
remarks (p. 50, ^ 108): — "To the Authors of the English version that which is due: 
many examples prove that they did not always mind what they found in the Hebrew, but 
what they thought ouglit to be read therein: tantamount to that, in their opinion, the He- 
brew Text was corrupt. This the reader evolves from twenty places: — Gen. xxv. 8: xxxv. 
29 : Ex. XX. 10 : Deut. v. 14 ; xxvii. 26 ; xxxii. 43 : Jos. xxii. 34 : Jud. vii. 18 — vid. com. 
20—1 Sam. ii. 28 : 2 Sam. iii. 7 ; v. 8 ; xsi. 19 ; xxiii. 8 : 2 Kings xxv. 3 : 1 Chro7i. vii. 6 ; 
ix. 41; xxiv. 23: Ps. xxxiv. 17: Ixx. 1 : Isa. xxviii. 12: Ezech. xxvi. 23." 

After citing "Jos. Scaliger; the Buxtorfs, father and son, defenders of the purity of the 
text ; Capellus ; Glassius ; Joseph Mede ; Usher, Morinus, Beveridge, Walton, Hammond, 
Bochart, Hottinger, Huet, Pococke, Jablonski, Clericus, Opitius, Vetringa, Michaelis, 
Wolfius, Carpzovius, Joseph Hallet, Francis Hare" — Kennicott concludes (^ 132): — 

"Id autem a me maxime propositum fuit, ut ostenderem — produci posse testimonia 
multa et insignia, per intervallum fere 2000 annorum, ad probandas mutationes in Hebrai- 
cum Textum inveclas : quanquam in contrariam seutentiam, annis abliiuc triginta, dooti 
fere omnes abierint."(189) 

One would have thought (to return to Prof. Stuart's metaphor), that this "immense 
desert" contained "game enough," in all conscience! but, in some men, the love of chase 
is insatiable. " Defence," as he justly observes, " would seem to be needed. The contest 
has become one pro oris et focis" — "truly become one, as I have said, pro oris et 
/ocw." (190) 

"It has become plain," frankly declares this lamented Hebraist, "that the battle which 
has been going on over most European ground these forty or fifty years past, has at last 
come even to us [alluding to the esegetical works of his learned and reverend New England 
colleagues, Noyes, Palfrey, Norton, Parker, &c.], and we can no longer decline the contest. 
Unbelief in the Voltaire and the Thomas Paine style we have coped with, and in a measure 
gained the victory. But now it comes in the shape of philosophy, literature, criticism, philo- 
logy, knowledge of antiquity, and the like.[!] Hume's arguments against miracles have been 
exhumed, clothed with a new and splendid costume, and commended to the world by many 
among the most learned men in Europe. Before them, all revelation falls alike, both Old 
Testament and New." (191) 

And, considering who these "most learned men " veritably are, it is not for us to ques- 
tion the uprightness of his outspoken recognition, that— 

(1S9) DUsaioUo Generalis; 1780; pp. 7, S, 33-43, 55, seq. 
(1,90) Op. cit. ; pp. 3, 422. 
(191) Op. cit. ; p. 420. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 623 

" The unbelief that consistentlj' sets aside the ivhole, shows a more manly and energetic 
attitude of mind ; and, in my opinion, it is much more likely to be convinced at last of error, 
than he is who thinks that he is already a believer and is safe, while he virtually rejects 
from the Gospel all which makes a Gospel, in distinction from the teachings of Socrates, 
of Plato, of Plutarch, of Cicero, and of Seneca." (192) 

■\Ve have quoted the highest contemporary authority of the Calvinist school ; and impar- 
tiality requires that a member of the " Chiesa Cattolica Apostolica Romana" should make 
up for the mild notice taken of Kennicott's and De Rossi's researches by His Eminence the 
Cardinal. 

If the man of science mourns, with as much fervor as the most devout, over the irre- 
coverable loss of Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible — of those precious documents that would 
Lave linked the Bodleian codex (about 800 years old, said to be the most ancient) (193) with 
the transcripts of Ezra's copy; and filled up the frightful chasm that now divides, in Hebrew 
paliBOgraphy, the tenth century after Christ from the fifth century before his advent — to 
•whose acts is he indebted, and by whom are his soitows caused ? Lacour shall answer : — 

" At the commencement of the thirteenth century, it was expressly forbidden to the 
laity to possess the books of the Old and New Testament. The Church permitted only the 
Psalter, the Breviary, or the Hours of the Sainted Mary : and these books were recjuired 
not to be translated into the vulgar tongue. Decrees of Bishops interdicted the use of 
grammar." (194) Other sources confirm this assertion. 

Gregory the Great, a. d. 590, censured Didier, Archbishop of Vienna, for suffering 
grammar to be taught in his diocese : " boasting that he (himself) scorned to conform his 
latinity to grammatical rules, lest thereby he should resemble the heathen." (195) In the 
ainth century, Alfred the Great laments that there was not a priest in England who really 
understood Latin, and, for ages after, English Bishops wete termed "marksmen," because 
they could not sign their names otherwise than by a cross! 

" In 1490, the Inquisition caused the Hebrew Bibles to be burned, that is to say, the 
work in default of the author; in the absence of Moses, his Pentateuch." At Salamanca, 
the fiendish Dominican, Torquemada, reduced some GOOO Hebrew volumes to ashes; and 
besides such as were ravished from libraries in Spain and Italy, about 12,000 Talmudic 
rolls perished, circa a. d. 1559, in Inquisitorial flames at Cremona. (196) These un- 
nameable deeds were induced by orthodox doubts that, the Hebrew Text, as represented 
in the square-letter copies, was ever quoted by the Apostles ; (196) but, in those ages of 
darkness, little respect could have been paid to MSS. even of the New Testament ; for such 
ancient copies as had been preserved, down to a. d. 1749, at Alcala in Spain, were sold to 
one Toryo, a pyrotechnist, as materials for sky-rockets. (197) Quintillian {Inst. Oral. i. 1), 
in the first century after Christ, complains that writing was neglected ; but it was not until 
after the barbarian irruptions of the eighth century that "la crasse ignorance" prevailed 
in Western Europe. It is uncertain if even Charlemagne could write. The tenth to twelfth 
centuries exhibit Bishops, Abbots, Clerks, &c., incredibly ignorant : as even in earlier times, 
before the seventh century, at the Episcopal Conference of Carthage, the "brigandage" 
of Ephesus, and the Council of Chalcedon— at which last there were forty most incapable 
Bishops (Labbe, Concil, iv). Few Romish monks could read, in the eleventh; the laity 
began about the end of the thirteenth; but in the fourteenth, the number was small. (198) 

From these fearful destructions (the Inquisitorial agents having acted in obedience to 
orders sent from Rome), Lacour draws a singular argument in behalf of his own free resto- 
rations of the Hebrew Text, maintaining: — 

(192) Op.cit.; p. 320. 

(193) Kexxicott : 2d Dissert. ; p. 317 — " Laud, A, No. 162," in catalos^e Bodleian Library. 

(194) -EioiM: Bordeaux. 1S2S ; i. p. 23. 

(195) MAyDETttLE, apud Taylor : p. 34 ; — also, Rigkelum : Examcn ; iii. p. 537 : — and Tico : Scicn:a Xuova, 
trad. MiCHELET ; ii. p. 67 : for other examples. 

(190) Lacocr: p. 29; — and Kex>icott: Dissert. Gen.; p. 16 

(197) Marsh's Michaelis ; ii. p. 44. * 

(198) Condensed from an excellent article on Alphabets, in vol. ix. pp. 727-739, of the great " Encyclopfidie 
Catholiquo " ; Paris, 1846 : conducted by the Abbe Olaire and M. Walsh. 



624 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

" That the Hebrew Text of the Bible, tried and condemned by the Holy Tribunal, burned 
as an act of faith at Seville, and in the Square of St. Stephen at Salamanca, proscribed 
during the sixteenth century, prohibited in the pulpits of Catholic preachers, declared 
dangerous, infected with Judaism, and causing those Christians who read it to Judaize 
likewise, finds itself — owing to this solemn condemnation from which it cannot be purged 
save through the adoption of a ntw translation — finds itself, I repeat, does this Text, to 
have lost the character and authority that, in the spirit of Christianity, the Fathers [only 
Origen and Jerome] attributed to it. One may, therefore, after all, study this Text in a 
new point of view, purely philosophical and philologic ; and seek in it a new interpretation, 
■without being scared at the sense which such interpretation may produce. The anathema 
■with which it has been stricken has abandoned it to criticism and to the investigations of 
the world; tradidit disputatione : its testimony is no longer anything but mere human testi- 
mony, liable to error like all things that proceed from man." (199) 

Conceding his premises, and allowing for his peculiarly catholic point of view, the deduc- 
tion is logical ; but they who deny Papal infallibility may continue to reverence the Hebrew 
Text just as if excommunication had never been pronounced upon it; notwithstanding the 
avowal of those manifold corruptions which, owing to these Inquisitorial holocausts of 
ancient manuscripts, it seems now humanly impossible to expunge. To persecutions and to 
the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, after 1491, the extinction of the most precious 
Hebrew exemplars may be, in part, attributed ; for Muslim intolerance had never know- 
ingly laid the hand of sacrUege upon documents which Christian charity has for ever 
destroyed. (200) Mohammed had built up his Kur'dn upon the monotheistic foundations 
of MnsEs;(201) and his faithful disciples have been always too consistent, whatever 
barbarities they may have inflicted upon the Jews, to injure that chosen people's sacred 
hooks, and thereby stultify themselves. With reference to textual corruptions, says Ken- 
nicott(202 : — 

" Hsec denique sunt verba eruditissimi Professoris J. A. Starck — ' cum negari prorsus 
nequeat (si quidem luminibus uti, et antiques libros ab omnibus prsejudicatis opinionibus 
liberi inter se conferre velimus) multa et ingentia sfoKnara inisse sacris libris ; qxiaMa, sunt, 
gravissimi in chronologicis errores ; in historicis manifestas contradictiones ; uumerorum 
exaggerationes ; literarum, nominarum, sententiarum, omissiones, additiones, transposi- 
tiones: queestio jure orietur — Unde tot tamque graves immutationes originem suam ha- 
beant? Et si gravissimis argumentis, quibus solis permota ita sentio, fides habenda est; 
prorsus omni caret dubio, Judseorum imprimis fallaciam et malevolam mentem accusandam 
esse, post librariorum inertiam et negligentiam.' " 

To avoid mistakes we have given the Latin text, and now ofi"er its straightforward signi- 
fication in English : — 

"Since it cannot altogether be denied (if indeed we free ourselves from all prejudiced 
opinions, and wish to compare ancient books with each other and to avail ourselves of 
the instructions of the learned,) that many and enormovs aipaXnctTa [lapsi, mistakes] exist in 
the sacred books ; such as, most grave errors in chronological (matters) ; manifest contra- 
dictions in historical; exaggerations in numbers; omissions, additions, transpositions of 
letters, of names, of sentences : — the question will naturally arise. Whence have such 
and so many serious mutations their origin ? And if faith is to be placed in most weighty 
arguments, by which alone I am influenced, every doubt is altogether wanting, (that) first 
one must accuse the fallacious and malevolent mind of the Jews, (and) afterwards the 
inertness and negligence of librarians." 

Such are the published /ac<«. Yet one marvels at the ways of theology; on seeing the 
Eev. Prof. Stuart skip nimbly over that "immense desert" with his "gun, man, and dog," 
(Arma vinimque cano,) and the degage air of a juvenile Nirarod, without finding ^^ game 
enough to be worth the hunting;" and then asserting with equal frivolity, that the Jewish 
" Bible has remained inviolate " I How can the unlettered distinguish truth from error, 
when their Teachers mystify the plainest results that scholarship the most exalted, hon- 
esty the most unbending, and science the most profound, have striven to make public to 
all men for the last hundred years ? 

(199) Lacouk : Op. cit. ; i. p. 33. 

(200) SiSMONBi, not now before me, gives many other examples of literary destructions in Italy, Portugal, 
and Spain. 

(201) Compare Lane: Sdectinns; pp. 183-225, 270, 271. 

(202) Op. cit. ; p. 33; note to § 76. 



TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 625 

Nevertheless, a time has come in which opinions, that ignorance had laid down as funda- 
mental principles, begin to compromise those institutional structures beneath which they 
were placed. Enlightened manhood in a free Republic is fast approaching the hour when 
Buch opinions will be openly recognized as nothing more than opinions of ignorance. To 
attempt to impede reform, when it is necessary, is to jeopard the whole system. To 
refuse to repair foundations whose vetustity perils an edifice, is to desire that the downfall 
of such edifice shall prove that its foundations are rotten. " Creeds," says Sharpe, speak- 
ing of the decrees of the oecumenic Councils, "composed io the dark have now to be de- 
fended in the light, and those who profess them have the painful task of employing learn- 
ing to justify ignorance." (203) 

A point has been now attained in this exposition, when a brief recapitulation of the halts 
made during our journey will enable us to dismiss king James's version from further con- 
sideration. We opine that the foregoing pages have established, upon archaeological prin- 
ciples and adequately for the demands of positive philosophy, — 

1st — by authority of the highest Biblical critics ; 

2d — by exegetical exposure of some of its false-translations ; 

3d — by historical testimony, that all versions in English, (being mere popular accommo- 
dations of defective editions printed in the " Original Sacred tongues,") have only per- 
petuated or increased whatever errors their antecedent editions contain ; 

4th — that because the Latin Vulgate, jir'nted or manuscript, abounds in mistakes; 

5th — that because the Greek Septuagint, if ever a faithful representative of the Hebrew 
original, is so no longer, in any printed editions or manuscript copies now known ; and 
that tradition, well authenticated, proves its vitiated state as far back as the first cen- 
tury of the Christian era ; 

6th — that because the only men, Protestant, Catholic, or Rabbinical, whose decisions 
(owing to their respectively minute collation of every printed edition or manuscript 
exemplar of the Hebrew Text) can be weighty in the premises, have pronounced the 
whole of them to be radically, enormously, and irretrievably corrupt ; — 
in view of all of the above facts, we have a right to conclude that, our English " authorized 
Translation," made 250 years ago under circumstances naturally adverse upon documents 
so faulty, can claim, in science, no higher respect than we should accord to a poor trans- 
lation of mutilated copies of Homer ; and finally, that those individuals who are most cla- 
morous in its praises only bear witness that they possess the least acquaintance with its 
origin and history, however familiar they may be with its contents. 

But, universal orthodoxy, regardless of the collective researches of three centuries, 
insists upon our credence that Moses wrote the Pentateuch ; and still stigmatizes those who 
respectfully solicit some evidences of this alleged authorship (a little more conclusive than 
ecclesiastical tradition) with terms intended to be opprobrious ; of which, perhaps, the most 
courteous form in vogue nowadays is " skeptic." (204) H by this harmless vocable nothing 
more is implied than that a "skeptic" has, by laborious study, attained to the positive 
stage of philosophy, while "orthodoxy" vegetates in a sub-metaphysical stratum, it should 
be cheerfully endured ; if not with Christian fortitude, at least with gentlemanly equa- 
nimity. 

The real question, however, posited in logical shape, is this : — 

The Hebrew Moses wrote the Hebrew Pentateuch. Did the Hebrew Moses write the Hebrew 
Pentateuch ? If the Hebrew Moses wrote the Hebrew Pentateuch, where is the Hebrew Penta- 
teuch the Hebrew Moses wrote ? 

For ourselves, we do not perceive what essential difference it would make, in positive 
philosophy, supposing even that he did: but, inasmuch as we have embarked in an inquiry 

(203) History of Egypt ; p. 490. 

(204) The Rev. Dr. Smythe of Charleston, S. C. : Unity of the Human Races; Index, p. 401. 

79 



626 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 

for the purpose of ascertaining the importance which progressive Ethnology must assign to 
one document ; and this document happens to be the Xth Chapter of a Book called "Genesis," 
(which some vehemently protest is Mosaic, while others as flatly contradict them,) it be- 
hooves us to test certain points of these disputed allegations by archaeological criteria; and, 
authority against authority, the citation of a few may help us in making ready for the 
voyage. 

" And yet no one, I believe, has the pretension to understand perfectly the sense of Ge- 
nesis ; no one denies that the text of this book contains many parables, or Oriental alle- 
gories, of which the most skilful and the wisest of the Fathers of the Church have sought 
in vain for the meaning. — But, thanks to the massoretic points and to the susceptibilities 
of orthodoxy, things have come at the present day to such a pass, that if Moses himself 
arose from the tomb to cause all uncertainty to cease ; if he interpreted his own book lite- 
rally ; if he expounded it as he had conceived it and reflected upon it; Jerusalem, Rome, 
Constantinople, and Geneva, [Great Britain, Germany, France, and the United States,] 
would convoke their Doctors of Divinity from all corners of the world, to prove to him — 
that he knows nothing about the genius of the Hebrew tongue — that his translation ia 
contrary to the grammar and dictionary of Mr. This or Mr. That — that he does not pos- 
sess even common sense — that he is an impious (fellow) whose book they had done per- 
fectly right [_Rome's orders, Xlll-XVIth centuries] to burn ; and that it is wonderful how 
he had not been served so himself in the other world." (205) 



Having now fulfilled my published pledges to the reader, so far as relates to the exhi- 
bition of a few atoms of the vicissitudes through which the XiA Chapter of Genesis has tra- 
velled to reach our day, I am obliged to bring this " Archseological Introduction" to an 
abrupt close at this point. The reasons are these : — 

When my colleague Dr. Nott, at Mobile (in April, 1852), agi'eed with me to erect a 
literary cenotaph " To the memoky of MORTON," it was mutually arranged that, in our 
division of labor, he would undertake the anatomical and physical department, embracing 
those subjects that belong to the Natural Sciences ; while the execution of the archieolo- 
gical and biblical portions was to devolve upon myself. 

No two men have ever worked together in the same harness with more perfect harmony 
of object. In the midst of professional engagements, whose onerous character none but 
the most laborious of the medical faculty can adequately appreciate. Dr. Nott, at the sacri- 
fice of every instant of repose, succeeded in accomplishing, not merely all that appertains 
to his part of our enterprise as set forth in Part I., but also the revision of my studies as 
exhibited in Part II. : each of us, notwithstanding, being wholly responsible for whatever 
naturally falls within the specialities severally assumed, but neither of us being fairly 
amenable for mistakes in other than our own departments as above classified. 

On the other hand — independently of three months, December 1852 to March 1853, 
spent by myself in travelling ; and aside from all supervisions of the press since the 25th 
of August — I devoted nearly twelve months of day and night to the performance of my 
" specialite " of our joint undertaking ; some of the fruits of which have been already sub- 
mitted to the reader's criticism. 

Resolved, in my own mind, to pursue inquiries into biblical questions, once for all, usque 
ad necem, my manuscripts have, I think, completely answered the Aristotelian proposition 
above stated as concerns the Pentateuch. Nevertheless, I postpone their publication : — 

1st. Because they do not directly concern Ethnology, and the main subjects of this work. 

2d. Because the printers assure me that my "copy" could not be condensed, satisfac- 
torily, within 300 more of these pages : thereby rendering it impossible to keep " Types 
of Mankind " within one volume. 

Ample, however, and far more gratifying than a dry archasological disquisition can be to 
the general reader, are the compensations which displace my own performances : and it is 
with unfeigned pleasure that, in order to make room for the papers of our collaborators, I 

(205) L.1C0UK: MtsSia; i. p. 180. 



TO THE Xtu chapter OF GENESIS. 627 

mutilate my own essays in substituting theirs. Perhaps it is for the best ; because the 
nature of this -work may elicit some hostile comments ; and he is the prudent soldier 
who "keeps his powder dry." In consequence, I suppress about 300 of these pages, after 
submitting an outline of the Periods of misfortune which the canonical Hebrew Text has, 
to a great measure, survived, down to Cahen's Bible, a. d. 1831-1849. 

Walton, Kennicott, and De AVette (to say nothing of other sources), the reader perceives 
are tolerably familiar to us. To extract from their works is merely mechanical ; but the 
fear of tedium warns us to be eclectic. In these matters it is our private opinion that, 
if Titans were again to pile Ossa upon Pelion, after rolling upon " Ossa the leafy Olym- 
pus," (206) they would fail to startle, far less convince, those who lie below the metaphy- 
sical stratum of intellectual development ; for, " as Jannes and Jambres withstood Moses, 
so do these men withstand the truth." (207) It will be more interesting to the enlightened 
reader to view a brief historical schedule of the cJumges which eighteen centuries have 
entailed upon the Hebrew Text — condensed principally from Kennicott's results in his 
Zfisserialio Generalis : — 

1st PERIOD, B. c. — "In most ancient times, the Hebrew Text was corrupt;" and the 
codex (say, "fragmentary books") used by the Greek interpreters of the Old Testa- 
ment, at Alexandria, was undoubtedly Hebrew, but a copy not sufficiently emended. 
Even Buxtorf is obliged to admit — " Judaeos a tempore Esdrce negligentiores fuisse 
circa testum Hebrceum, et non curiosos circa lectionem veram." 

The numerals were expi'essed by letters : the five final letters {kaf, mim, nun, pay, 
and isade) had not then been invented : the words were still undivided. 
2d PERIOD, A. D. down to 500. — The texts were more corrupt in the time of Philo and 
Josephus. Neither in their day, nor in that of Origen, third century, were the Com- 
mandmenls {Exod. xx. 3—17) divided into ten, in the manner they are now. In Philo 
the division is quinary, after the fashion of Pythagorssans. About the latter epoch 
commences the Talmudic Mishna ; and, in the fifth century, the Gemara ; each of 
which books proves the increase of textual errors. So do the wi'itings of the Fathers 
during all this age — notably St. Jerome ; while the apostolic books demonstrate that 
the Greek difi"ered, more or less, from the Hebrew original. 
3d PERIOD, A. D. 500 to 1000. — Aside from the later and less reliable Fathers, two Hebra- 
ical works establish, that no expurgations of error had been made in the Text : viz., 
the Rohboth, after a. d. 700, and the Firke Uliezar, after 800. About the sixth century, 
the Rabbis of Tiberias commenced the " Masora" : a labor that would not have been 
undertaken but for the reasons above given, and the wretched condition of the Text 
in their time ; as proved by the multitudes of Keri velo Kethib (the read, but not the 
written) or Kethib velo Keri (the written, but not the read). (208) 
4th PERIOD, A. D. 1000 to 1450. — The Jewish schools of Babylonia seek refuge in Spain 
about 1040 ; between which era and 1240 flourished the four great Rabbis. Their 
works prove not merely different readings, but absolute mistakes in copies of the Text: 
things then existing in manuscripts of the Old Testament now exist no longer, and 
vice versa ; while the " Masora," itself, already in confusion inextricable, only rendered 
matters worse. It is of this age alone that we possess those Hebrew manuscripts by 
us called ancient — not one 900 years old ! 
5th PERIOD, A. D. 1450 to 1750. — Printing invented; the art was first applied to Psalms 
in the year 1477 ; and to the whole Hebrew Text in 1488 ; that entire edition, save 
one-third of a copy, being immediately burnt by Neapolitan Jews. But here, upon 
editions now following each other with rapid succession, the Rabbis begin their restor- 
ations and their lamentations. Continental scholars now set to work upon Hebrew in 
earnest, without professorships: whilst, in England, king James's version is a splendid 

(206) VmoiL: Georg.; i. 281. (208) De -Weite: i. pp. 345, 353-358. 

(207) 2 Tim. iii. S — apud Sdarpe. 



628 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

record of Professors without Hebraism, during the years 1603-'ll. Fifty years later, 
Walton redeems the shame of Oxford; and yet, one hundred years later still, Kennicott 
himself chronicles — ■ " the reader will be pleased to observe, that as the study of the 
Hebrew language has only been reviving during the last one hundred years :" (209) to 
end which sentence logically, we ourselves consider that there could be no " revival " 
where, in 1600, there was scarcely a beginning ; and, ergo, that the Doctor's attesta- 
tion must refer to incipient efforts, in his century commencing, to resuscitate the 
Hebrew tongue after twenty centuries of burial. 
6th and present period, a. d. 1750 to 1853-. 

Taking Eichhorn as the grand point of departure, we find, after the lapse of a century, 
how, through the operations of that "■ rational method" of which he and Richard Simon 
were, among Christians, the first qualified exponents, the Hebraical scholarship of our own 
generation (proud of its hundred champions) has truly kept pace, on the European conti- 
nent, with the universal progress of knowledge. 

Nevertheless, on every side, we still see and hear the crocodile whimper how " nobody 
undertakes a new translation (into English) of Holy Scripture" commensurate with the 
imperious demands of all the sciences at present advancing — news of the onward steps 
made by each being actually transmitted through magnetic telegraphs (210) — and yet, 
withal, few men in America so blind as not to perceive that, even in evangelized England, 
such pecuniary superfluities as those said to have been realized through a "World's 
Exhibition" are expended (God alone knows how or why) upon anything, or everything, 
rather than in behalf of a conscientious revisal of our English BIBLE. 

G. R. G. 



ESSAY II. 

PALiEOGRAPHIC EXCURSUS ON THE ART OF WRITING. 

The same imperious necessity that has constrained us to suppress the continuation of. 
Part III., Essay I. {supra, p. 626), renders it obligatory to curtail our History of the "Art 
of Writing, from the earliest antiquity to the present day." This subject, perhaps the 
most vital in any researches into the antiquity of the Hebrew Pentateuch, has never yet 
publicly received adequate attention from modern scholarship. With ourselves it has been 
a favorite pursuit ever since 1844; (211) nor, did space permit the insertion of what we 
had prepared in manuscript for the present volume, should we not have taken some pride 
in the presentation of a series of facts and arguments that would entirely justify every 
point set forth in the accompanying Tableau [infra, pp. 630, 031]. 

(209) Ist Dissert.; 1753; p. 307. 

(210) Rev. John Bachman, D. D.'s Doctrine of the Vnity of {he Human Race; Charleston, S. C, 1850; p. 288 — 
"And even telegraphing to America, through the convenient wires of Mr. Gliddon, the yet unpublished dis- 
coveries of Lepsius." These discoveries have since heen published, and much John Bachman knows about 
them I Morton's refutations, in the Charleston Medical Journal, 18o0-'51, render it quite unnecessary for me 
to waste more ink upon the extinguished author of the above " Doctrine." — G. R. G. 

(211) Vide Gltodon, in Luke Bukke's Ethnological Journal, No. ix.; London, Feb. lSi9; pp. 400-416: — repub- 
lished in Otia JEgyptiaca ; London, Madden, 1849; pp. 99-115: — and, without text, but with some improve- 
ment of the " Table," in Hand-hook to Oie Panorama of the Nile ; London, Madden, 1849; pp. 41^5; under the 
heading of "Philology." Of this pamphlet, rather more than 3000 copies have been distributed in the United 
States, from Maine to Louisiana, and, accompanied by my oral Lectures, have somewhat familiarized American 
auditors with themes but little known in Europe beyond collegiate precincts. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 629 

As it is, we can merely recommend the reader, after viewing the three distinct geogra- 
phical origins and independent developments of the art of writing, to study well the place 
which palaeography now assigns to the modern square-leV.cr (AS/iURI) Hebrew alphabet of 
" 22 letters ;" while we discuss a few general principles, to be amply corroborated in detail 
on some future occasion. 

DlGRESSIONAL ReMAKKS ON THE ENSUING TaBLE. 

I. — The principle followed (probably for the first time in palseographical disquisition) and 
exhibited through the annexed table, is a consequence of the work which it accompanies. As 
" Types of Mankind " tabulates the various species of the "genus homo " according to their 
several relations to the Flora and the Fauna of their respective centres of creation, the 
harmonious unison of all sciences,(112) when directed to' the elucidation of a given fact, 
cannot be better exemplified than by cleaving into three well-ascertained masses the grand 
enigma of graphical origines. 

We hold, without mental reservations, that history does not justify, archeology permit, 
or ethnology warrant, any, the slightest, intercourse, between Egypt and China prior to the 
days of Cyrus (as an extreme point) ; nor between either of these two primoi-dial nations, 
and the Aborigines of that continent which, pronounced by Agassiz to be the oldest land, 
was unknown (from us trans-atlantically) to inhabitants of the Oriental hemisphere before 
Columbus. Some of the physical reasons are set forth in the present volume : and it is 
pleasing to find that palceography entirely corroborates results deduced from other investi- 
gations. To chivalrous opponents, "blanched under the harness" of scientific pursuits, 
we respectfully throw down our gauntlet upon three propositions : — 

A — Prior to b. c. 500, Egypt had no intercourse with America or China. 

B — " " America had no intercourse with China or Egypt. 

C — " " China had no intercourse with Egypt or America. 

Until some student, qualified through knowledge of the archceological actualities inherent 
in this triad of problemata (knowledge to be evinced by the weight in science of his 
demurrer), overthrows the principle upon which our table is erected, we shall not fear for its 
stability : nay, we oflFer to his use the weapons of our armory, by indicating the shortest 
path to verification of bibliothical accuracy. 

II. — The researches of Gesenius (213) and of Champollion-Figeac(214) have been our 
points of departure in the construction of the Table. We have remodelled them by the 
lights which, in the former case fifteen, in the latter twelve, years of discovery demand ; 
fusing the results of both authoi-ities into one ; and then separating the whole into three 
grand stems ; 1st, HAMITIC, with its Semitish branches— 2d, MONGOLIAN, with its off- 
Bhoots — 3d, AMERICAN, whose slender twigs were cut short, for ever, by Pizakeo and by 

COETEZ. 

1st. The HAMITIC ORIGIN — start with ChampoUion le Jeune,(215) continue with Lep- 
sius,(216) and close with Bunsen,(21") Birch,(218) Burgsch,(219) and De Saulcy.(220) 

The Semitic streams have been followed in the subjoined order. 

Aside from personal verification of the "old travellers" — Pietro deUa Valle, Chardin, 
Corneille le Brun, Kaempfer, Niebuhr, &c. ; and of the later. Rich, Ouseley, Ker Porter, 
Kinnier, Morier, and Slalcolm ; the perusal of De Sacy, Tychsen, Miinter, Grotefend, Saint 

(212) Humboldt: Cosmos; Introduction to /Vencft edition ; 1846; i. pp. 36-48. 

(213) Scrip. Ling. PImn. Hon.; 1837; pp. 62, 63, and Table of Alpliabels, p. 64. 

(214) Paliographie UniverseUe; 1841; i. p. 46 — "Tableau general pour servir i I'histoire de r£crlture." 

(215) Grammairc £gijptienne ; 1836; — Dictionnaire ^ijpiienne ; 1841. 

(216) LMre i Sosellini — Annali dell' Institute di Corrispond. Archeol.; Eoma, 1837 ; vol. ix. 

(217) .Xgyplens Sidle in der Wellgeschichle ; 1845; vol. i. part 2d. 

(218) In Bfjsszs's Egypt's Place ; 1848; i. pp. 448-600; — and in GLrooON: Otia JEgyptiaca ; 1849; pp. 113-115. 

(219) BcROSCn: Sm><«ra yi(7^j)(iV«-«ni demofica ex papyrLs et inscriptionibusexplanata; Berlin, 1848; — and 
Numerorum apiid vfleres jlSgyplirjs demoticorum docirina ; Berlin, 1849. 

(220) De Saclcy: Leltre d il. Guigniavi; Paris, 1843; — and Analyse grammaticdle du Texte DCmotique du 
Dicret de Rosette ; i., premiere partie, 1845. 



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632 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

Martin, Rask, Burnouf, Lassen, and Westergaard ; the possession of the major portion 
of the folio plates and texts of Botta, Flandin and Coste, Layard, Texier, &c. ; a d the 
inspection of -what of Assyrian sculptures were in London and Paris during 1849 : (221) 
— our views upon Assyro-Babylonian writings take their departure and are derived from 
the series at foot, appended in the order of our studies. (222) 

Egyptian hieroglyphical discoveries had long ago revealed the fact that, as early at least 
as Thotmes III , of the XVIIIth dynasty, about the sixteenth century b. c, the Pha- 
raohs had overrun "Naharina," or Mesopotamia, with their armies. Accepted, like all 
new truths, with hesitation, since Eosellini's promulgation of the data in 1832 ; or at first 
entirely denied by cuneatic discoverers, who claimed a primeval epoch for the sculptures 
of Nineveh and Babylon ; nothing at this day is more positively fixed in historical science 
than these Egyptian conquests over " Nineveh" and "Babel," at least three centuries before 
Derceto (the earliest monarch recorded in cuneiform inscriptions) lived ; assuming Layard's 
last view to be correct, (223) that he flourished about b. c. 1250. At foot we present the 
order in which an inquirer may investigate the discoveries that have finally set these ques- 
tions atrest ; (224) while the following extracts from Rawlinson will render further doubts 
irrelevant : — 

" That the employment of the Cuneiform character originated in Assyria, while the sys- 
tem of writing to which it was adapted was borrowed from Egypt, will hardly admit of ques- 
tion : . . . the whole structure of the Assyrian graphic system evidently betrays an Egyp- 
tian origin. . . . The whole system, indeed, of homophones is essentially Egyptian." (225) 

It is upon such data that, without adducing other reasons derived from personal studies, 
we have made the earliest Semitic stream of our Table flow outwards from Egypt into 
ancient Mesopotamia — assigning the period of its Eastward flux, according to well-known 
conditions in Egyptian history, as bounded by the Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties : that 
is, between the twenty-second and sixteenth century b. c. ; — which age, placed parallel 
with Archbishop Usher's scheme of biblical chronology, implies from a little before Abraham 
down to the birth of Moses. No Egyptologist will contest this view : the opinions of those 
who deny, without acquaintance with the works submitted, are " vox et prseterea nihil." 

(221) Three Archaeological Lectures, on " Babylon, Nineveh, and Persepolis," delivered before the Lyceum of 
the 2d Municipality at New Orleans; 6th, 9th, 13th April, 1852; by G. R. G. 

(222) BoTTA : Leitres d M. Mold ; Paris, 1845 ; — De LoNGpiRiEE, and De Saulct, in Sefo. Arclieol. ; 1844-1852 ; — 
LowENSTERN ; Essoi de Dichiffrement de v£criture Assyrienne ; Paris, 1845 ; — Botta : Sur v£c)-iture Cuniiforme ; 
1849; — Ka^xinson; Tablet of Behistun ; 1846; — and Commentary on Cuneiform Inscriptions ; 1850; — Hincks: 
On the Three kinds of Persepolitan Writing ; Trans. R. Irish Acad., 1847 ; — Norris : Memoir on the ScytJdc Version 
of the Behistun Inscription; and RA'nxiNSON's communications; in Jour. R. Asiat. Soc, 1853; xv. part 1. Many 
other works upon this speciality, no less than upon the writings of every historical nation of antiquity, are 
cited in the manuscripts we suppress for lack of space. But, by anticipation of their future appearance, it 
would be injustice to an author " qui a puise h, des bonnes sources," not to recommend earnestly to the sincere 
inquirer after truth, a perusal of the first and only work in the English language which has grasped this vast 
subject in a manner commensurate with the progress of science. It arrived at the Philadelphia Library, and 
was kindly pointed out to us by our accomplished friend Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, after our own " Table " was already 
stereotyped. We have read it with admiration ; and although upon three points, the hieroglyphical, the cuneiform, 
and especially the Hebrew, we might suggest a few critical — that is to say, more rigidly chronological — sub- 
stitutions ; yet, upon the whole performance we are happy to offer the warm commendations of a fellow-student. 
The reader will find it, in the meanwhile, an excellent adjunct to our "Table"; and the following extracts, 
with an interlineary commentary, suffice to indicate that Mr. Humphrey's views and our own differ upon but 
a single point : — " The world has now possessed a purely alphabetic system of writing for 3000 years or more 
[say rather, about 300 years less], and iconographie systems for more than 3000 years longer [say, considerably 

more] There can be little doubt that the art of writing grew up independently in many countries having 

no communication with each other [entirely agreed]" : (vide Uenry Noel Humphreys: The Origin and Ftogress 
of Oie Art of Writing; London, 1853; pp. 1, 3 

(223) Babylm; 2d Ex.; 1853; p. 623. 

(224) Letronne: La Cimlisation £gyptienne ; pp. 1-55; Extrait de la Revue des Deux Mondes; Feb., April, 
1845 ; — Birch ; Statistical Tablet of Karnac ; — Obelisk of Thotmes III. ; and on Two Cartouclies found at iVi'm- 
Toud; Trans. R. Soc. Lit., 1846-'48; — Gliddon: Olia; p. 103;— Latard: Nineveh; 1848; ii. pp. 153-235; — 

Shaepe, ixx. Boncmi's Nineveh; -p^. ;— Latard: Babylon; 1853; pp. 153-159, 186-196, 280-282, 630; — 

and, particularly, Birch : Annals of Thotmes III. ; London Archmologia, xxxv., 1853 ; p. 160, &c. 

(225) Commentary; 1850; pp. 4-6. 



OF THE ART OF WRITING. 633 

Scholars, guided by the books cited for justificatory details, wUl find little to alter in the 
general features of these several alphabetical streams as their respective monumental rocks 
first pierce through the mists of traditionary history : except in one direction ; viz. : 
where we have made a Semitic rivulet (probably through Chaldtean channels) commingle 
•with " Arian elements" in Hindostan. " Indology " will protest against pi'ofaning the 
sanctified soil of Indra and Brahma with the mere " tail-race " of a Semitic pond, originally 
filled by the Nile ! Shades of Wilford, Faber, Hales, and spirit of Edgar Quinet ! In Ger- 
many, appeal will at once be made to Von Bohlen ! In Wales, to Arthur James Johnes, 
Esq. ! (226) Does not every body know, it will be said, that primordial civilization (unce- 
remoniously kicked out of Ethiopic Meroe by Lepsius,) first dawned upon the Ganges? that 
Memphis, (if not also Palenque, and Copan,) received her holiest Penates at the hands of 
Siva, Vishnu, Bhairava, Crishna, or any other Indian Deity a pundit may invent ? (227) 

With all deference, after the first horrors excited by our outrage shall have calmed 
down into philosophical contempt, we beg to oflTer a quotation : — 

" The people of Hindostan and the ancient nations of Europe came in contact at a single 
point. The expedition of Alexander the Great begins, and in some sort ends, their con- 
nexion. Even of this event, so recent and remai-kable, the Hindus have no record ; they 
have not even a tradition that can with certainty be traced to it." (228) 

Our author, who stands out in bold relief among the Sanscrit scholars of England, won- 
ders at the credulity of those who reject Chaldeean and Egyptian antiquity to worship Hin- 
dostanic; administering stern rebukes to writers who trust in the " absurdity of .ffinrfu state- 
ments," — a people utterly " destitute of historical records." 

The same historian, in Notes on the Mudra Rdkshana, says : — 

" It may not here be out of place to offer a few observations on the identification of 
Chandragupta and Sandracottus. It is the only point on which we can rest with anything like 
confidence in the history of the Hindus, and is therefore of vital importance in all our attempts 
to reduce the reigns of their kings to a rational and consistent chronology." 

Tumour, (229) sums up his review of Hindoo literature with saying, — 

" That there does not now exist an authentic, connected, and chronologically-correct Hin- 
doo history; and that the absence of that history proceeds, not from original deficiency of 
historical data, but from the systematic perversion of those data adopted to work out the 
monstrous scheme upon which Hindoo faith is based." 

The preceding extracts, we hope, may serve to break the fall of huge Indianist edifices 
from the highest peak of the Himalaya to a level but little expected by general readers. 
That we are not altogether freshmen in these Hindoo demolitions may be inferred from a 
passage, printed five years ago, which we now take the liberty of repeating, with its Italian 

preface : — 

" Cadono le citti, cadono i regni, 
E I'uom d'esser mortal par che si sdegni! " (230) 

"That the peninsula of ' Hindostan, thronged with varied populations, possessed great 
Empires and a high state of culture, in ages parallel with the earliest monuments of Egypt 
and China, upon whose civilizations India exerted, and from which she experienced influ- 
ences, in the flux and reflux of Humanity's progressive development, no one, nisi imperitus, 

(226) PhUoloffical Proofs of the Original Unity and Recent Origin of (lie Human Race; London, 1846; pp. 131- 
133. For "Celto-mania," this work out-Herods Betham's! We can only observe with Champollion {L'6gypti 
sous les Pharaons, 1814), of a phiMogist who derived the Greek name of Egypt from the Gadic dialects of Lower 
Brittany — " Certainly, even admitting that the Greeks spoke Bas-briton, there is some distance from Aiguptos 
to £cou-i-vel." 

(227) Pmcbard : Egyptian Mythology ; 1819 ; p. 35, sej. ; — Heeren : Bist. Res., Indian Nations, 

(228) Wilson: History of British India; 1840; "Chronology and History of the Hindus;" i., book 2, ch. 1, 
pp. 163-169. 

(229) Author of the "Buddhist Pali Historical Annals of Ceylon," called Mahawanso, "Koyal Chronicles"; 
compiled from earlier sources in A. d. 302 : if not later. 

(230) Met.istasio: paraphrase of X Sulpicius's Letter to Cicero; epist. v. lib. 4. The second line has been 
latterly rhymed — "E uel cader un c*****n par che si sdegni." The English is — "Cities fall, kingdoms fall j 
and (yet) man seems to scorn that he is mortal 1 " 

' 80 



634 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

will deny: but the hallucinations about early Brahmanical science in Astronomy, when 
their Zodiacs are Greek, their Eclipses calculated bachtvards, and their fabulous chronology 
is built upon Chaldean roagianism, leave the historical antiquity of India prostrate beneath 
the axe of the s/io?-<-chronologist. ' Un astronomo puo, se vuole, far le tavole dell'ecclissi 
che avranno luogo di qui a cento-mila anni, se il mondo esistera; e puo ugualmente deter- 
minare lo stato, nel quale sarebbesi trovato il cielo centomil'anni fa, se il mondo esisteva : ' 
(Testa, ' Dissertazione sopra due Zodiaci,' &c. ; Roma, 1803, p. 23.) The Hindoos, in con- 
cocting their primeval chronology, merely added a navght to Babylonish cyclic reckon- 
ings ;— 4,320,000 years, instead of 432,000! (De Brotonne, 'Filiations des Peuples,' 1837; 
vol. i., pages 234 to 251, and 414.) See ample confirmations of the above view in the 
critical work of Wilson (' Ariana Antiqua,' 1841 ; pages 17, 21, 24, 419; 44, 45; and par- 
ticularly page 439, wherein it is shown, that numismatic studies cease to throw light on 
Indian antiquities about the middle of the third century B.C."). 

"When, therefore, the contenders for the ante-diluvian remoteness of the forty-eight- 
lettered Sanscrit Alphabet can produce any sione, or other record older than the ' column 
of Allahabad in honor of Tchandba-Goupta, Sandracoitus,' cotemporary with Seleucus 
NiCATOK, B. c. 315, it will be time enough for Hierologists, Sinologists, Hellenists and He- 
braists, to take into account the pseudo-antiquity of Sanscrit Alphabetical literature." (231) 

Our profession of faith in these matters, identical with the doctrines we hold at this day, 
shocked some literary prejudices. Nevertheless, it was based upon tolerably extensive 
perusal of works oh Hindoo antiquities; and it is supported by the cuts and thrusts of a 
swordsman, whose trenchant blade, notched on the battle-fields of Hindostan, still preserves 
its keenness amid the bloodless strifes of archseological polemics — Lieut. Col. Sykes. (232) 

From his matchless overthrow of European superstitions, in regard to Indian antiquity, 
we have already extracted two paragraphs containing the decisions of Wilson and Tur- 
nour. W^ now condense his own applications of cold steel to some of the vitalities of Hin- 
dostanic pretension. 

There exists but one Sanscrit composition that can be called "history; " viz. the Maj'a 
Taritigini, compiled a. d. 1148. It contains anachronisms of 796, and of 1048 years ! Prior 
to the fifth century after C, "inscriptions in pure Sanscrit are entirely wanting" — the 
earliest Sanscrit inscription ascends to the fourth century, but it is impure in language and 
not orthographic. Between the tenth and seventeenth centuries of our era, Sanscrit 
inscriptions "roll in thousands!" The very Sanscrit language, in the polished form in 
which its literature reaches us, can no more be found monumentally in India, before the 
fifth century after C, than the English of Byron could appear in the days of Gower or 
Chaucer. In consequence, those Germanic writers who, in their assimilations (which are 
positive enough) of Greek, Latin, German, or other Indo-European idiom, forget that 
Sanscrit has undergone even greater transmutations than our Saxon vernacular has since 
the reign of Alfred, often commit philological oversights of sublime magnitude ! 

"Why are there not," asks Sykes, "the same tangible and irrefragable proofs extant of 
the Sanscrit as of the Pali language : the more particularly so as Brahmanism and Sanscrit 
have hitherto been believed to emanate from the fabled ages ? " 

Commencing his deep researches with the more recent Sanscrit inscriptions, and tracing 
them backwards as far as they recede, Prinsep (233) resolved the modern forty-eight Deva- 
Nagari characters absolutely into the primitive letters of the old inscriptions written in the 
" Lat" character and Pali language — the rencontre of graphical forms that approximated 
to the ancient Pali type increasing exactly in the ratio of the antiquity of each Sanscrit 
inscription. Of these last, the most ancient known dates A. d. 309; being just 624 years 
posterior to the oldest Pali inscription discovered throughout the Hindostanic peninsula ! 

Now, this oldest Pali inscription is found on the " column of Allahabad," whereupon it 

(231) Oiia JEg. ; p. 110, and note. 

(232) " Notes on the Religious, Moral, and Political State of Ancient India before the Mohammedan Invasion" 
—Jour. R. Asiatic Soc; London, 1841; vol. vi. pp. 248-484. 

(233) Jmirnal Asiatic Soc. of Bengal; 1834-'41. Conf. Jour. S. Asiatic Soc, 1853; xv. part i. p. xxv; for 
"Nassik Inscriptions," the date of the cave being only A. n. 3381 Also, concerning Arian superpositions upon 
a dark autocthonous population of Hindostan, Gen. Beiggs's Lecture "On the Aboriginal Race of India;" 
reported in London Literary Gazette, July 17, 1852. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 635 

■was chiselled in the reign of Tchandra-Gupta, who is the Sandracollus of Greek history, 
coetaneous with Seleucus Nicator in the year b. c. 315. All India affords nothing, written 
alphabetically, more ancient ; and this age is 220 years later than the alphabetic cuneiform 
of Persepolis ; or above 300 years after the Greeks had already adopted the Aleph (alpha), 
Beth (beta), Gi'meZ, (gamma), Daleth (delta), of the anterior Phcenician alphabet! The 
identification of " Sandracottus " is moreover proved by the next early inscriptions known 
in the Pall tongue ; viz. : two edicts of Pisadasi-^so/iH, a king of India in the year b. c. 
247 ; who refers to his contemporary Antiochus the Great ; just 62 years after the oldest 
inscription, whose epoch stands parallel with Seleucus. Thus, palaeographically, the an- 
tiquity of India has fallen, never to rise again: and, inasmuch as the Brahmans certainly 
stole their Zodiac from the post-Macedonian Greeks ; and probably some Levitical ceremo- 
nials of Manou from .Jewish exiles ; there is no reason whatever, yet published, against our 
theory, that alphabetic writing also reached Hindostan, through Arian channels, from those 
Semitic streams the source of which is now irrevocably traced back to Hamitic origines in 
Egypt. 

" All those ancient systems of Persic writing with which we are acquainted, although 
applied to Arian dialects, are obviously formed on a Semitic model. I may notice, in chro- 
nological succession, the writing on the Cilician Davics ; the Arianian alph.abet (of which 
the earliest certain specimen is the transcript of the Edicts of Asoka), with its derivatives, 
the numismatic Bactrian, and the character of the Buddhist topes ; the Zend ; the Par- 
thian ; exhibiting in the inscriptions of Persia at least three varieties ; and the Pehlevi, 
lapidary, numismatic and cursive. These several branches of Pateography are all more 
or less connected. (234) 

Thus much to justify our table. But, " Titius or Sempronius" exclaims, have we not 
the Sanscrit Vedas, the Epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, the "Laws of Manou," and the 
Puranas? Did not Sir William Jones fix the age of the Vedas in the fifteenth century b. c; 
that of the "Institutes of Menu" in the twelfth ? (235) Were not similar opinions held 
by Colebrooke and Schlegel ; and are they not supported by great Indianists of our own 
time ? Conceded, gentlemen. Knowing nothing of Sanscrit ourselves, we are as little able to 
speak decisively as those litterateurs who will be most startled at our audacities. Linguisti- 
cally, there are not twenty-five men in the world whose judgment, matured by comparative 
archaeology, is really authoritative in this discussion. In the meanwhile, polceographical 
facts speak intelligibly to all educated minds. We might add that Professor Wilson thinks 
the Vedas may, in part, ascend almost to the sixth century b. c. : but Sykes's sabre is not 
wanting in our defence ; so let us continue. 

In the first place, it is historical, that the Brahmans, in their efforts to destroy Buddhism, 
dealt, by the ancient texts of Hindoo treatises on religion or traditions, precisely as the 
Inquisition did with Hebrew Scriptures that existed before the tenth century of our era — 
i. e., destroyed them. In the second, two Chinese travellers in India — Fa-hian, in the fourth 
century, and Hiuan-thsang, in the seventh after Christ — have (unfortunately for Brahma- 
nical respectability) chronicled how, in this interval of three hundred years, the disciples 
of Brahma had expanded, from an incipient bud, into that detestable flower in which Sanscrit 
literature portrays them — ever noxious as Upas blossoms.(23G) Their accounts are confirmed 
by the Chinese encyclopsedist, Ma-touan-lin ; (237) who registers that, bout 502 a. d., the 
Brahmans were but a small sept among the Buddhists — "first among the tribes ot bar- 
barians." It m.ay also be mentioned that, in the time of Buddha, sixth century b. c, the 
Hindoo population was classed already into those four grand divisions which attest, as 

(234) Rawlinsos: Behistun; part i. pp. 43-44. 

(235) We have recently re-read most of Sir W. Jones's Papers with increased reverence: for his immense 
erudition qualifies all dogmatic opinions attributed to him with "ifs" of his own. Before us lie Pauthiee's 
Livres Sacrts de VOrient; 1S43: also MuNK: JicJIexions siir le Ctdtt des Anciens HChreux; 1S33; wherein the fifth 
book of Maxoc is compared with Leviticus ; — and other Sanscrit commentators " quos recensefe supervac.ineum 
esset." We have read Bukxouf: Boudhisme, and Ta(na; and nothing therein opposes, while much justifies, 
our view. 

(236) Kemcsat ; Sfclamjts Jsiatiques, 

(237) Pauthiee: Chine; p. 381. 



636 PAL^OGKAPHIC EXCURSUS 

Pauthier well remarks, (238) " the diversity of races conquering and vanquished at a very 
early epoch ;" viz : Brahmans, priests ; Kchatriyas, soldiers ; Vaisyas, tradesmen ; and 
Soudras, serviles : (239) but the Chinese Fa-hian shows how, even in the fourth century 
after C, these divisions were merely civil, and not yet religious ordinances. In short, it is 
now certain that the " cas<e-system,"(240) which (it is likewise thoroughly established) was 
never known in Egypt, had not been invented in Hindostan until Brahmanical superstitions 
obtained predominance long after the Christian era. So again with respect to most of those 
prohibitions of animal sustenance, and other "unclean things," which some have supposed 
that Moses learned from primeval gymnosophists. Forbidden, for practical hygienic 
motives, among Pharaonic priests, Pythagorsean philosophers, and among Israelitish no less 
than Mohammedan Arabians, porh was equally proscribed by Manou : (241) " The regenerate 
man who knowingly may have eaten mushroom, domestic hog, garlic, wild-cock, onion, or 
leek, shall be degraded." Now, as Sykes inquires, if the laws of Manou had been in exis- 
tence prior to the Christian era, how came it that Buddha died of dysentery from eating 
pork, and that hog's flesh should have been the aliment of early Brahmanical ascetics ? 

When enthusiastic Indologists shall have explained away the above palseographical and 
historical objections, they will be at leisure to defend the alleged antiquity of the Sanscrit 
books themselves. Here is a little thing calculated, as Lanci writes, to "scaponire i gratta- 
capi." (242) 

The "Puranas" claim for Uama a date something like 867,102 years before their compi- 
lation. Bentley fixed the poem Ramayana, by its intrinsic evidences, at a. d. 291 : and 
Wilson, together with the best Sanscrit critics, determines the age of the earliest "Puranas" 
between the eighth and ninth century after Christ. Such being the facts, Sykes educes 
as follows. 

Sir W. Jones (Preface to the Institutes of Menu), assumed " that the Vedas must there- 
fore have been written three hundred years before the Institutes of Menu, and these Insti- 
tutes three hundred years before the Puranas." Then, Sykes's deadly sword gives point — 
as Wilson has proved, from internal evidence, that the " Puranas were written or compiled 
lijtween the eighth and fourteenth centuries of the Christian era, it follows, according to 
Sir W. Jones's hypothesis, that the Institutes of Menu date from the fifth century {Annis D), 
and the Vedas from the second century." Monumental calligraphy supports this view; while 
the Vishnu Purana (dated by Wilson at a. d. 954) brings the polished Sanscrit language 
down as late as the tenth century. Analogy also, in adjacent countries, points to the same 
solution as to how Lamaism and Romanism present such striking identities. It is said by 
Father Georgi that " Writing, laws and religion were introduced into Thibet about the 
year 65 after Christ."(248) Thus, we learn that Thibetan pretensions, which have more 
affinity with those of Hindostan than of China, lend no support to Hindoo antiquity. 

The geographical names in Hindoo literature wofully invalidate the antiquity of some 
books : because, if the mention of " Yavanas " {lonians, lUNJm in Hebrew and in Assyrian 
cuneiform, Yoon&n in Arabic, and YUNIN in old Egyptian), does not positively prove a 
write; posterior to Alexandek, b. c. 330; that of "Tchinas" (inasmuch as the Celestial 
Empire was not called Thsin, China, before the year 250 b. c), at once knocks down a 
book to times after that era. (244) So again, as Indo-Scythians did not penetrate into India 
before b. c. 125, allusion to the SaJcas must proceed from an author who lived subse- 
quently. Now, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata both speak of " Yavanas, Tchinas, and 
Sakas;" and ergo, the latter cannot well be older (aside from other reasons) than the 

(238) Lois de Manou; Introd.: p. 22. 

(239) Id. ; book i., sloka 31. 

(240) GUDDON : Otia : p. 90. 

(241) Book V. 19 : — The reason why neither Judaism nor IslJimlsm ever made progress in China is owing to 
its inhahitants' fondness for Mtttepigs. The same tastes render either religion utterly impossible at CineinnaXi. 

(242) " Eemme the obstinacy of head-scratchers." 

(243) Alphabdum Tibdanum; apud De Brotonne : Filiations; i. p. 445. 

(244) The fleets of IIoang-ti first visited the ports of Bengal about the year 280 B. 0. {Chine, p. 2). 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 637 

Bcconj century after Christ, nor the former earlier than the fifth ; in no case can either 
antedate b. c. 250. But, -wildly shriek our Brahmanists — the grottos of Ellora, ElepJiania, 
Adjunta, &c.? Alas, gentlemen — Sykes says, not one antedates the ninth century after 
Christ ! Even Prichard, following Prinsep, does not consider these caves earlier than 
" a century or two prior to the Christian era, when Buddhism flourished in the height of 
its glory from Kashmir to Ceylon." (245) 

We delude ourselves, probably, with the belief that our opponents in biblical studies will 
concede that, in our hands, the knife of criticism is double-edged ; and that we apply it 
equally to the notions of Hindoo as well as of Judsean commentators. In the last century 
it was the fashion to exalt Sanscrit literature at the expense of Jewish ; greatly to the dis- 
comfort of orthodoxy. The latter may now console itself with the assurance, that its Ilin- 
dostanic apprehensions were puerile — for, beneath the most ruthless scalpel, a "Book of 
the Law of Moses " stands erect with vitality, in the sixth century b. c. ; that is, 200 years 
before the oldest Fall document of India was inscribed by Chandraoupta. 

With the judicious reflections of another Sanscrit authority we take leave of Hindostan ; 
merely mentioning that our own analysis of Xth Genesis has entirely confirmed the 
doctrine broached by the learned Col. Vans Kennedy. (246) 

"Although I do not derive all the nations of the earth from Shem, Ham, and Japhet, I 
still think that Babylonia [we read, Aeiana] was the original seat of the Sanscrit language 
and of Sanscrit literature. . . . But this error [i. e. the contrary hypothesis] necessarily 
proceeds from the assumption, that the first eleven chapters of Genesis give an authentic 
account of the creation and of the earlier ages of the world ; which renders it necessary 
to insult common sense, and to disregard the plainest principles of evidence and reasoning, 
in order to prove that all the races of mankind and all systems of polytheism were derived 
from one and the same origin." 

Those who have leaned upon Faber's broken reed would do well to peruse our author's 
Appendix — "Remarks on the Papers of Lieut. Col. Wilford contained in the Asiatic Re- 
searches." To others it may be satisfactory to know, that the earliest Greek mention of 
India (Sind) occurs in .^schylus, B. c. 525-456 : while, about the same times (if Ezra com- 
piled the "Book of Genesis," as patristic authority sustained), tradition — which, in 
our version (Gen. iv. 16), sends Cain into "the land of Nod, on the east of Eden" — pro- 
bably consecrated some legendary rumor that the forlorn outcast had escaped to the Hin- 
dus — " AjNUD, towards the East of Eden," itself located iu Mesopotamia; which Indian 
people are still called HINooD, by the Arabs. (247) India became known to Jews and 
Greeks after the former had been captive in Babylonia, and after the Persian invasions 
had given new ideas upon Asiatic geography to the latter. 

Intending to publish other justifications of the correct- -pio, 360 

ness of our Tableau [supra, pp. 630, 631] on some future 
occasion, we suspend further discussion of the " Semitic 
streams," and merely submit specimens of that character 
upon which we have bestowed the name of " Assyro-Phoeni- 
cian." If, as Dr. Layard states, some of these relics were 

positively found in the "chamber of records" opened by him at Kouyun- Fig. 361. 
jik, (248) and if, as he declares, they are really of the time of Sennacherib, 
B. c. 703 to 690, the reader beholds the very earliest known samples of 
purely-alphabetic writing hitherto discovered. They will become the more 
precious to his eyes, inasmuch as (in the contingency that Dr. Layard is 
certain that Fig. 360 belongs to Sennacherib's reign) here is the closest ap- 
proximation to that (unknown) character in which the oldest Hebrew books 
of the Bible were originally written : which fact we shall demonstrate elsewhere. 

(245) Researches; 1844; iv. pp. 120, 121. 

(246) Besearclies into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology; 1831; pp. 368, 369; also 
pp. 406-422. 

(247) Mcxk: Palestine; p. 429. 

(248) Babylon; 2cl ExpeJ., 1843; pp. 346. 591, COl, 606. 





638 



PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 



Fig. 362. 




fear of misapprehensions, let us also note that the ahove 
ancient characters are entirely distinct in age from those on the 
modern and rabbinical "Bowls "(249) from Babylonia -which 
Mr. Ellis's remarks might lead others than archaeologists to 
invest with the halo of antiquity. They cannot attain even to 
the third century after C. ; and, indeed, may descend to days 
after the Mohammedan conquests. Until we can resume the 
subject, the reader will find a place assigned to them in our 
Table under the heading of " Hebrew Babylonish." 



2d. MONGOLIAN ORIGIN. — We give this designation to a system of writings distinct 
organically, chronologically, linguistically, geographically, palceographically, ethnologically 
— in short, aboriginally — from any affinity with Semitic streams, or with the latter's com- 
mon Hamitic source. To comprehend us, the reader need but open the works of Pau- 
thier;(250) without perplexing himself with other definitions, until he finds the former 
inconsistent with science, history, reason, and probability. 

It is, however, from his Sinico-JEgyptiaca that the principles and examples of our author's 
critical results must be gathered; and, having advocated them on a former occasion, (2.51) 
we return to them with pleasure increased by subsequent verifications of their accuracy. 

Pauthier's Three Ages of Writings. 

"1st Age. — The figured representation of objects and ideas; otherwise \h& pictorial age. 

" Of this age we possess nothing that can be safely referred to primeval antiquity. All 
barbarous nations, like the tribes of North America, still strive to perpetuate their simple 
traditions by pictures. 

" To this age, with a probable infusion of the symbolical element (although, as yet, 
whether of their lost languages,' undeciphered wi-itings, or chronology, it may be said that 
we literally know nothing), may perhaps be referred the pictures and so-called hieroglyphs 
of the ante-Columbian monuments of Mexico, Central America, and Peru. 

" 2d Age. — The altered and conventional representation of objects ; otherwise the transition- 

period ; when the pictorial signs pass into the symbolical, and thence gradually into the 

syWab'iao-phonetic. 

" To this age belong the ideographic writings of the Chinese secondary period, classified 
as follows: (252) 1st. — High Antiquity; b. c. 2637 to 3369 — according to the Chinese 
annalists, the KOU-WEN, or antique writing. 2d. — Medium ANTiQiriTY ; b. c. 820 — the 
TA-TCHOUAN, or altered image of objects. 3d. — Low Antiquity; b. c. 227 — the SIAO- 
TCHOUAN, or image still more altered of objects. 4th. — Modern Times ; b. c. 200 to a. d. 
1123, and still in use — four kinds of current writing and typography. 

" The above are formed upon principles presenting some few analogies, but in the main 
remarkable differences, when compared with the Egyptian ^Aorae^jc system. (253) Under the 
same age may be classed the hieroghjphical and hieratic system of Egypt, the latter being a 
tachygraphy or short-hand of tlie former. 

" Albeit that we have but very vague data in this respect, it is exceedingly probable that 
all writings began by being figurative and syllabic before they became purely alphabetical. 
Many alphabets', such as the Sanscrit alphabet, the Ethiopia alphabet, the Persepolifan 
(without speaking of the Japanese and Corcean alphabets), are still almost completely 
syllabic, and bear evident traces of a, figurative origin. (254) 

" 3d Age. — The ^p'O-relj-phonetic expression of the articulations of the human voice : other- 
wise the strictly alphabetical age ; to which belong all writings which represent no more 
than the vocal elements of human articulations, reduced to their simplest expression ; 
i. e., A, B, C, D, &c. 

(249) Op. cit.; pp. 509-526; figs. 1, 3, 5, 6. 

(250) 1st. Sinico-JEgyptiaca — Essai sur I'Origine ct la Formation Similaire des Ecrituves Figuratives Chinmse 
et iSgyptienne ; Paris, 1S42. 2(1. Si/stemes d'£critures Orientates et Occidentales ; 1S38. 3d. Chine Ancienne, d'aprfes 
leg documents Cliinois; 1S37. 4tb. Civilisation Chinoise — containing the Chinese Books, Chou-Kixg, Y-Kino, 
Ta-eio, Tchoung-Youno, LnN-TU, and Meng-tseu; 1S43. 

(261) Otia; pp. 100-102. 

(252) Pacthiek: Sinico-Jigyp. ; p. 24. 

(263) Op. cit.: pp. 98 to 110. 

(254) Op. cit.: p. 34; and on each alphahet, consult his "Orig. des Alphahets," passim. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 639 

" To this belong the Enchorial, Demotic, or Episiolograpliic characters of Egypt, detached 
from occasional figurative and symbolical signs." 

Nothing to the student of Pauthier's work can be more clear than that the primeval type 
of Mongol man, whose centre of creation lies along the banks of the Hoang-lio, and that 
other (organically distinct) Hamitic type whose centre is the Nile, after each one in its own 
region had passed through all preliminary phases of its individual development, reached, 
at an age on either side equally beyond iraditions, the power of recording things hy pictures; 
just as the American Indian around us, spurning every inducement to profit by our graphi- 
cal art, still traces on the bark of trees, on rocks, on buffalo-robes, those rude designs 
■whereby he hopes to annihilate space and time in the transmission of his thoughts. 

If it be granted that an Egyptian, or a Chinese, could singly arrive at the discovery of 
this the humblest stage of letters for himself, why refuse the same cajjacities to the other? 
One nation of the two, at least, must have discovered this pictorial art for itself, most cer- 
tainly : how then attribute tuition of another world of man to either, when the graphical 
systems of both are radically different? 

Nearly a century ago, after applying vigorous strictures to the theories of Needham and 
De Guignes (we might add Kircher, De Pauw, Paravey, Wiseman, indeed orthodoxy gene- 
rally), who claimed that either China taught Egypt, or Egypt China, Bishop Warburton 
thus emphatically placed the question in its only philosophical light : — 

" To conclude, the learned world abounds with discoveries of this kind. They have all 
one common original; the old inveterate error; that a similitude of customs and manners, 
amongst the various tribes of mankind the most remote from one another, must needs arise 
from some communication. Whereas human nature, without any help, will, in the same 
circumstances, always exhibit the same appearances." (255) 

How, it may be asked, do we know that the pictorial was the first, or rather the anterior, 
age of writing in Egypt, or in China ? Aside from all arguments of analogy that pictures 
are the rudimental writings of semi-barbarism at this day — already a vast step higher than 
the savage Bosjesman, Papuan, or Patagonian, has ever attained — it is proved, in Egyptian 
hieroglyphics of the most ancient and pure style, (256) by their being, as far as perfection 
of sculpture and vivid coloring can make each thing, the exact representatives of natural 
and artificial objects, every one indigenous in nature to the valley of the Nile: and utterly 
foreign elsewhere. In China, the pictorial epoch is reached by tracing backwards each 
mutation of characters, age by age, to the primitive Kou-wen ; which is a tachygraph, or 
abridgement, of natural or artificial productions, all autocthonous to the region of the 
Hoang-ko. 

Of course, copies however rude of the same things must present certain identities, 
■whether delineated in China, Egypt, or America; but just as a parent instinctively detects 
which of his children has scrawled a given form ; or that a man betrays to others his indi- 
■viduality by his handwriting ; so archaeological practice enables an observer to point out 
the distinctive peculiarities of a given people's designs. The latter, moreover, tell whence 
they came by the very subjects figured. Thus, if, in a series of characters called '■'■Egyptian 
of the IVth Memphite dynasty," a camel, a horse, a coclt, were designed, the presence of 
either of these animals would prove the document to be a forgery; because camels, horses, 
and cocks, were unknown in the valley of the Nile for a thousand and more years later. 
In China, cocks and horses (257) were indigenous, like the silkworm, from the commence- 
ment of creation in this geological period; but, in her primitive pictures, there are no Egyp- 
tian ibises, nor papyrus-'^X^-at^. No rattlesnakes, magnolias, or bisons, can be discovered in 

(255) The Di-aine Legation of Moses demonstrated; 1766; 5th ed.; iii. p. 99. 

(250) Lepsius: Venlcmukr; for illustrations. 

(257) There seems to be Fome doubt about the horse in China proper at an early period, because, about b. c. 
900, this animal was imported from Tartary (Chine, p. 100). Nevertheless, Po-Hi is said to have taught his 
people to raise the six domestic animals — horse, ox, fowl, pir/, dog, and sheep : and under the three mythical 
"Hoaugs," his antecedents, there was a period of time called the horse (Pautqier: Temps AnlCrieurs au C/iou- 
king; Liv. Sac; pp. 20, 33). ■VTe cite the pictorial horse merely by -way of popular illustration. 



640 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

the pictures of China, or of Egypt, hecause these things are indigenous to the American 
coatinent — until Columbus, segregated from the entire Old World : neither ■will the 
Grecian acanthus, the African lion, or the Asiatic elephant, appear in the sculptures of 
Yucatan or Guatemala ; simply because, to American man, these objects were unknown. 
Each centre of creation furnished to the human being created for it the models of his inci- 
pient designs. It was materially impossible for him, without intercourse viitii other centres, 
to be acquainted with things alien to the horizon of his nativity. An ornithoryncus, or a 
kangaroo, if found in a picture, would establish — 1st, that such picture could not be Egyp- 
tian, Chinese, or American ; and 2d, that it was made within the last two centuries — that 
is, since the discovery of Australia by European navigators. Payne Knight laid down 
the rules : — 

" The similitude of these allegorical and symbolical fictions with each other, in every 
part of the world, is no proof of their having been derived, any more than the primitive 
notions which they signify, from any one particular people ; for as the organs of sense and 
principles of intellect are the same in all mankind, they would all naturally form similar 
ideas from similar objects ; and employ similar signs to express them, so long as natural 
and not conventional signs were used. . . . The only certain proof of plagiary or borrowing 
is where the animal or vegetable productions of one climate are employed as symbols by 
the inhabitants of another. ... As commercial communication, however, became more fi'ee 
and intimate, particular symbols might have been adopted from one people by another 
without any common origin or even connexion of general principles." (258) 

These few remarks suffice as suggestives, to the thoughtful and educated, of the radical 
distinctions which the first glance perceives when comparing the ancient sculptures of three 
aboriginal worlds of art, Egyptian, Chinese, or American. But, just as a physician's 
writings presuppose that his readers have passed beyond the elementary schoolroom, so 
it is not in "Types of Mankind" that any one need expect to find an archBBological 
" Primer." 

We return to the ante-monumental pictures of the Nile and the Hoang-ho — the former, 
long anterior to b. c. 3500 ; the latter, to b. c. 2300 ; being the minimum distance from 
our generation at which the graphical system of each river's denizens first dawns upon 
our view. 

Impelled by the same human wants, though absolutely without inter-communication, 
the Mongol Chinese for his part, and the Hamitic Egyptian for his, attained, at periods 
unknown, the power of representing their several ihoughis piciorially. Where they copied 
the same universal things — the sun, a star, a goat, a pigeon, a snake, a tree (though here 
even, in Flora and Fauna, already the two countries exhibit distinct "species"), — those 
copies necessarily resemble each other ; although, in each, art betrays the individualities 
of a separate human type. Where the Chinaman, however, portrays a man, that man is a 
Mongol : where the Egyptian draws a human being, that being is an Egyptian. 

No stronger exemplification of human inability to conceive that which is beyond the 
circumference of local experiences, can be met with, than in Squier's exhumations from 
the primeval mounds of the West. (259) Not merely is the skull, divested by time of its 
animal matter, osteologically identical with those of American Aborigines of this day ; not 
only does every fragmentary relic which accompanies it limit that antique man's bounda- 
ries of knowledge to a space longitudinally between Lake Superior and the Gulf of Mexico, 
and laterally within the Alleghanian and the Rocky Mountains; — but, e\erj pipe-bowl, or 
engraved article, that bears a human likeness, portrays an American Indian, and no other 
type : because man can imitate only what he knows. And finally, to bring the case home 
to our biblical researches, does not every line of the first nine chapters of Genesis prove 
that Hebrew writers never conceived, in speculation upon creative origines, anything alien 
to themselves and to their own restricted sphere of geography ? At their point of view, the 
first pair of human beings conversed, at once, in pure Hebrew : — nay, the Talmudic books 

(258) K. Payne Kkisht: Inquiry into the Symbolical Language of Ancient Art and Mythology; Valpy's Svo ed., 
1S18; par. 230, 231. 

(259) Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley; 1848: compare wood-cuts, pp. 194, 244-251. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 641 

show, that this divine tongue is to be the future language ; the speech in which the "ultima 
ratio " will be meted out to all humanity in heaven ! 

" Concludam . . . verbis Rabbi Jehosuoe in Talmud, qui cuidam curiosb percontanti de 
statu resurgentium ad vitam aeternam respondat, Quando reviviscemus, cognoscemus qualis 
futurus sit eorum status. Sic de futura lingua Beatorum in coelis, quando reviviscemus, 
cognoscemus illam." (260) 

Independently of one another, then, Mongolian man on the Hoang-ho, and Egyptian man 
on the Nile, each arrived for himself at ^t'ctere- writing: yet, after casting a retrospective look 
at the relative epochas of both achievements, we behold that the difference between their 
chronological eras is almost as immense as when we, who in this day actually "print by 
lightning," see an Indian --'^J-nd hours of lifetime in the effort to adorn a deer-skin with 
the uncouth record of his scalping exploits. At the time when Prince Mer-het(261) 
caused his sepulchre to be carved and painted with those exquisite hieroglyphs, that, through 
16 phonetic, many figurative, and a few symbolical signs, relate his immediate descent from 
King Shoopho (262) builder of the mightiest mausoleum ever raised by human hand, — 
under the shadows of which great pyramid this (probably) son reposed : at that time, 
■which, it is far more likely, ascends rather beyond than falls within the thirty-fifth century 
B. c, or 5400 years backward from our day — what was the state of civilization in China? 
Now, the most exacting of native Chinese archaeologists will confess that their first Emperor 
Fo-hi (whose name emblematizes to the Chinese mind above 1000 years of meta-history, as 
that of Moses did to the Hebrew intellect in the age oi Hilkiah the high-priest), (263) that 
this Fo-hi — inventor of writing,(264) through the legendary "8 koua" — scarcely floats upon 
the foam of tradition's loftiest surge : because, no Chinese scholar claims for Fo-hi's semi- 
mythical reign a date earlier than b. c. 3468 ; while conceding that perhaps it may have 
begun 600 years later. 

And, if we compare monuments, then the oldest (265) written record of China claims no 
higher date than the " Inscription of Yu," estimated at b. c. 2278 — being above 1000 years 
posterior to the Egyptian tomb of Mer-het, now in the Royal Museum of Berlin. All earlier 
Chinese documents being lost, the times anterior to Yu are, palceographically, blanks ; but 
skepticism (scientific, not, the most obdurate, theological,) has no more reason to reject 
what of rational story pierces through the gloom of generations preceding, as concerns China, 
than we have to consider fabulous the British periods of the Heptarchy, although we cannot 
now individualize many events, and possess no Saxon " Saga" coeval with their occurrence. 

A moment's pause will illustrate in what respect Egypis monuments tower as loftily 
above Chinese antiquity, as St. Feler^s at Rome above New York " Trinity Church." Our 
remarks are not directed to personages who, stifled beneath ante-metaphysical strata, read 
little and know less ; but to readers who have perused, or will examine, the writings of at 
least Bunsen, Lepsius, Birch, and De Rouge ; without disparagement of these scholars' 
ardent colleagues, too numerous for specification. 

Whilst the pyramids and tombs of the IVth Memphite dynasty in Egypt stand, about 
B.C. 3500, at the uppermost terminus of that lengthy monumental chain — the coils of 
which, within a range of twenty miles, may still be unwoiind from Mohammed-Ali's mosque 
at Cairo, link by link, century by century, and stone by stone, back through all the vicis- 
situdes of Nilotic annals, for 5400 years, till we touch the sepulchre of Prince Merhet — 
these pyramids, these tombs, themselves reveal infinite data upon ages to their construction 
long anterior ; but, how long? Utterly unknown. 

For instance, we here present the hieroglyphic for scribe, writing, or to write. 
It is compounded of the reed, calamus, or pen ; the m/c-bottle ; and the scribe's 
palette, with two little cavities for his black and red inks. It may be seen 



^ 



(260) Walton : Prolegomena ; ii. par. 25, p. 19. 

(261) Lepsics: Denl-miUer; and suirra, p. 238; fig. 154. 

(262) Ibid.; Srir/e aus jEgypien, .^tJnopien, &c.; Berlin, 1852; pp. 37, 38 — " Superintendent of all coDsbruo- 
tions of the king." 

(2C3) About B. c. 625—2 Kings xxii. 8; 2 Chrm. xxxiv. 14. 

(264) Pauthier', Chine; pp. 24-26. (265) Ibid.; p. 53. 

81 



642 PAL^OGEAPHIC EXCUESUS 

on all monuments of the IVth Dynasty:(266) and its presence proves that writing must have 
been common enough in Egypt during ages antecedent. So again, here is A 

— a roll of^(y>.yrM«-paper, a volume, tied with strings — meaning a "Book." " ^^^^I 
Its presence upon the monuments, not merely of the Xllth, but of the Vlth, and even of 
the same old IVth dynasty, establishes that the invention ot paper, and the usage of written 
volumes, antedate the earliest hieroglyphics now extant. 

It would require an especial treatise to convey to readers any adequate idea of the copi- 
ousness of ancient Egyptian documents written on papyrus-'^a.^&c existing and deciphered 
at the present day. There are some of the IVth (b. c. 3400) and succeeding dynasties 
down to the Xllth b. c. 2200) in legible preservation ; but the great " age of the Papyri " 
belongs to the XVIIth and following dynasties ; (267) that is, from the 17th century b. c. 
downwards. Independently of the thousands of copies of the "Book of the Dead," there are 
poems, account-books, contracts, decrees, chronological lists, histories, romances, scientific essays, 
— in short, it is really more difficult now to define what there is not, than to catalogue the 
enormous collections oi Papyri, some written ages before Moses's birth, existing in European 
cabinets. At foot we indicate where the curious inquirer may satisfy himself upon the 
accuracy of this statement. (268) And if he wishes to behold the transitions of Egyptian 
writing from the hieroglyphic into the hieratic, he need only open Lepsius's I>enkmaler.{269) 
We have no space to enlarge upon these facts here, which the writer's Lecture-rooms have 
exhibited in most of the chief cities of the Union. 

All which premised, as facts at this day open to everybody's verification, the reader 
comprehends that, if ^jctore-writing, as well on the Nile as on the Hoang-ho, was the first 
stage towards phonetic orthography ; nevertheless, according to monumental evidences, the 
Egyptians had already been inscribing their thoughts in perfect hieroglyphics, "sacred 
sculptured characters," a thousand years before the Chinese had perfected a system of ideo- 
graphics, to us represented by their primitive character Kou-wen. 

It is from Champollion's Grammaire Egyptienne (270) that the reader must draw clear 
definitions of Nilotic classifications into the phonetic, figurative, and symbolical, elements of 
calligraphy : and Mr. Birch's definition of Egypt's pristine 16 monosyllabic articulations — 
a, b, f, g, h, i, k, m, n, p, r X I, s, t, sh, kh, u, — is the most accessible to the English 
reader. (271) For Chinese analogies and discrepancies, as said before, there is no satisfac- 
tory work but the Sinico-^gyptiaca. 

Through their study the reader will glean how — starting both from the same springs, 
although chronologically and geographically distinct, viz., PICTURE-WRITING — the 
Egyptian rivulet, gushing forth naturally in one direction, formed the hiekoglyphics ; 
whence, in due time, through Semitish channels, streamed those mighty rivers that, from 
Chaldea, have watered Europe, Hindostan, Northern Asia, Africa, America, and Aus- 
tralia, with the refreshing rills of Phxnicia's alphabet : and how the Chinese fountain, its 
waters taking an opposite direction, created the ideogeaphics ; which, cramped within 
gutters artificially if ingeniously conceived, have enabled the Chinamen to attain a system, 
it is true, essentially phonetic, and which, originating in a Mongolian brain, eufifices for all 
the necessities of Mongol articulations: notwithstanding that ABC are as alien to its 
complex construction as our English language is remote from the agglutinations of an 
Indian, or the " gluckings " of a Hottentot. The Chinese never have had an alphabet. It 
is impossible, without organic changes which human history does not sanction, that the 
Sinico-Mongol ever can possess that, to us the simplest, method of chronicling our thoughts. 



(266) LEPSnis; Chrondlcgie ; i. ^. 33; — Todlenbuch ; 1842; Pref. p. 17 ; — Bunsen : ^s Pi. ; i. p. 8. 
(26T) HixcKS : Trans. R. Irish Acad. ; 1846. 

(268) Select Papyri; published by the British Museum ;— Lepsius ; Chronologie; i. pp. 39, 40 ; — Prisse, Db 
Roug£, and Champoluon-Figeac's papers,, in the Sevue Archeologique ; — and Bmon's in Trans. B. Soc. Lit., and 
'.a the Archceologia ; &c. 

(269) Abth.; ii, bl. 98, 99. 

(270) A synoptical slietch is in Gliddon : Chapters ; 1843. 

(271) Guddon: Olia; pp. 113-115; but better in Lepsius : Vorlaiifige Nachricht ; 1849; p. 35. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 643 

In consequence of which reflections, fortified by the physical deductions elsewhere em- 
bodied in " Types of Mankind," we have assigned to MoxGOL-orjj'ms a distinct column in 
our theoretical Tableau of human pateographic history. 

For the objects of anthropology, the above explanatory remarks would be sufficient, were 
not notions cun-ent among those readers, who look to theology for biblical criteria, to 
metaphysics for archteological — 1st., that the " Chinese " are recorded in Scripture ; and 
ergo, that Mongolian races were familiar to Jewish writers; 2d., that "Chinese vases" 
have been found in tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty at Thebes ; and ergo, that Egypt and 
China were in positive communication about the time of Moses. (272) So we digress. 

Once upon a time an adage prevailed in literary controversies — Cave hominem unius libri. 
Through what impairing causes is to us unknown, but certain it is, that in proportion as 
one ascends in English theological literature to the Kennicotts, Warburtons, Lowths, Cud- 
worths, Stillingflcets, Waltons, and other intellectual giants of that deceased school, so 
one's respect for divines and one's reverence for Scripture augment. They had one book 
to study professionally, and that book they knew well ; because they actually read it. 

It would appear that there are cycles of deterioration, as evident in theology as in the 
weather, to judge by what took place in China about a. d. 1368; and inasmuch as our 
inquiries first concern the Chinese, it is but fair that they should open proceedings. 

The Emperor Houng-Wou, appalled at the degradation of scholarship consequent upon 
the tragic events that preceded him, one day convoked the "Tribunals of Literature" 
(equivalent to the French Ministfere d'lnstruction Publique),(273) and made to them a com- 
mon sense speech, the pith of which is here in extract : 

" The ancients," said he, " the ancients used to write but few books, but they made them 
good. . . . Our modern litterati write a great deal, and upon subjects that cannot be of the 
slightest real utility. . . . The ancients wrote with perspicacity, and their writings were 
suited to the comprehension of everybody. 

... In former times their works were read with pleasure, and one reads them at this 
day [a. d. 1368, in China!] with the same. 

. . . You [addressing himself to the Censors of the Press], you, who stand at the head 
of literature, make all your eflTorts to restore good sense : you will never succeed but by 
imitating the ancients. (274) 

In the days between Walton and Kennicott, a theological student who might have ven- 
tured to opine that the Chinese are mentioned in tlie Bible, would have been sent inconti- 
nently to read the Hebrew test of Isaiah. (275) When this task was executed (and, for- 
merly, divinity students could read a little Hebrew), the young man would have found a 
place on the lowest form, by command of the Professor of History, for ignorance of the 
rudiments of his class. Shame would soon have impelled an ingenuous youth, of those 
days gone by, to cram his head with simple facts of which some of his elders in theology 
now seem unaware. (276) 

Chinese history — in this question the most valid — proves that, until the year 102 after 
Christ, the Chinese never knew of the existence of any countries situate north and west 
of Persia. Between the years 89-106 a. d., in the reign of Ho-Ti, a vast Chinese army, 
under General Kan-Ying, detached by the Commander-in-Chief, Pan-tchao, halted on the 
shores of the Caspian Sea: (277) receiving the submission of the Tad-jiks (Persians) and 

(272) Vide Gtjbdon's l\th Lf.cture — reported in " Daily Dii^jatch," March 18; and in " Richmond Examiner," 
March 21; Richmond, Ta., 1851. Also, more extensively, in "The Union," Washington, D. C, April 25, 1851. 
The abusive writers alluded to in that discourse, as 

" Mere youths in science, and to fame unknown," 
were the reverend authors of "Unity of the Human Races," 1850; of an article in the Princeton Remeu), 
1851; and of a third article, the one prclauded [supra, p. 587], a.s emanating from an Ass. of Min. at Col., S^C. 

(273) Ed. Biot: Esmi sur V Inslrw:tion puUique en Vhine ; 1846. 

(274) PAUTinER: Chine d^upris Ics Documents Chirwis ; pp. 393, 394. 

(275) ISAUH ; xlix. 12. 

(2T6) Rev. Thomas Smythe, D.D.: Unil;/ of the Human Rauxs; 1850; p. 43 ; — Rev. Dr. IIowe: Southern Pres- 
byterian Review ; Columbia, S. C, No. 3, Jan. 1851 ; &c. 
(277) Remusat: Me.m. sur VExteneion (fe {'Empire Chin, du eoU de rOcci'ien( ;— PAUTiimB, Chine; pp. 258-260. 



644 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

of the Asi \_svpra, MaGUG, p. 471]. A powerful interest, however, incited these last to 
■withhold correct information on western countries from the Chinese officer ; viz. : that, 
hitherto, they had held the monopoly of the raw silk trade, by caravan, between China and 
the West ; which silk, dyed and woven into then-priceless raiments by the Parthians, found 
its way occasionally to the grandees of Europe ; and, on the other hand, one of the prac- 
tical motives which carried Roman eagles to the Tigris, was a hope to discover the un- 
known source whence the crude material of these exquisite fabrics had reached Persia. 
It was during this, the most distant military expedition ever undertaken before Genghis- 
Khan, that the Chinese heard, for the first time, of the existence, far west from the Asi, 
of the Roman Empire. Deterred from advance for its conquest by the discouraging report 
of the Parthians that his commissariat ought to be supplied for three years, the Chinese 
General renounced the enterprise, and returned to headquarters at Khotan. 

From the opposite direction, the arms of Rome had not been turned towards Persia 
until, about b. c. 53, Pro-Consul Crassus perished by Parthian arrows on the western fron- 
tier of Persia ; some 155 years before the Chinese had penetrated to its south-eastern pro- 
vinces. Within four years after the retrograde march of the Chinese armies, Parthia was 
invaded by Trajan, a. d. 106 ; and it was about that generation, a few years more or less, 
that the Romans first heard, through the Persians, of the remote country whence the silk 
came. (278) In a. d. 166, Antoninus sent the first Roman embassy to China ; the hospitable 
reception of which is chronicled, by contemporary Chinese annalists, in the reign of their 
Emperor Houan-Ti. 

No nations, then, situated to the north-west of Persia, so far as history or monuments 
relate, had ever heard of China ; nor had the Chinese known anything about such nations 
until after the Christian era. Surmises to the contrary require, nowadays, to be justified 
by something more substantial than the ipse dixit of moderns, however erudite, whose 
opinions were formed before geographical criticism had fixed the boundaries of antique 
intercommunicational possibilities. 

With this historical basis, let us take up the only word in the entire canon of Scripture, 
upon which living theologists have erected a fable, that the Chinese are mentioned in the 
Old Testament. Even king James's version suffices for this discussion: — "Behold these 
[the Jewish Babylonian exiles] shall come from far ; and, lo, these from the north and from 
the west ; and these from the land of Sinim." (279) " Our modern litterati," says the Em- 
peror Houng-Wou, "write a great deal; " and sustain that Sinim means the Chinese ; be- 
cause, after stripping away the Hebrew plural IM, there remains the word SIN ; and the 
native name of China is THSIN. 

Now, the whole context of the prophet refers to the return of the Jews from bondage in 
Babylonia. It must, therefore, be in Mesopotamian vicinities that the SINs — "inhabitants 
of SIN ;" or, otherwise, " cities, districts, localities of" SIN — should be sought for, before 
traversing Central Asia, in such impassable ages, to recall from China unknown Jewish 
fugitives who might have escaped thither from Babylonia. 

The root SIN of Isaiah is not SINI ; (280) and, furthermore, that SINwra was a Ca- 
naanite. Nor is it either of the "wildernesses of SIN " familiar to the Mosaic Israelites; 
because the first, (281) spelt with the letter sameg, lay close to Egypt: and the second (282) 
was T.siN, near the Dead Sea. Far less could it have meant the Egyptian city of Pelusium ; 
called Sin, (283) or dialectically TAIN, anciently, as Teen now by the Arabs. Why travel 
to China, when Mesopotamia itself offers to every eye, in an excellent map, (284) at the 

(278) On " Serica," and the fact that little or nothing was known about it by writers antecedent to Claudius 
Ptolemy, in the second century after Christ ; compare the excellent critique of Anthon, Class. Diet., voce " Seres." 

(279) Isaiah : xlix. 12. 

(280) Genesis; X. 17: supra, p. 531. 

(281) Exodus; xvi. 1; xvii. 1. 

(282) Numbers; xiii. 21; — Deute^-onomy ; xxxii. 51; &c. 

(283) Ezekbel: xxx. 15, 16. 

(284) Frasek: Mesopotamia; 1841; — Xenophojj: Anab.; lib. ii. 4. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING, 645 

mouth of the riyer Lycus, the vestiges of a city termed Kainai by Greeks, Coenm by Ro- 
mans, and Senn by Arabians ? Or, if it be absolutely necessary to obtain SINIM (more 
SINs than one), add to the preceding Senn the site of Sina, (285) about fifty miles north- 
eastward of Mosul; together with the "large mounds" called Sen, on the banks of the 
Euphi-ates, opposite Dair. 

One, or two, or all of these localities, amply suffice for the extremest points whence the 
Jews were to be summoned from captivity ; and, singly or collectively, they are compre- 
hended in the LXX translation; where <SwJto is paraphrased by « yvs ncpffui' — "from a 
land of the Persians." 

Aside from the obvious adaptation of these places, near the Euphrates or the Tigris, to 
the natura,! sway of Nebuchadnezzar who captured the Jews, no less than of Cyrus and 
Artaxerxes who released them ; it is physically impossible, as well as unhistorical, that 
ancient Jews should have been expatriated to China: a country none of their descendants 
ever reached until centuries after the Christian era. (286) It is equally out of the question 
that the Septuagint translators could have known anything of China — a land beyond the 
horizon of Alexandrian knowledge previously to the time of Trajan, about a century after 
c. ; or some 230 years after the various Hellenistic-Jews, called the LXX [ubi supra'\, had 
completed their labors. Indeed, they pretend to nothing of the kind ; for they well knew 
that the SINIM were in the "land of the Persians; " while Orientalists of the present day 
always understand, with the Chaldee paraphrast, " from the southern country" of Assyria, 
in that passage. (287) 

We forbear from reagitating here the question ' elsewhere treated, whether there were 
really "twelve tribes" of Israel before the times of Sennacherib; nor what became of the 
ten said to have remained — where? Some moderns (288) claim that these Israelites 
marched round by Behring's Straits into America ; and, after building the cities of ancient 
Mexico and Peru, have run wild in our woods — in short, unaccountably become our Indians. 
Others have sought for them in Affghanistan; (289) although the portraits of Dost-Moham- 
med, Shah-Soojah, and their fierce cavaliers, are as little Jewish in lineaments as are their 
speech, and still more their bellicose habits : for the Bible shows that the Jews of Pales- 
tine, except under supernatural circumstances, were beaten and enslaved by any adjacent 
tribe that happened to covet their persons or property. If ever supposititious offshools of 
the " ten tribes " wandered as far as Cabul, Bokhara, Balkh, or Samarcand, they were 
Jews at their migration, and Jews they would have remained in type and in religion, if cer- 
tainly not in language. Wolff found his compatriots everywhere. Indeed, we know, per- 
sonally and positively, that had the reverend renegade not been a true Hebrew, he could 
never have traversed Central Asia in 1832-'5. But he narrates that the fathers of those 
who kindly welcomed him, on the score of his inextinguishable Judaism, had established 
themselves in Affghan provinces very long after the fall of Jerusalem. We also know that 
Arabs (to the Abrahamida; closely allied) settled in Persia, Khorassan, Balkh, &c., ever 
since the Muslim invasion, one thousand years ago, having rarely intermarried with Tartars, 
remain physiologically distinct to this day. Yet while they have preserved the name, reli- 
gion, and appearance of Arabs, they have lost their Arabian language. (290) So it is with 
the Hebrew nation in every clime — indelibility of physical type, coupled with a most pliant 
faculty for change of tongue. If, then, exactly "ten tribes" of Israel were swept away 
into Chaldea, they did but return to their aboriginal centre of creation ; and (mixing volun- 
tarily with no type of mankind but their own) they have naturally disappeared amid the 

(285) liArARD: Second Expedition, Babylon ; 1853; Map of Journeys ; and p. 297 

(286) About 60,000 Jews are reputed to be there now ; others reached Malabar about a.d. 490; — See Nott: 
Phys. Hist, of the Jewish Race; 1850; pp. 12, 13; and supra, pp. 117-123. 

(287) Cabex : BibU ; ix. p. 176, note 12. 

(288) Delafield: American AntiquUies. 

(289) Ddbeux : Afghanistan ; pp. 65, 66. 

(290) Malcolm : History of Persia ; 1815 ; p. 277 ; — Moklek : Second Journey through Persia ; 1818 ; i. pp. 47, 
48; — PicKEKixo: Races; 1848; p, 240. 



646 PALiEOGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

■waves of a homogeneous population. These opinions, long ayowed by the authors, are 
confirmed by the views and new facts of Layard.(291) 

But we finish ■with orthodoxy's " Chinese" : — 

From a previously small feod of the Celestial Gates, called Thsin, given by Hiao-Wang, 
about B. c. 909, to one of his jockeys, issued a line of princes whose constant acquisitive- 
ness had enabled them, by the year b. c. 249, to incorporate a fifth part of the Chinese 
realm, and to extend over it their patronymic title of Thsin. Out of this stock sprung Thsin- 
Chi-Hoang-Ti, at once the Augustus and the Napoleon of China — founder of the fourth or 
Thsin dynasty, ■whose name signifies " the first absolute sovereign of the dynasty of Thsin." 
About B. c. 221, all the principalities of China were consolidated under his supreme sway; 
and, as a consequence, the name Thsin became, in common parlance, synonymous with the 
■whole empire. Proud of his mighty exploits, although detesting the individual, the 
Chinese, from and after his day, adopting the word Thsin as typical of China itself, origi- 
nated the Hindoo appellative " Tchina," whence we inherit our corrupt designation 
"China." Under these circumstances we tender to future sustainers of Chinese in Scrip- 
ture a many-horned dilemma: — 

Either the Prophet Isaiah (whose meaning is so naturally explained above) by the word 
SINIM does not refer to the Chinese, or inasmuch as the Chinese empire was not called 
Thsin previously to b. c. 221 — which is about 450 years after Isaiah wrote — the verse 12 
of chapter xlix of the book called "Isaiah" cannot possibly have been penned by Isaiah, 
but is the addition of some nameless interpolator: who must have lived, too, later than the 
first century after Christ, when the existence of China first became known, under its 
recent name Thsin, to nations dwelling west of the Euphrates. The writers called the 
"Seventy" knew nothing of this absurd Chinese attribution, as their "Land of the 
Persians " attests. 

AVere it not for them who thus had paraphrased SINIM between b. c. 260 and 130, the 
interpolation of a mere verse, after the year a. d. 100, in a prophetic book wherein whole 
chapters had been previously interpolated, would excite small surprise among biblical exe- 
getists. "If, for example," writes the great Hebraist of the "BibliothSquelmperiale," (292) 
" in a prophetic book, bearing the name of Isaiah, they speak to you of the return from 
Babylonish exile ; if they go so far as even to name Cyrus, who is posterior to Isaiah by 
about two centuries, be assured that it is not Isaiah who speaks. " And if that explanation does 
not satisfy theological exigencies, then let some people bear in mind that the word SINIM 
occurs in the forty-ninth chapter of Isaiah ; and that, according to the highest biblical 
critics of Germany, whose mouth-piece is the eminent Professor of Theology at Basle,(293) 
" the whole of the second part of the collection of oracles under Isaiah's name (xl. — Isvi.) 
is spurious." But they say Chinese vases have been found in tombs of the Mosaic age in 
• Egypt ; and, ergo, that China was known some 8300 years ago to the ancient Egyptians. 
The arehsBological interest of this alleged fact has been revived in the present year by 
two new phases : — 

First. The presence at New York, among a variety of Egyptian antiquities, less 
authentic, of — 

"No. 626. — A Chinese vase, with 17 others of different forms. All found in tombs. 
Some from Thebes ; others from Sakharah and Ghizeh. 

" These vases are curious, inasmuch as they prove the early communication between 
Egypt and China. Vide Rosoleni [sic for Rosellini] ; Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Manners 
and Customs; Sir John Davis's Sketches of China, p. 72, and Revue Archoeologique, by 
Mr. E. Prisse. 

" No. 627. — A Chinese padlock, found in the tombs at Sakharah." (294) 

This last hijou is a confirmation of ancient intercourse between Pharaonic Egypt and 

(291) Op. cit.; pp. 373, 383-386. 

(292) Munk: Palestine; p. 420. 

(293) He 'Wette: Parker's transl. ii. p. 336; and also Hejinell: Origin of Christianity; 1845; pp. 354, 355. 

(294) "Catalogue of a Collection of Egyptian Amtiquiiies, the property of Henry Abbott, M. D., now exhibiting at 
the Stuyvesaut Institute, No. 659, Broadway, Now York"; 1853; p. 44. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 647 

China, of ■which orthodox navigation may ■well be proud, especially no'w that t^wo additional 
vases have been discovered since Joseph Bonomi, in his sly ■way, indicated the extreme 
rarity of such antiques at Cairo, 1843. 

"No. 254. — Padlock, Chinese, said to be found at Sakhara. 

" No. 255. — Thirteen Chinese bottles, of the usual form, and with the inscription in the 
Chinese characters ; and three bottles of different shape, found in Egyptian tombs, both in 
Upper Egypt and Sakhara. The larger portion of this collection was found in Sakhara. 
Bottles exactly similar may be purchased in the perfume bazaar of Cairo ; and in 1842 the 
Jannissary of the Prussian Mission purchased ten of them." (295) 

Second. The deterration of two similar Chinese vases by Layard, one from the mound of 
Arban, and another from its vicinity. These are the more precious as they show the ortho- 
dox and primeval overland route of Egypto-Chinese intercourse by way of Assyria, in ages 
preceding the discovery of the monsoons, about a. d. 45, by the Greek pilot Hippalus. (290) 

" In a trench on the south side of the ruin, was found a small green and white bottle, 
inscribed with Chinese characters. A similar relic was brought to me from a barrow iu the 
neighbourhood. Such bottles have been discovered in Egyptian tombs, and considerable 
doubt [not the remotest] exists as to their antiquity, and as to the date and manner of their 
importation into Egypt. [Note. — Wilkinson, in his 'Ancient Egyptians,' vol. iii. p. 107, 
gives a drawing of a bottle precisely similar to that described iu the text, and mentions 
one which, according to Rosellini, had been discovered in a previou.s]y unopened tomb, 
believed to be of the eighteenth dynasty. But there appears to be considerable doubt on 
the subject.) The best opinion now is, that they are comparatively modern, and that they 
were brought by the Arabs, in the eighth or ninth century, from the kingdoms of the far 
East, with which they had at that period extensive commercial intercourse. Bottles pre- 
cisely similar are still offered for sale at Cairo, and are used to hold the kohl or powder for 
staining the eyes of the ladies." (297) 

Since the conquest of Algeria, Parisian naturalists have been constantly eiriployed by the 
French Government to collect every specimen of natural history that region affords. One 
of these enthusiastic savans, lamenting that his predecessors had exhausted the resources 
of the country, was supplied by the Zouaves with sundry live examples of a wild rat, the 
species of which was entirely unknown at the JardinsdesPlantes. The soldiers called it 
rat H trompe. On arrival of these novelties at the Museum, (298) it was perceived that 
each rat was adorned by a flexible and hairy proboscis. In time these appendages hap- 
pening to drop off, some assistant ascertained that the malicious Zouaves had inserted an 
amputated tail of one species of rat into the nasal cartilage of another ! It behooves 
archaeologists, therefore, to view any such mai'vels as Sinico-Nilotic "padlocks" with more 
than caution ; for, as De Longp^rier, the Conservator of the Louvre Museum, writes to 
De Saulcy, Director of the Mus6e dArtillerie, "above all things, now-a-days, gardons nous 
des rats d, trompe." 

Chinese vases, of the genus mentioned, having been familiar things to the writer ever 
since his boyhood's visit to Cairo in 1823, no less than during his official residence there 
from 1831 to 1841, it was against his wishes (while aiding his revered friend Morton with 
a few hieroglyphical indices in 1842-3) that the following passage ever saw the light without 
some qualifying reservation : " That the Chinese had commercial intercourse with the Egyp- 
tians in very early times, is beyond question ; for vessels of Chinese porcelain, with inscrip- 
tions in that language, have been repeatedly found in the Theban catacombs. (Wilkin- 
son's Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 108.)" (299) But Dr. Morton relied upon the accuracy 
of Wilkinson, and the latter upon that of Rosellini, (300) as to the matters of fact ; at the 

(295) BoNOjn: Cabdogiie of ditto: Cairo, 1S46; pp. 25, 26, 35. [Printed in London. We saw its proof-sheets 
there.] 

(29fO Punt : lib. vi. p. 26. 

(297) Babylon: p. 279. 

(29S) Tide Histoire NalurelU de MM. les Professeurs aux Jardins des Plantes: 12mo, Paris, 18-17. 

(299) Crania .^ypliaca : 1844; p. 63. 

(SCO) Compare CHAMP0LU0N-FiGE.tc : Hgyple Ancimne: 1840; voce "Nechao," p. 369; and Notice sur deux 
Grammaires de la Zanffue Copte: June, 1842; pp. 7-10. The perusal of these two critiques might benefit the 
author of Horce .^yptiacce. 



648 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

same time that, in tlie United States, there was no sinologist to whom we could refer the 
inscriptions themselves. Nor, indeed, was it until the writer studied at Paris, (301) in the 
winter of 1845-6, that appeal had ever been made from the learned opinion of Davis. (302) 

In the letter cited at foot, the Chinese scholar defends his view against the " Quarterly," 
(February, 1835) ; which maintained that these vases could not have been found in ancient 
Egyptian tombs — that the supposition of their being so found depended upon hearsay ; 
neither Lord Prudhoe, Mr. Wilkinson, nor Mrs. Bowen (quondam Mrs. Col. Light), having 
seen those specimens they had purchased at Coptos and Thebes, extracted from any ancient 
tomb. To repel which attack, Davis exhibits a letter from Rosellini to the effect, that he 
saw one withdrawn from an ancient tomb during the Tuscan excavations at Thebes, iu 
1828-9. And thus, the only archseological process of determining the vastly important fact 
of Pharaonic intercourse with China, so far as depended upon these vases, stood over until, 
at the writer's suggestion, and in his presence, four specimens were submitted by his valued 
colleague, Prisse, at the latter's apartments, to their mutual friend, the high sinologue, 
Pauthier. It is also desirable to note, that the question of the authenticity of these vases 
arose amongst us at Paris, in consequence of their forming a prominent feature in the 
"Notice" which M. Prisse was at that time preparing of the identical "Collection of M. 
H. Abbott;" (303) — a collection that, rejected by Europe, has "fata profugus" since been 
transferred, with the augmentation of a Chinese padlock, in 1852, from Egypt to New York. 
" lisdem in armis fui ;" although M. Prisse's own doubts first prompted him to consult the 
opinion of so old an Egyptian fellow-sojourner as the writer. 

M. Prisse had already projected the substance of the following in manuscript : 

"It is pretended that these little flasks have been found in Egyptian tombs; but as the 
fact is contestable, I think it useful to discuss it. Whenever an error is met with in your 
path, says Bacon, fail not to eradicate it, as a traveller cuts down a bramble in passing. I 
ought to strain myself the more to destroy this error that I have aided in its propagation, 
by cooperating in the 'Collection of Dr. Abbott,' and by giving to N. L'Hote two of those 
little flasks for the Royal Museum of the Louvre, where they figure under the title of 
' Vases Chinois trouv^s dans les tombeaux de I'Egypte par MM. ChampolHon et L'Hote.' 
Champollion had bought one of these little vases at Thebes (3Ionumen(s de I'Egypte et de la 
Nubie, PI. 424, No. 28.) N. L'Hote received from me the two others; and none of them, 
to my knowledge, had been found in an Egyptian tomb. Rosellini, the only one who pre- 
tends to have found a similar one himself [Monumenti Civili, vol. iii. p. 397), in a' tomb of 
which he makes the epoch ascend to the XVIIIth dynasty, is not an author very worthy 
of credit. Sir G. Wilkinson {Man. and Oust., iii. p. 108) believes that these little flasks 
which held perfumes, had been brought into Egypt by the commerce of India, with which 
country the ancient Egyptians appear to have been in relation from a very remote epooh : 
but he does not discuss the authenticity of these vases. Upon the testimony of these two 
authors, and upon that of the Arabs, I had believed for a long time that these flasks issued 
from the excavations, and I bought many that I gave away. Soon after, a traveller having 
assured me that he had seen similar vases at some ports of the Red Sea, (304) I began to 
conceive doubts. Pressed by questions, the Arabs avowed to me that the greater number 
of these vases came from Qous, from Qeft and from Qosseyr, successive entrepots of Indian 
commerce. This avowal seemed to me peremptory." 

It was here that M. Pauthier's call with the writer led opportunely to the sequel. 

"Nevertheless, the stability of the arts in China might have caused repetitions of the 
forms of these vases from early centuries ; and the nature of the characters employed in 
the inscription could alone remove all objection. I consulted at Paris two learned sinolo- 
gists, MM. Stanislas Julien and Pauthier, who assured me that the characters thsao, 
painted upon these vases, dated solely from the second century of our era. M. Pauthier 
has been pleased to indite a note upon this subject, which I hasten to publish in order to 
terminate the discussion." 

Prom Pauthier's " Note upon the Chinese vases found in Egypt," we have condensed the 

(801) Prisse : Recherclies sur les legendes de SCKAI: Kevue Arclieol., 1845 ; pp. 457-475, note. 

(302) Leltre d if. Bunsen sur les Vases Chinois trouvis dans d'Anciens Tombeaux : translated from the English 
in Annali delP Institido di Corr. Archeol. di Roma, 1836 ; p. 322, seq., and plate G. 

(303) Notice sur le Uusie du Kaire, el sur les Collections igypliennes de MM. Abbott, Clot Bey, et Harris : Revue 
Archeol., 15 Mars, 1846; tirage k part, pp. 3-28, and wood-cuts, pp. 18, 19. 

(304) Compare Piokeking: Baces of Men and tlieir Geographical Distribution : 1848; p. 400. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 649 

subjoined. In his work, "The Chinese," under the article "Porcelain," Gov. J. F. Davis, 
of Hong-kong, refers to the exceptions taken by the Quarterly Review, citing Wilkinson 
and Rosellini for the fact of the discovery of such vases in Egyptian catacombs. 

" M. Letronue, when giving account, in the Journal des Savans, (Nov. 1844, p. G65,) of 
the work of Mr. Wilkinson, thus expresses himself: ' The author believes in the Chinese 
origin of certain porcelain vases, found in the tombs at Thebes, of which one is of the 
XVIIIth dynasty. He gives the figures of four of these vases, with Chinese inscriptions, 
■which Mr. Davis flatters himself with having read. We know that other sinologues doubt 
this origin. The fact deserves to be cleared up by a contradictory discussion. . . . There 
is nothing in it impossible, but it seems lillle verisimilar. . . . Yet, if these inscriptions are 
really Chinese, the fact must be accepted. All lies in that.' " 

It is merely justice to Morton's memory here to remark that his "Crania iEgyptiaca" 
had appeared in the spring of 1844, at Philadelphia. Nor is his discrimination amenable, 
on questions alien to his special studies, to the charge of hastily adopting, in good faith, 
that which Parisian science had not begun to ventilate for six months later. 

After stating that no sinologist doubted that these vases " are really and purely Chinese" 
M. Pauthier holds that all the question does "not lie in that;" and then eliminates the 
facts as follows : — 

1. The inscriptions upon these vases are in the cursive Chinese character called ihsao. 

2. This cursive character was not invented in China until the second century after 
Christ. Hence " it is materially impossible that vases, bearing inscriptions in that 
writing, could have been manufactured and transported to Egypt in the time of the 
XVIIIth dynasty ; that is to say, about 1800 years before the said epoch ! " 

Gov. Davis, " well versed in the study of the vulgar Chinese (language), seems, like 
some other sinologues, to have completely neglected the study of Chinese arcbosology." 
Nevertheless, on the vase published by him (No. 4 of Wilkinson, and of M. Prisse), 
one reads easily : — 

3. " Ming youe soung ichoung ichao : ' the brilliant moon is resplendent through the 
pines.' " 

4. This is a line from a "strophe composed by Wang-gan-chi, who lived under the 
Soung dynasty, in 10C8 of our era ; and corrected in the last syllable by Sou-toung-po, 
who flourished fifty years later." 

5. The highest antiquity of the cursive character on these vases being 200 years after 
Christ, and the verse written upon them being from an author who lived early in the 
twelfth century of the same era — it follows that the vases in question have been 
transported into Egypt since the year 1100 a. d. M. Pauthier gives reasons, from 
Chinese history, why some of them may have been brought back from China by Ara- 
bian embassies in the fifteenth century after Christ ; to which age probably belong the 
two specimens recently exhumed from the Khabour mounds by Dr. Layard. 

But, as the writer, and Mr. Bonomi, and M. Prisse, and others, have known for these 
twenty years, such vases abound in Egypt ; especially after the annual return of the HadJ, 
or Mecca pilgrims, to Qossfeyr arfd Cairo. The Mosaic Theban tombs are supplied through 
the former ; the ante-Abrahamic catacombs of Memphite Saccara through the latter mer- 
cantile channels ; while the drug bazaars of Cairo and of Qenneh have always a stock on 
hand — price fluctuating, according to the demands of antiquaries, between two and a half 
and three and a half cents apiece, retail. Arab curiosity-mongers are thus enabled to fur- 
nish imbecilities travelling along the Nile with Sinico-.(Egyptian vases even of ante-diluvian 
antiquity, on application. In the meanwhile, archseologists are aware of the sort of proofs 
of "early communication between Egypt and China" the New York collection embraces. 

To close the digression. The reader will duly take note that the New York catalogue, 
above cited, refers to the "Revue Archoeologique, by Mr. E. Prisse." The proprietor of 
the invaluable "Revue Archeologigue" is M. Leleux; but while the author of the "cata- 
logue " aforesaid mentions both the work and the savant whose inquiries, seven years ago, 
demonstrated a " Chinese vase with 17 others" to be, as antiquities, spurious ; readers 
of that document need not wonder at the appropriate association, in the same unique 
cabinet, of similia similibus. 

82 



650 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS 

All obstacles to the appreciation of what we mean hy •' Mongolian Origin," in the theory 
of human graphical development, being now removed, but a few paragraphs are necessary 
to elucidate that section of the General Table devoted to 

3d. AMERICAN ORIGIN.— To another department of " Types of Mankind" belongs the 
argumentative exhibition of those data, whereby the aboriginal groups of American huma- 
nity are disconnected from other centres of creation [^sujira, Chap. IX]. The purposes of 
our tableau are served by reference to Morton for the craniological, to Gallatin for the 
philological, and to Squier for the archceological bases of discussion. 

It is unnecessary to reiterate the emphatic disclaimers of Dr. Morton, concerning any 
recognition by himself of such notions as an exotic origin for American Indians. Dr. Pat- 
terson's Memoir [supra, pp. xlvi-xlix] and our various Chapters [VII. p. 232 ; IX. p. 275 ; 
X. pp. 305-307, 324-326] have removed from Morton's cherished, memory any further 
attributions to him of these philosophical heresies. (305) 

The total segregation of American aborigines from other types of man throughout the 
rest of our globe, deduced in the present volume from the former's osteological peculiari- 
ties, animal propensities, geographical constitution, and what of history has been made /or 
Indian nations by post-Columbian foreigners, results equally from the matured philology 
of Gallatin. 

" I beg leave once more to repeat that, unless we suppose that which we have no right 
to do, a second miraculous interposition of Providence in America, the prodigious number 
of American languages, totally dissimilar in their vocabularies, demonstrates not only that 
the first peopling of America took place at the earliest date which we are permitted to 
assume, but also that the great mass of existing Indian nations are the descendants of the 
first [imaginary] emigrants ; since we must otherwise suppose that America was peopled 
by one hundred diiferent tribes, speaking languages totally dissimilar in their nature."(306) 

Dr. Young it was who first made languages the subject of mathematical calculation:. — 

"It appears, therefore, that nothing could be inferred with respect to the relation of two 
languages, from the coincidence of the sense of any given word in both of them ; and that 
the odds would be three to one against the agreement of two words ; but if three words 
appear to be identical, it would then be more than ten to one that they must be derived in 
both cases from some parent language, or introduced in some other manner ; six words 
would give more than seventeen hundred chances to one, and eight near one hundred thou- 
sand ; so that, in these cases, the evidence would be little short of absolute cer- 
tainty." (307) 

Comparative philology now recognizes the grammatical structure of tongues as the sole 
criterion, which point we have explained in its proper place ; but those whose minds have 
been led astray by the plausible application of arithmetical formulae to the chances of inter- 
course between ante-Columbian American nations and the aborigines of Europe, Asia, 
Africa or Australasia — based upon vocabularies said to be coincident in about one hundred 
and eighty words — would do well to ponder upon the fiat of the greatest archaeologist of 
our generation, Letronne : — 

"Profound mathematicians have essayed, principally since Condorcet, to apply the cal- 
culus of probabilities to questions of moral order, and above all to the divers degrees of 
certitude in historical facts. They have flattered themselves upon ability to calcula'te how 
much might be bet against one, that a given event had or had not happened. Unfor- 
tunately, they have not seen that such a probability can yield but a result chimerical and 
illusory; In no case could it replace that conviction, intimate, absolute, admitting neither 
more nor less, which the examination of the diversified circumstances accompanying a real 
event produces. To those who may yet preserve any confidence in this abusive employ- 
ment of mathematical analysis, I would venture the counsel that they should undertake to 
find out, through calculation, what new chance of probability is added by the fortuitous 
discovery of all these contemporaneous testimonies [such as Squier has disinterred from 
the primeval mounds of the West] which seem to emerge from the earth expressly to con- 

(305) The substance of our remarks appeared, under the heading of " The Progress of Knowledge versus the 
Increase of Crime," in the New Orleans Picayune, June 12 and 19, 1853; signed G. R. G. 

(306) American Civilization: Trans. Amer. Amer. Ethnol. Soc; 1845; i. p. 179. 

(307) Experiments on the Pemiidum : Philos. Trans. ; London, 1819; p. 7. 



ON THE ART OF WRITING. 651 

firm liistory. They will feel, I think, the uselessness, the vanity of their efforts ; because 
that which results naturally from this unexpected accord, is not one of those definite pro- 
babilities estimable in numbers and in ciphers ; it is a complete certitude which, with irre- 
sistible force, takes possession of every mind that is honest and exempt from preju- 
dice." (308) 

Kot a solitary point of identity which cannot, at a glance, be explained by the rule — 
that similar causes operating upon similar principles produce everywhere the same effects — 
exists between the sculptured and architectural monuments of the Old World and those of 
the New, as known in 1853 to archjeologists : not a tongue, habit, custom, mythe or idea 
found among the aborigines of America by Columbus, can be traced back to any anterior 
communication with other inhabitants of our planet. The real differences, moreover, in 
the geological constituents, the fauna, the flora, and the entire range of physical nature 
whence American man drew his artistic models, preponderate infinitely over those partial 
resemblances which, when not caused by the circumscribed necessities of all human things, 
are simply accidental — if accidents can occur in the organic laws of creative power. 

Take up the works of Squier. (309) What relic of art, what natural object, what human 
or non-human thing, unearthed from those forest-clad mounds, is not solely and exclusively 
American ? Run your finger along the map from the sub-polar limit of the Esquimaux 
down to the Terra del Fuego, and where, in published designs, of respectable authenticity, 
can you point out a fact, in native human economy, anterior to the fifteenth century after 
Christ, that compels your reason to travel off the American continent for its origin ? We 
cannot find, at this day, pretensions to any but one. There is nothing, earnestly insists 
Mr. Squier, (310) even in the most curious of all mythological coincidences yet discovered 
between the Old and New Hemispheres, viz : the " serpent worship," that necessarily drives 
an archEBologist away from this continent for explanation : the very figurative expression 
of this American mythe is, " ab ovo," a rattlesnake ! Mr. Squier's subsequent pursuits in 
Europe (311) have opened, he tells us personally, hopeful prospects of filling up some gaps 
between tribes of Indians still extant and the Azteq and Tolteq scribes of ancient Mexico. 
He is now in Central America exploring untrodden ground ; and may he succeed in his 
indefatigable restorations. 

The possibility of Malayan, Polynesian, Japanese, or other shipwreck on the American 
Pacific coasts, having been established by such accident within our generation, is not dis- 
puted ; but there are three common-place reasons that militate against the probability that 
contingencies of this sporadic nature had any the slightest influence in stocking this conti- 
nent with its groups of Indian aborigines : 1st. No memento of any similar event exists in 
the speech, semi-civilization, art, or mythe, of the American world to induce such hypo- 
thesis ; which originates simply in evangelical cravings — European fathers "of that 
thought." Nor, were it proven, could such petty accident establish intercourse; because 
these ancient castaways never returned home again ; and (still stranger to relate) there are 
no " Indians" in the countries whence originally they sailed. 2d. In the ratio that anti- 
quity is claimed for such a supposititious chance, so, owing to proportionate diminution of 
human navigatory ability, the physical possibilities of its occurrence become "fine by de- 
grees, and beautifully less." 3d. As Morton long ago declared, " If the Egyptians, Hin- 
doos, or Gauls have ever, by accident or design, planted colonies in America, these must 
have been, sooner or later, dispersed and lost in the waves of a vast indigenous popula- 
tion ;" so that, Indians existing before the arrival of such metaphorical colonists, the old 
difiBculty remains. 

Of Irish or Welsh "Indians" it will be time enough to speak, when their " coprolites" 
— we dare not say their historical vestiges — are found, not merely on this continent, but 
west of the European " Ultima Thule " of established Celto-maniac migrations. 

(308) BecueU des Jnscriptitms GrecqiifS el Lalincs de V^gypie: 1842; i., Introd., p. 63. 

(309) Observations on Vie Aboriginal JtnmtmenU of the Mississippi Valh'y : New York, 1847; — Ancient MonVf 
menis of the Mississippi Valleg : 1S48; and, besides fragmentary papers, Nicaragua: 1852. 

(310) American Archaologi/ : "The Serpent Symbol;" 1851; pp. 170, 171. 

(311) Sketched in the New York Tribune : 24 Nov. 1852. 



652 

Far be it from us to disparage the Icelandic researches of the "Royal Society of Northern 
Antiquaries at Copenhagen ;" nor their " Scriptores Septentrionales Rerum Ante-Columbia- 
rum." (312) Most laudable are their national resuscitations of " Sagas " recounting the 
voyages of Eric-rufus, or of Thorfinn Karlsefne ; particularly those affording American 
proofs of that genealogy of Thorvaldsen, the great sculptor, back to the eleventh century 
after Christ. In our humble opinion, however, Thor, with his hammer, is much older ; 
but, unable to seize the exact threads of connection between the " Fornmanna Sogur" of 
Iceland and the autocthones of the American continent, we are fain to leave their unra- 
velling to the incredulous author of the " Monumental Evidences of the Discovery of Ame- 
rica by the Northmen critically examined." (313) 

We have said that to the evidences of non-intercourse between Ancient America and the 
other hemisphere there was but one exception. Here it is : — 

In the printed " Inquiries respecting the History, present Condition and future Prospects 
of the Indian Tribes of the United States," circulated gratuitously by the Department of 
the Interior, (314) contributions are solicited from " persons willing to communicate the 
results of their reading or reflection." Applauding most heartily any Government action in 
the rescue of some mementoes of national tribes whose span of life is but short, we deem 
it the part of good citizenship to cooperate. Our respectful mite is tendered gratis. 

"Appendix (Inquiries, p. 560):- — 305. Is the Inscription found on opening the Grave 
Creek Mound, in Western Virginia, in 1839, alphabetic or hieroglyphic ? " 

Neither the one nor the other. 

Originally a forgery — its disappearance from the "Museum" at Grave Creek is ac- 
counted for in the discovery of an imposture ; its sempiternal reappearance, in an unique 
series of works, is due to individual idiosyncracy. 

An old acquaintance of ours is this inscription ; which was first started, about a. d. 1838, 
by some " Grave Creek Flat." (315) Flat at its origin, the Ohio pebble has become flatter 
through scholastic abrasions ; and so terribly worn away, tliat the United States Depart- 
ment, at no trivial expense, is doomed to advertise perpetually for its recovery through 
oflacial inquiries. 

Already, before our sojourn at Paris, 1845-6, the vast palseographic erudition of this 
inscription's composer had been exemplified by the reduction of its twenty-two rudimental 
apices, into four Greek, four Etruscan, five Runic, six Gallic, seven Erse, ten Phoenician, 
fourteen British, and sixteen Celtiberic letters ; being no less than sixty-six chances drawn 
from twenty-two, that an Ohio pebble had made, in primeval times, an outward voyage to 
Europe and the Levant ; and, after receiving the engraved contributions of eight antique 
nations, had recrossed the Atlantic to its pristine geological habitat. 

Unhappily, we were too late. Our venerable friend, M. Jomard (having accepted a copy 
of this inscription, for the " Bibliothfeque Royale," in scientific good faith), had already 
printed the learned and skilful analogies deducible between the scratches on this pebble and 
the Numidian alphabet. Other scholars, ^native and foreign, were misled ; and there really 
seemed no prospect that the bewilderments produced by this contemptible petroglyph of a 
"Grave Creek Flat" should not become universal, when Squier's sudden mallet flattened 
it out forever, in 1848.(316) The pebble vanished from the Grave Creek Mound; and 
while, at this day, there is but one man who yet slumbers in a fool's paradise concerning 
it, we may echo its annihilator's felicitous dictum — " sic transit gloria moundi." 

We have seen how the fabled communications between the ancient denizens of the Nile 
and those of the Hoang-ho have reposed upon Sinico-j^ilgyptian "vases" — to which has 
recently been added a "padlock"; and we now know the archceological worthiness of the only 

(312) Antiquitates Americanoe: opera et studio Caeou C. Eafn; folio, Copenhagen, 1837. 

(313) Sotier: in Luke Burke's London Ethnological Journal; Dec. ISiS; especially p. 319. 

(314) Ofxc of Indian Affairs : 4to, Washington, 1851. 

(315) Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Snc.: 1845; i. pp. 369-420. 

(316) London EihnologicalJournal : loc. cit. 



mankind's chronology INTRODUCTORY. 653 

proof yet standing to sustain idiocratical theories of ante-Columbian intercourse between 

the American continent and any other centres of human creation on our terraqueous 

planet. Until something very different in calibre be discovered by future explorers, the 

section of our General Table devoted to AMERICAN ORIGINS -will survive, as the plain 

result of pateographic science in Anno Domini 1853. 

G. R. G. 



ESSAY III. 

mankind's chronology — INTRODUCTORY. 

Our brief inquiries into a subject which possesses such manifold ramifications may be 
conveniently heralded by an extract or two from the works of some learned contempo- 
raries : — 

" We must therefore acquiesce in the conclusion, that the Hebrew copies represent the 
original and authentic text of the book of Genesis. ... On historical grounds, very formi- 
dable objections present themselves to the Hebrew Chronology. . . . The difficulties are still 
greater when the Mosaic chronology is applied as a measure to profane history. ... It is 
not, however, in these dif&culties alone that we find reason for doubting whether the gene- 
alogies of the book of Genesis, taken either according to the Hebrew or the Septuagint, 
furnish us with a real chronology and history. . . . No evidence, therefore, remains, by 
which we can fix the interval which elapsed between the origin of the human race and the 
commencement of the special history of each nation. . . . The consequence of the method 
which has been commonly adopted, of making the Jewish chronology the bed of Procrustes, 
to which every other must conform in length, has been, that credence has been refused to 
histories, such as that of Egypt, resting upon unquestionable documents ; and we have 
voluntarily deprived ourselves of at least a thousand years, which had been redeemed for 
us from the darkness of ante-historical times." (317) 

" From this discrepancy we may infer, securely as it seems to me, that the Biblical 
writers had no revelation on the subject of chronology, but computed the succession of 
times from such data as were accessible to them. The duration of time, unless in so far 
as the knowledge of it was requisite for understanding the Divine Dispensation, was not a 
matter on which supernatural light was afforded ; nor was this more likely than that the 
facts connected with physical science should have been revealed. . . . The result of this 
part of our inquiry is, in the first place, that a much longer space of time must have 
elapsed than that allowed by modern chronologers between the age of Abraham and the 
Exode ; (318) and, secondly, that generations have certainly been omitted in the early 
genealogies. . . . By some it will be objected to the conclusions at which I have arrived, 
that there exists, according to my hypothesis, no chronology, properly so termed, of the 
earliest ages, and that no means are to be found for ascertaining the real age of the world. 
This I am prepared to admit, and I observe that the ancient Hebrews seem to have been of 
the same opinion, since the Scriptural writers have always avoided the attempt to compute 
the period in question. They go back, as we have seen in the instance of St. Paul's com- 
putation, to the age of Abraham, at the same time using expressions plainly denoting that 
they make no pretension to accurate knowledge, and could only approximate to the true 
dates of events ; but they have in no instance, as far as I remember, attempted to carry 
the computation of time further back, nor has any one writer alluded to the age of the 
world. . . . Beyond that event (the arrival of Abraham in Palestine) we can never know how 
mani/ centuries nor even liow many chiliads of years may have elapsed since the first man of 
day received the image of God and the breath of life."(319j 

(317) Ilev. Jonx Kexkick : Frimceval Histm-y ; London, 1846; pp. 56, 57, 58, 61, 62. 

(318) The contrary is now held by the highest Egyptologists: viz. — there being but Is.i^vc, Jacob, Levi, 
KoHATH, and Amr.vm — five generations, or about 165 years — between Abraham and Moses, this interval must 
be curtailed. Vide Lepsios : CUronologie der ^gypter ; and infra. 

(319) Prichard: Researches into the Physical History nf Manldnd; 1847; v., "Note on the Bill ical Chron. 
ology," pp 557, 560, 569, 570. 



654 mankind's chronology. 

"The Roman researches of Niebuhr had proved to me the uncertainty of the chronolo- 
gical system of the Greeks, beyond the Olympiads ; and that even Eusebius'a chronicle, as 
preserved in the Armenian translation, furnishes merely isolated, although important, data 
for the Assyrian and Babylonian chronology beyond the era of Nabonassar. Again, as 
regards the Jewish computation of time, the study of Scripture had long convinced me, 
that there is in the Old Testament no connected chronology, prior to Solomon. All that now 
passes for a system of ancient chronology beyond that fixed point, is the melancholy legacy 
of the Vtth and \?,th centuries ; a compound of intentional deceit and utter misconception of 
the principles of historical research." (320) 

With Germanic virility of diction, Bunsen further insists — 

" This fact must be explained. To deny it, after investigation once incited and begun, 
would imply, on the part of such investigator, small knowledge and still smaller 
honesty." (321) 

" But (il s'en faut) much is wanting, we are convinced of it, that religious truth should 
be thus tied to questions of literature or of chronology. Christian faith no more reposes 
upon the chronology of Genesis, than upon its physics and its astronomy ; and besides, to 
restrain ourselves to the subject that occupies us, the career of examination has been 
largely opened to us by men who certainly were far from holding Christian orthodoxy 
cheap." (322) 

Nor does our learned authority confine himself to mere assertion ; because, within a 
year after the publication of the above passage, he illustrates the slight estimation in which 
he holds Genesiacal chronology in the following emphatic manner : — 

"It must be known that I wish to make public a monument of which the interpretation, 
if this be admitted, will push back the bounds of historical certitude beyond everything 
that can have been imagined up to this day. . . . Because, one must not dissimulate, 
Manetho places king Mencheres in the IVth dynasty ; and the most moderate calculation, 
if one follows the ciphers of Manetho, makes the author of the third pyramid remount 
beyond the fortieth century before our era. A monument of six thousand years ! And 
what a monument! . . . We obtain the sum of 63 years, which, joined to the 4073 years, 
result of the preceding calculations, would give, to the end of the reign of Mycerinus, the 
date of 4136 before J. C." (323) 

That is, our author means, the third Pyramid was built in Egypt just 153 years before 
the world's Creation, and exactly 1809 years before the Flood ; according to the " Petavian" 
chronology of that Catholic Church in which M. Lenormant is a most devout communicant. 
AVe have thought it expedient to preface our chronological inquiries with the above four 
citations. Each of them will protect us, like an ^gk raised on the stalwart arm of Jove 
or of Pallas. We have selected, out of the multitude before us, the highest representatives 
of distinct schools ; who, nevertheless, perfectly agree in rejecting Scriptural chron- 
ology : — 

1st. The Rev. Dr. John Kenrick — author of many standard classical works, and of 
"Egypt under the Pharaohs," 1850, — one of the most brilliant Protestant scho- 
lars of England. 
2d. James Cowles Prichard, M. D., F. R. S. — the noblest champion of the "Unity of the 

human species." 
3d. Chev. Christian C. J. Bunsen — the successor of Niebuhr as Prussian Ambassador at 
the court of Rome, and of Wilhelm von Humboldt at that of St. James; the pupil of 
Schelling, and the friend of Lepsius. (324) 
4th. Prof. Charle? Lenormant — the companion and disciple of Champollion-le-Jeune ; 
alike famed for Hellenic erudition, and for severe Catholicity; who now fills the 
chair of Egyptology, vacated by Letronne's demise, at the College de France. (325) 
It will moreover be remarked that our quotations set up no claim, as yet, for the respect- 

(320) Bunsen : Egypt s Place in Universal History ; London, 1S48 ; i.. Preface, pp. 1. 2. 

(321) Ibid.: .^Jgyptens Sidle in der WdtgescMchte ; Hamburg, 1845, i., Einleitung, pp. 6, 7 — nnaccoimtably 
omitted in Egypt's Place by the accomplislied English translator. 

(322) Lenormant: Cours (T Hist. Ancienne ; Paris, 1838; p. 122. 

(323) Lenormant: £daircissements sur U Ctramt du. Rni Memphite Mycerinns; Paris, 1S39; pp. 3, 6, 24. 

(324) Read Dr. Arnold's eulogies of this illustrious gentleman. 

(325) Gubdon: Olia JEgyptiaca ; 1849; pp.) 91, 92. 



INTRODUCTORY. 655 

ability of tlie chronological systems of other nations 'at the expense of Judaism. On the 
contrary, they bear -with undivided force upon Hebrew computations, -viewed for themselves 
alone. 

Not less truthfully does the language of a profound thinker — expression of a fifth, and 
far more liberal philosophy, — set forth the effeteness of Jewish chronology. Luke Burke's 
■writings are unmistakeable : his " Critical Analysis of the Hebrew Chronology " (326) is 
one of the most masterly productions our literature can boast. Curtailment is injustice to 
its author : to the reader garbled extracts would be unsatisfactory ; and the sincere inves- 
tigator knows where to peruse the whole. We content our present requirements with one 
specimen : — 

"Such, then, is the character and importance of 'the most brilliant and important of 
Primate Usher's improvements in chronology ! ' [as Dr. Hales terms the fabulous notion 
that Abraham was not the eldest son of Terah!] It consists, first, of an argument that 
turns out to be groundless, in every one of its elements ; and, which, if well founded, 
would prove the Old Testament to be one of the most absurdly written books in existence; 
and secondly, of an assumption which, apart from this argument, is wholly gratuitous and 
improbable ; and which also, if admitted, would bear equally hard against the character 
of the very writings for the support of which it was invented. And it is by such argu- 
ments as these that grave and learned divines seek to ascertain the realities of ancient his- 
tory, and endeavor to place chronology upon a rational and sure foundation ! And it is to 
such as these that men of science ai-e i-equired to bow, at the risk of being deemed scep- 
tical, dangerous, profane, &c., &c. For it must not be supposed that the present is an 
isolated or exceptional instance of theological argument. On the contrary, it is a rule. 
Volumes upon volumes have been written in precisely the same spirit — volumes numerous 
enough, and ponderous enough, to fill vast libraries. Until a comparatively late era, all 
historical criticism, on which Scriptural evidences could in any manner be brought to bear, 
was carried on in this spirit. Nothing else was thought of; nothing approaching to genuine 
independence would have been tolerated. And thus the human world rolled round, century 
after century ; the brave trampled upon by slaves ; the wise compelled to be silent in the 
presence of fools : the learned alternately serfs and tyrants, deluded and deluding, cheat- 
ing themselves, and cheating others with sophistries which, upon any other subject, would 
disgrace even the mimic contests of schoolboys ! For ourselves, we should feel a humilia- 
tion to contend with such sophistries seriously, and in detail, were we not firmly convinced 
that to do so is not merely the most legitimate, but also the only mode by which truth can 
be rendered permanently triumphant. Wit and sarcasm may obtain a temporary success, 
they may awaken minds otherwise prepared for freedom, but they are often unjust, usually 
unbenevolent, and consequently, in the majority of cases, they merely awaken antagonism, 
and cause men to cling with increased fondness to their opinions. Nothing but minute, 
searching, inexorable argument will ever obtain a speedy, or a permanent triumph over 
deep-seated prejudices." (327) 

" But, fortunately," winds up another and a sixth formidable adversary to Hebrew com- 
putation — no less an archi5ologue than the great Parisian architect, Lesueur — "fortu- 
nately, questions of ciphers have nothing in common with religion. What imports it to us, 
to us Christians, who date so to say from yesterday, that man should have been thrown 
upon our globe at an epoch more or less remote ; that the world should have been created 
in six days, or that its birth should have consumed myriads of centuries ? Can God, 
through it, become less grand, his work less admirable ? We are, since the last eighteen 
hundred years, dupes of the besotted vanity of the Jews. It is time that this mystification 
should cease." (328) 

Italian scholarship speaks for itself: — (329) 

" The Bible is, certainly, as the most to be venerated, so the most authoritative fount of 
history ; but, in so many varieties of chronological systems, which are all palmed off by 
their authors as based upon indications of time taken from the Bible ; in the very notable 
ditfercnce of these indications between the Hebrew and the Samaritan text, and the Greek 
version, and between the books of the Old and of the New Testament ; finally, in the inde- 
cision, in which the Church has always left such controversy, that, I do not see any certain 
standard, by which the duration of the Egyptian nation has to be levelled, unless this 

(326) London Ethnological Journal; June, .Tuly, November, December, 1848. 

(327) Op. cU.; pp. 274, 275. 

(328) Chronologie des Jlois (V £gijple — ouvrage couronno par I'Academic: Paris, 1848; pp. 304, 305. 

(329) Baeucchi, Director of the Museum of Turin; Discorsi Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; Torino, 1844; 
pp. 29, 43, 44, 147. 



656 mankind's chronology. 

become determined through an accurate examination of all its historic fountains. . . . 
Leaving therefore aside anysoever system of biblical chronology; because, of the quantity 
hitherto brought into the field by the erudite none are certain, nor exempt from difficulties 
the most grave ; and, because the Church, to whose supreme magistracy belongs the deci- 
sion of controversies appertaining to dogma and to morals, has never intermeddled in pro- 
nouncing sentence upon any one of the systems aforesaid, of which but one can be true, 
while all peradventure may be erroneous. ... I shall finish by repeating in this place that 
which already I declared elsewhere, viz.: it is not my intention to combat any systems 
regarding biblical chronology ; but inasmuch as, of these, not one is propounded as true 
under the Chdrch's infallible authority ; I have placed all these (systems) aside in the 
present examining, in order to treat Egyptian chronology through the sole data of history 
and of Egyptian monuments." 

Finally, we quote Lepsius : — (330) 

"The Jewish chronology differs in a most remarkable manner from every other; and 
even in times as modern as those of the Persian kings the difference amounts to no less 
than 160 years, from known dates. Its several sources present but little difference among 
themselves. They count according to years of the world ; a calculation which, as also Ideler 
(Hand. d. Chron. I. pp. 569, 578, 580), considers most probable, was invented, together u-ith 
the whole present chronology of the Jews, by the Rabbi Hillel Hanassi, in the year 344 after 
Christ : and thenceforward gradually adopted. They fix the creation of the world 3671 
B. c. ; and all agree, even Josephus, in the usual calculation of the Hebrew text. They 
fix the deluge at 1656, the birth of Abraham at 1948, Isaac's 2048, Jacob's 2108, Joseph's 
2199, Jacob's arrival in Egypt 2238, Joseph's death 2309, years after Adam." ..." The 
question is now, how must we explain this obvious dislocation of facts as compared with 
the true dates. Ideler has demonstrated that the introduction of the era of the world, and 
consequently of the whole system of chronology, must be ascribed to the author of the 
Moleds, [or ' New Moons,') and in general of the whole later Jewish calendar, the Rabbi 
Hillel who flourished in the first half of the IVth century." 

Reserving further extracts until we take up the Hebrew chronology, it here suffices to 
notice that Moses, who lived about the fourteenth century b. c, is not amenable for nume- 
rical additions made, to books that go by his venerable name, about 1800 years after his 
death, by a modern Rabbi. 

The unanimity of science in the rejection of any system of biblical computation might 
be exemplified by many hundred citations : either, of savans who, establishing grander 
systems more in accordance with the present stats of knowledge, pass over the rabbinical 
ciphers in contemptuous silence ; or, of divines who, like the Rev. Dr. Hitchcock (Presi- 
dent of Amherst College, and Professor of Natural Theology and Geology) strive, vainly we 
opine, to reconcile the crude cosmology of the infantine Hebrew mind with the terrestrial 
discoveries of matured intellects like Cuvier, De la Beche, Murchison, Owen, Lyell, or 
Agassiz. Nevertheless, Calvinism in the pages of Hitchcock begins to affect a more amiable 
disguise than was worn by the magnanimous slayer of Servetus, or by the iconoclastic 
John Knox ; to judge by the following admissions : — 

" If these positions be correct, it follows that, as we ought not to expect the doctrines 
■ of religion in treatises on science, so it is unreasonable to look for the principles of philo- 
sophy in the Bible. . . . But a still larger number of [clerical] authors, although men of 
talents, and familiar, it may be, with the Bible and theology, have no accurate knowledge 
of geology. The results have been, first, that, by resorting to denunciation and charges 
of infidelity, to answer arguments from geology, which they did not understand, they have 
excited unreasonable prejudices and alarm among common Christians respecting that science 
and its cultivators; secondly, they have awakened disgust, and even contempt, among 
scientific men, especially those of sceptical tendencies [! ] , who have inferred that a cause 
which resorts to such defences must be very weak. They have felt very much as a good 
Greek scholar would, who should read a severe critique upon the style of Isocrates, or 
Demosthenes, and, before he had finished the review, should discover internal evidence that 
the writer had never learned the Greek alphabet." (331) 

How true the latter part of this paragraph is, the reader has convinced himself by the 
perusal of our Essay I. \svpra'\ ; where the Hebraical knowledge of Calvinistic divines in Ame- 

■• 

(330) Chronologic der JEgypttr: "Kritik der Quellen," i. pp. 259, 360, 361, 362. 

(331) Tht Sdigum of Geology; Boston, 1552 : p. 3, and Preface, p. 7. 



INTRODUCTORY. 657 

rica has been compared with that of coetaneous Lutherans and Catholics in Europe. Con- 
tentions between scramblers for the loaves and fishes may, however, be left to the diverted 
contemplation of the gatherers of St. Peter's pence. None of them have real bearing upon 
the science of mundane chronology, to which our present investigations are confined. 

Until very recent times, it was customary, among chronologers, to follow the Judaic and 
post-Christian system in assigning eras to events ; viz. : by assuming that a given occur- 
rence had taken place in such a year [Anno Miindi) of the Creation of the world. This 
arrangement would have been absolutely exact, if the precise moment of Creation, accord- 
ing to the "book of Genesis," had been previously settled, or even conventionally agreed 
upon : but, unhappily, no two men ever patiently reckoned up its numerals and exhibited 
the same sum total ; as will be made apparent anon, in its place. Besides, this arrange- 
ment was found by experience to be theologically unsafe ; because, on the one hand, the 
Christian Fathers, by assuming the Septuagint computation, demonstrated that Jesus, ap- 
pearing exactly in Josephus's 5555th year of the world, could be no other than the XpiaToi, 
"the anointed ;" (ZZ2) whilst, on the other hand, the Jewish Doctors, proving through 
computation of the Hebrew Text that the birth of Jesus had occurred in the year of the 
world 3751, demonstrated that he could not possibly be their MeSAaiaH. (333) 

" There was an old tradition," says the profound Kennicott, (334) " alike common among 
Judteans and Christians, sprung from the mystic interpretation of Creation In six days, that 
the duration of the world should be 6000 years : that the Messianic advent should be in 
the sixth millennium ; because he would come in the latter days. The ancient Jews, there- 
fore, their chronology having been previously contracted, made use of an argument suffi- 
ciently specious, through which they did not recognize Jesus : for the Messiah was to come 
in the sixth millennium; but Jesus was born (according to the computation of time by them 
received) in the latter part of th^ fourth millennium, about the year of the world 3760 [Seder 
Olam, edit. Meyer; pp. 95 and 111). The very celebrated [Muslim- Arab] Abul-Pharagius, 
who lived in the Xlllth century, in his history of Dynasties, thus proffers a sentence worthy 
of remembrance ; by Pococke so rendered into Latin: — 'A defective computation is ascribed 
by Doctors of the Jews — For, as it is pronounced, in the Law and the Prophets, about the 
Messiah, he was to be sent at the ultimate times : nor otherwise is the commentary of the 
more antique Rabbis, who reject Christ ; as if the ages of men, by which the epoch of the 
world is made out, could change. They subtracted from the life of Adam, at the birth of 
Seth, one hundred years, and added them to the rest of the latter's life ; and they did the 
same to the lives of the rest of the children of Adam, down to Abraham. And thus it was 
done, as their computation indicates, in order that Christ should be manifested in the fifth 
[fourth, K.] millennary through accident in the middle of the years of the world ; which in 
all, according to them, will be 7000 : and they said. We are noiv in the middle of this time, 
and yet the time designated for the advent of the Messiah has not arrived.' The computation of 
the LXX also indicates, that Christ should be manifested in the sixth millennary, and that 
this would be his time. . . . The old Italic version, which, according to St. Augustine, was 
' verborum tenacior cum pei-spicuitate sententioe,' is the foundation of the chronologia major 
of the Latin Church, to this day (1780) ; for, ' in the Roman Martyrology, which is publicly 
chanted in church, on the 8th Jan., the Nativity of the Lord is thus announced to the 
people from the ecclesiastical table: Year from the creation 5099 (5199 in Martyrol. Rom. 
Antwei-p. 1678, p. 388) : and fro7n the deluge year 2957 (Hod., p. 447)." 

A quotation from a Christian work next to canonical will establish the belief of those 
early communities who lived nearest to the apostles : — the 5500 years, be it noted, had 
been, by Nicodemus, " found in the first of the seventy books, where Michael the arch- 
angel" had mentioned them to "Adam, the first man." 

" 13 By these five cubits and a half for the building of the Ark of the Old Testament, we perceived and 
knew that in five thousand years and half (one thousand) years, Jesus Christ was to come in the 
ark or tabernacle of the body ; 

14 And so our Scriptures testify that he is the Son of God, and the Lord and King of Israel. 

15 And because after his suffering, our chief priests were surprised at the signs which were wrought by 

his means, we opened that book to search all the generations down to the generation of Joseph 
and Mary the mother of Jesus, supposing him to be the seed of David ; 

(332) Hen-sell: Christian Theism ; 1845; pp. 82, 83. * 

(333) Seder Olam Rabha, compo.<ied about a. d. 130; apud HiLES. 

(334) Disstrtalio Generalis; §75, pp. 32. 33, 7G. 

83 



658 



MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. 



" 16 And we found the account of the creation, and at what time he made the heaven and the earth, anil 
the first man Adam, and that from thence to the flood, were two thousand, two hundred, and 
twelve years. 

17 And from the flood to Ahraham, nine hundred and twelve. And from Abraham to Moses, four hundred 

and thirty. And from Moses to David the Iting, five hundred and ten. 

18 And from DaviU to the Babylonish captivity, five hundred years. And from the Babylonish captivity 

to the incarnation of Christ, four hundred years. 

19 The sum of all which amounts to five thousand and a half (a thousand.) 

20 And so it appears, that Jesus, whom we crucified, is Jesus Christ the Son of God, the true and Almighty 

God. Amen." (335) 

The conclusive logic of this passage derives support from another ancient Christian 
document, wherein is given the reason why the end of the world was expected some time 
ago: — 

" Consider, my children, what that signifies, he [God] finished [creating] them in six 
days. The meaning of it is this ; that in six thousand years the Lord God will bring all 
things to an end." (336) 

Such being the whole story, the reader has now to make choice of whichever of the fol- 
lowing dates may suit his views upon the 



Epochas of Ckeation. 



Biblical Texts and Versions. B. c. 

Septuagint computation 5586 

Septuagint Alexandrinus 5508 

Septuagint Vatican 5270 

Samaritan computation 4427 

Samaritan Text 4306 

Hebrew Text 4161 

EnglishBible 4004 

Jewish Computations. 

iPIayfair 5555 
Jackson 5481 
Hales 5402 
Universal History 4698 

Talmudists 5344 

Seder 01am Sutha 4339 

.Jewish computation 4220 

" " 4184 



Josephus 



B.C. 

Chinese Jews 4079 

Some Talmudists 3761 

Vulgar Jewish computation 3760 

Seder 01am Rabba, great Chronicle of the World, 

A. D. 130 .3751 

Kabbi Lipman 3616 

dmstian Divines. 

Clemens Alexandrinus, A. D. 194 5624 

Hales, Rev. Dr 54U 

Origen, , a.d. 230 4830 

Kennedy, Bedford, Ferguson 4007 

Usher, Lloyd, Calmet 4004 

Helvetius, Marsham 4000 

Melancthon 3964 

Luther 3961 

Scaliger 3950 



These are mere excerpts of 120 different opinions, on the date of Creation, tabulated by 
Hales. (337) This list can easily be swelled to above 300 distinct and contradictory hypo- 
theses. Between the highest epoch, b. c. 6984 (the Alphonsine tables), and the lowest, 
B. c. 8616 (Rabbi Lipman), there is the trifling difference of 3268 years! 

It is but fair to set off Catholic against Protestant authorities, so we cull a few more 
instances from the learned pages of De Brotonne(338). — "Among authors who deny the 
eternity of the world, not one, from its creation to the advent of Jesus Christ, counts more 
than 7000 years, nor less than 3700." He also supplies a schedule of 70 more disputants, 
ranging between b. c. 6984 and 3740, from Riccioli ; (339) but the subjoined are some of 
his own, extra. 

B.C. 

Suidas 6000 

Nioephorus, Constantinopolitanus 5500 

Eusebius Csesariensis 5200 

St. Jerome, and Beda v'lsa- 3952 

Hilarion 5475 

St. Julian, and the LXX 5205 



Hebrew Text 3834 

St. Isidore 5336 

Montanus 3849 

Vossius 5590 

Petavius (Romanist authority) 3983 



(335) Gospel of Nicodemus ; chap. xxii. — Apochryphal New Testament, pp. 51, 52. 

(336) General' J^slU of Barnabas; xiii. 4: op. Ci(. ; p. 101. 

(337) Analysis: i. p. 212. 

338) Filiaiions et Migrations des Peuples: Paris, 1827; 428-436. 
(339) Chronologia reformats, ; pp. 290-292, 293. 






INTRODUCTORY. 



659 



Riccioli shows that computations upon different exemplars of the LXX oscillate, also, 
between a maximum of 5904 years b. c, and a minimum of 5054, for the Creation alone! 
Nevertheless, "Coelum ipsum petimus stultitia." Not satisfied with human inability to 
define, through biblical or anysoever methods of reckoning, the age when Creative Power 
first whirled our incandescent planet from the sun's fire-mist, some intelligences, at the 
supernatural stage of mental development, have actually fixed the month, day, and hour ! 

" And now hee that desireth to know the yeere of the world, which is now passing over 
us this yeere 1644, will find it to bee 5572 yeeres just now finished since the Creation; and 
the year 5573 of the world's age, now newly begunne this September at the JEquinox." (340) 
Anno Mundi I; " Vlth dcnj of Creation, ... his (Adam's) wife the weaker vessell : she not 
yet knowing that there were any Devils at all . . . sinned, and drew her husband into the 
same transgression with her ; this was about high noone, the time of eating. And in this 
lost condition into which Adam and Eve had now brought themselves, did they lie comfort- 
lesse till towards the cool of the day, or three o'clock afternoone. . . . (God) expelleth them 
out of Eden, and so fell Adam on the day that he was created." (341) 

" We do not speak of the theory set forth in a work entitled Noiweau Systime des Temps, 
by Gibert father and son. This system, which is not so new as its title seems to announce, 
gives to the world only 3600 years of duration down to the 1st July, 1834; and makes 
Adam's birth 1797 years before J. C, on the 1st July." (342) 

" It is, besides, generally allowed by Chronologists, that the beginning of the patriarchal 
year was computed from the autumnal equinox, which fell on October 20th, b. c. 4005, the 
year of the creation." (343) 

But the Promethean intrepidity of orthodoxy is not content with mathematical demon- 
strations of the year, the month, the day, nor the hour of Creation. It ascends, in some 
extatic cases, far beyond ! Thus, Philomneste heads an especial chapter with 
" Antegenisie — What God was about before the creation of the world." (344) 
Albeit, none of these profanations of science contain one solitary element, in regard to 
Creation, that is strictly chronological. " Passons au Deluge " (345) — let us descend to the 
Flood; and see what resting-place a "dove" could find amid these wastes of waters and 
of time. For the 

Epochas or THE Deluge, 
out of sixteen opinions published by Hales — maximum, b. c. 3246 ; minimum, 2104 ; differ- 
ence 1142 years — the following are singularly in accordance: — 



B.C. 

Tulgar Jewish computation 2104 

Hales 3155 

Usher 234S 

Calmet 2344 



Septuajint version 3246 

Samaritan Text 2998 

English Bible 2348 

Hebrew Text 2288 

Josephus 3146 

So are also the intervals of time assigned, by the subjoined computators, to mundane 
existence, between the Creation and the Flood. We borrow them from De Brotonne. 

Creation to Deluge. 



TEARS. 

Josephus 2256 

Suidas, Nicephorus, Eusebius, St. Julian, St. Isi- 
dore 2242 

Clemens Alexandrinus 2148 

nilarion 2257 

Tossius, RiccioU 2256 

Cornelius a Lapide 16.57 



TEARS. 

Later Rabbis, St. Jerome, Beda, Slontanus, Sca- 
liger, Origanus, Emmius, Petavius, Gordonus, 
Salianus, Torniellus, Hervartus, Phllippi, Ti- 
rinus, Riccioli 1656 

St. Augustine — "From Adam to the Deluge, ac- 
cording to our sacred books (t. c, the LXX), 
there have elapsed 2242 years, a.s per our ex- 
emplars ; and 1656, according to the Hebrews." 



(340) Rev. Dr. Lightfoot: Barmony of the Foure Emngelistes ; London, 1644; 1st part, Prolcg., last page. 

(341) Ibid.: Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the Old Testament; London, 1647; p. 5. 

(342) De Brotoxne; op. cit. ; ii. p. 160. 

(."43) Rev. Dr. F. Nolan: The Egyptian Chronology Analysed : London, 1848; p. 392. 

(344) Livre des Singularilis: Dyme, 1841. 

(345) TUlSIiVS, in Les Plaideurs: iii. 54. 



^ _ 



iL 



660 



MANKINDS CHRONOLOGr. 



But these discrepancies are increased by the computations made, since 1623 a. d., upon 
MSS. of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which generally yield an interval between the Creation 
and the Deluge of years 1307. 

The basis of all these calculations lies in the hyperbolical lives of the ten antediluvian 
Patriarchs. It vfill be seen, through the skilful synopsis of a learned divine, how admir- 
ably the numerals of the Hebrew and Samaritan texts correspond, not merely with each 
other, but with those of the Septuagint version, and of Josephus: — 

" The following tabular schemes exhibit the variations ; the numbers expressing the 
parent's age at the son's birth, except in the cases of Noah and Shem.(846) 



Akte-Diluttan 
Patriarchs. 



1. Adam , 

2. Seih , 

3. Enos 

4. Cainan 

5. ilahalaleel .... 

6. Jared 

7. Unoch 

8. Methuselah.... 

9. Lamech 

10. Noah (at the Flood) 

* 165 is doubt-] 
less the correct )- Total 
reading. J 



Hebr. 


Samr. 


LXX. 


Josep. 


130 


130 


230 


230 


105 


105 


205 


205 


90 


90 


190 


190 


70 


70 


170 


170 


65 


65 


165 


165 


162 


62 


162 


102 


65 


65 


165 


(1)65* 


187 


67 


187 


187 


182 


53 


188 


182 


600 


600 


600 


600 


1656 


1307 


2262 


2256 



POST-DlLTIVIAN 

Patriarchs. 



11. Shem (aged 100 at 

the Flood) 

12. Arphaxad 

[Cainan spurious... 

13. Salah 

14. Heher 

15. Peleg 

16. Beu 

17. Serug 

18. Nahor 

19. Terah (Gen. xi. 32, 

xii. 4.) 



&o to Abraham .... 352 



Helbr. 



2 

35 

30 
34 
30 
32 
30 
29 
130 



Samr. 



2 
135 

130 
134 
130 
132 
130 
79 
130 



LXX. 



2 
135 
130 
130 
134 
130 
132 
130 
79 
130 



1002 



Josep. 



12 

135 
...] 
130 
134 
1.30 
130 
132 
120 
130 



1053 



The above, like all other tables compiled by theological computators to illustrate so- 
called "Biblical chronology," assumes the numerals of current printed exemplars to be 
correct ; but, if we set to work, archaeologically, to verify the original Hebrew, Greek, and 
Samaritan manuscripts, we find even this apparent uniformity to be a delusion — indeed, 
another orthodox figment. A few instances pleasingly exhibit this fact (347) : — 

" In one of the manuscripts collated by Dr. Kennicott, and which is marked in his Bible, 
codex clvii., this century [in the Hebrew generation of Jared] is omitted, and there is much 
probability that it was also omitted in the copies used by the eastern Jews. According to 
the testimony of Ismael Sciahinshia, an eastern writer, all these copies reckon only 1556 
years from Adam to the flood, instead of 1656. . . . According to the numbers still existing 
in the vast majority of [Greek] manuscripts, Methuselah dies 14 years after the deluge, 
and had not the fifty-three, of the generation of Lamech, been changed to eighty-eight, he 
would have died 49 years after the deluge. . . . The deluge occurred, according to the Sep- 
tuagint, in the year of the world 2242, and by adding up the generations previous to his, 
we shall find that he was born in the year 1287. He lived 969 years, and therefore died 
in 2256. But this is 14 years after the deluge ! . . . And had they [the theologers] not, by a 
previous system of changes, added a century [in Greek 3JSS.'\ to all the generations, he 
would have died 249 years after it. . . . Origen appears to have been the first who gave 
notoriety to the contradiction ; and for a long time, the fact greatly disturbed theologians. 
The reader will be hardly surprised to learn that in a subsequent age some manuscripts 
were /ot/nc? with the error corrected. . . . Some [Greek MSS.'\ make the generation of Adam 
380 years; one makes it 240. Another gives 180 to Canaan, a third 170 to Jared, while 
others allow 177 or 180 to Methuselah. . . . One [Hebrew] manuscript, codex Ivii. of 
Holmes, makes the age of Methuselah 947 : three or four other authorities make the gene- 
ration of Lamech 180 : the two corrections conjoined, bring the death of JJethuselah to 
the year of the deluge. We also find three other authorities making the generation of 
Methuselah 180 years; this connected with the 188 of Lamech, places the death of 
Methuselah only one year after the deluge, even allowing him full age. Another manuscript 
makes his generation 177 years, three other authorities give the number 165, while one 
manuscript makes his total age 965. . . . Dr. Kennicott has given readings of 320 Hebrew 
manuscripts of the book of Genesis. 97 of these have been collated throughout, 223 in 
part only. . . . One manuscript (codex clvii.) omits the hundred years in his [Jared's] 
generation; two others (codices ci. and clxxvi.) omit it in that of Methuselah; and one 
(codex xviii.) in that of Lamech. Codex clxxvi. makes the generation of Lamech 172 and 
his total age 772, and codex xviii. makes his total ag« 909. . . . We also find that, in three 

(346) Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M. : Hm'ce Ajyocalyptica ; London, 1540; it. p. 254, note. Compare "Tables of the 
discrepancies of the three Texts with regard to the Ante-dil avian Patriarchs" in Wallace: Dissertation an the 
Tru« ^^e o/(/ie TFoWd; London, 1844, pp. 14-16. 

(347) BaKKE : Elhnological Journak;-. 1«18,; pp: 27, 2S, 82, 83,. 84, 87, 73-91. 



.17' 



INTRODUCTORY. 



661 



or four manuscripts, some of the numbers of Methuselah are written over erasures. This, 
of course, looks suspicious. One manuscript (codex civ.) makes Enoch live after the birth 
of Methuselah ' five and sixty and three hundred years ' [i. e., the old 365 days of an Egyp- 
tian vague year !] , instead of 300 years simply." 

Thus far Luke Burke in his studies of the ZTefirew variations exhibited by Kennicott. (348) 
The annexed Table shows how he found matters in the Greek of Holmes. (349) 

"Table III. 



N.IMES. 



Adam 

Seth 

Exes 

Cain AN 

Mahalaleel 

Jared 

Enoch 



Methuselah 



Lamecb. 



Before Generation. 



167 



188 



fl32 
1.805 

("180 
^140 
( 95 

ISO 

65 

170 



187 



fJISS. 31,121, Aid., 
1 Theop. p. 13. 

MS. 77 

Slav., Arm. Ed 

MS. 127 

Coptic 

MS. 65 

MS. 75 

MS. 127 

.MS. 106 

MS. 127 

MS. 75 

MS. X 

CMS. 100,107, Com- 
t pi., Georg. 

MS.75'. 

(MS.71,SlaT.,The- 
I op. p. 133. 

iMS.I,X,15,16,55. 
59,64.68,8.3,120, 
121,131,135,187, 
Aid.. Ale.x.,Chry- 
so.^. IV., Arm. Ed. 
and a few others. 



fMS.75,187,Chry- 
1 pos. IV. 

/Arab. 2. Chron. 
\ Orient. 



After Generation. 



565 



f705 
(.800 



807 

(705 
^916 
1,800 

800 

830 



595 



32 



MS. 135 

Slav., Ostrog., 12i 



MS. 127 



MS. 135 

" 14, 78, 130,133 
MS 127 



MS. 127.. 
MS. 127., 



MS.I.,X.,14,15. 

20,25,55,57,59. 
64,6.8.71,73,75, 
77.78,79,83,121, 
128,130,131,133 
135, Aid., Cat 
Nic, Arm. 1, 
Arm. Ed. .Arab. 
l,2,Alex.,Slav., 
& perhaps an- 
other examin'd 
by Vossius. 



Arab. 2., 



Total Aass. 



2. 3. 



969 



1200 



(910 
J902 
l772 



795 
847 
465 



f947 
1.965 



1733 
755 
765 
768 
777 



Corrected in 
the margin to 
930, 300 having 
been accident 
ally put for 30, 
MS. 18 

MS. 19. 
MS. IS. 
Arab. 2. 



MS. 79. 



(MS. 14, 25, 31. 
4 38, 57, 73, 77, 

(78, 79. 
MS. 127. 

MS. 71. ■ 



MS. 57. 
MS. 82. 



Arm. 1. 

MS. 19, 107,107. 
MS. 25. 
Arab. 3. 
Arab. 2. 



* In this case, nine hundred has been corrected by another hand into .seven hundred. There are several 
minor remarks and explanations relative to this table, which we should have been glad to have afforded, 
were we not much pressed for time and space. These, however, would, after all, be of little interest to the 
general reader, and the learned reader will not need them. 



. . . The first glance at this table will show the inquirer, that he has got into a region of 
various readings, very different from that presented to him by the Hebrew manuscripts. 
Instead of some eiyht or nine variations found in some three hundred manuscripts, he has 
about 118, found in a much smaller number of manuscripts ! . . . Are we to say, then, that 
the Christian scribes were, in general, so wretchedly careless, that they made twenty eirors 
where a Jew made but one? . . . These things, therefore, evince design, not accident. We 
find one variation followed by more than 32 authorities, another by 18, a third by 9. 
There are three which are each copied by four manuscripts, four which are copied by 
three each, and two which have each two manuscripts agreeing in them : thirty-one only 
are single vai-iations, and some of them, at least, are as clearly intentional as any of the 
others. As to the variation which makes Methuselah live 782 years after the birth of La- 
mech, instead of 802, no one can doubt of its being intentional. 788 is the Hebrew date, 
and it was here copied from the Hebrew for the same reason that the Hebrew was pre- 
viously invented, viz. : for the purpose of bringing the death of Methujselah within the 
antediluvian period, instead of fourteen years after it. . . . Codex LVII. has the total age 



(348) Velui Testamentum Hebraicum, cum variis Uctionibits ; folio, Oxen. 1776-'80. 

(349) Velus Teslamenlum Grcecum, cum variis lectionibus; folio, Oxon. 1798-1827. 



662 mankind's chronology, 

of Methuselali 947, Tvliile four authorities have his generation 165. . . . The ivhole number 
of variations in the case of Methuselah is 60; more than half the number in the entire 
Antediluvian Chronology. Every one of them but four, or at the utmost five, viz., those 
making the generation 165, and codex LXXXII. making the total age 965, have reference to the 
error in the age of Methuselah. This fact is of course significant ; and at once reduces, 
to nearly one-half, the number of variations that can be supposed accidental. This number 
is easily reduced still farther. Codex Arabicus II. has all the Hebrew numbers, in the case 
of Lamech. The Chronicon Orientalis has the generation like the Hebrew, and, for any- 
thing we know to the contrary, may have the other periods in harmony with this genera- 
tion. Codex CXXVII. has the Samaritan numbers in five instances. The Sclavonic version 
gives us both the Hebrew numbers in the case of Adam, the Armenian edition gives one of 
them, and the Ostrogoth version the other. Thus we have 13 more intentional varia- 
tions, making the whole number, thus far, 73 out of 118. Nine manuscripts make the total 
age of Mahalaleel 795, instead of 895 ; four make the generation of Adam 330 instead of 
230 ; four others make the age of Enos after generation 915 instead of 715 ; and four make 
the generation of Lamech 180, instead of 188 or 182. Three make the total age of Lamech 
755, while three others make it respectively 733, 765, and 768. These make 27 
other cases in which the intention is apparent though less obviously than the former. So 
that we thus have 99 instances out of 118, which cannot be reasonably attributed to a<!ci- 
dent. And even of the remaining nineteen, there are not more than two that have any 
unequivocal indications of being accidental. The substitution of 300 for 80 in Codex XVIII., 
in the total age of Adam, is evidently accidental, as is the 805 for 205 in the Coptic version, 
of the generation of Seth. Accident may also have occasioned some of the other changes, 
but this is not probable. . . . When Origen, in the early part of the Hid century, began to 
collate these manuscripts and versions, he was confounded at the clashings which he dis- 
covered in them. Whole passages existed in some [Greek biblical MSS.] for which there 
was no counterpart in others, nor in the Hebrew, nor in the Samaritan. . . . 

" The reader will here naturally ask, how is it that the commentators have managed to 
confront these hosts of difficulties, and yet avoid the inevitable inferences which a clear 
view of them discloses ? The answer is simple. They never have fairly confronted them. 
They never have classified them, or analyzed them, in a manner likely to lead to the truth. 
They would not admit that any conclusion could be true which did not harmonize with their 
pre-conceived theory of the entire inspiration of every portion of the Scriptures — -of every 
portion at least which they severally regarded as canonical. This with them was a settled 
point, from which they neither wished to recede, nor dared to recede., Their works there- 
fore present us with little more than vain attempts to reconcile, to soften down, to slur 
over these contradictions. 

'• Thus, it is evident that this antediluvian chronology, as we now have it, is not the work 
of any one person, or of any one era. In its original form [not earlier than b. c. 130 to 
420] it was not only contradictory to all human experience, and to the laws of organiza- 
tion, but also glaringly self-contradictory. It is plain, too, that it has been repeatedly 
altered, in various ages, and by various people, and that these alterations have been made 
in a perfectly arbitrary manner, and without any reference to facts or historical data bear- 
ing upon the subject. Who can say by whom, or when it was drawn up, or how many 
stages it has passed through previously to the changes we have spoken of? Is it not folly, 
then, to pretend to regulate history by a -series of numbers thus tampered with, to say 
nothing of their scientific and historic impossibility?" 

Folly ! It is worse than folly : it is an absolute disregard of every principle of recti- 
tude ; an impudent mockery of educated reason ; a perpetualized insult to honest under- 
standings ; and a perdurable dereliction, on the part of interested and self-conceited 
supernaturalists, of Almighty truth. Ignorance, abject ignorance, is the only plea through 
which future sustainers of genesiacal numerals can escape from the charge of knavery. 
Let imbecility impale itself, henceforward, on either horn of this dilemma for edification 
of the learned ; and with the derisive jeers of men of science, who are now endeavoring 
to reconstruct a solid chronology out of the d6bris of universal and primeval humanity yet 
traceable, in their various centres of Creation, upon our planet's superficies. 

The reader of Essay I. in the present work is aware of the conjectural hundreds 
of thousands of variants proceeding from what Kennicott, De Rossi, and the Rabbis, qualify 
as the "horrible state" of the 3Ianuscripts of the Old Testament. He also may infer the 
historical metamorphoses of alphabets, and the alterations of numbers which, to suit different 
schools of theology, the Hebrew and Samaritan Texts, and Septuagint version, underwent 
between the third century before c. and the fourth century after. A pledge, too, has been 
incidentally made to him, that a future publication shall demonstrate why the " ten patri- 



INTRODUCTORY. 663 

archs," from A-DaM to NoaKA, were no more human beings, in the idea of their original 
writers, than are the ethno-geographical names catalogued in Xth Genesis. Abler hands, 
in another chapter [XL] of this volume, have set forth what of geology and palaBontology 
throws more or less light upon Types of Mankind. 

Leaving the Deluge, its universality or its fabled reality, to professional reconcilers ;(350) 
the chronological bearings of this hypothetical event compel us not to dodge, at the same 
time that it is far from our intention to dwell upon, its passing consideration. No Hebraist 
disputes that, according to the literal language of the Text, the flood was universal. To 
make the Hebrew Text read as if it spoke of a partial or local catastrophe may be very 
harmonizing, but it is false philology, and consequently looks very like an imposture. 

" The waters swelled up (prevailed) infinitely over the earth ; all the high mountains, be- 
neath all the skies, were covered : fifteen cubits upward did the waters rise ; the mountains 
were covered." (351) 

The level of the flood was, therefore, 22| feet above the Dhawalaghiri (28,074 feet) and 
over the Sorata (25,200 feet); according to Humboldt. (352) Equivalent to some two miles 
above the line of perpetual snow must, therefore, have been the level whereupon the Ark 
would have been frozen solid but for an universal thaw. This is what the Hebrew chronicler 
meant by KuL HaHeRIM, HaGiBuHIM — all the high mountains ; even if Hindostan and 
America were as alien to his geography, as such an aqueous elevation is to the physicist. 

"If there is any circumstance," declares Cuvier, "thoroughly established in geology, 
it is, that the crust of our globe has been subjected to a great and sudden revolution, the 
epoch of which cannot be dated much further back than foe or six thousand years ago ; that 
this revolution had buried all the countries which were before inhabited by men and by the 
other animals that are now best known." (353) 

Science has found nothing to justify Cuvier's hypothesis, conceived in the infancy of geo- 
logical studies ; whether in Egypt, (354) in Assyria, (355) or on the Mississippi : (S5G) whilst, 
without delving into the wilderness of geological works for flat contradictions of this oft-quoted 
passage of the great Naturalist, here are three extracts by way of arrest of judgment : — ■ 

" Of the Mosaic Deluge I have no hesitation in saying, that it has never been proved to 
have produced a single existing appearance of any kind, and that it ought to be struck out 
of the list of geological causes." (357) 

"There is, I think (says the President of the London Geological Society, 1831), one 
great negative fact now incontestably established ; that the vast masses of Diluvial Gravel, 
scattered almost over the surface of the earth, do not belong to one violent and transitory 
period. . . . Our errors were, however, natural, and of the same kind which led many ex- 
cellent observers of a former century to refer all secondary formations to the Noachian 
Deluge. Having been myself a believer, and, to the best of my power, a propagator of 
what I now regard as philosophic heresy, ... I think it right, as one of my last acts before 
I quit this chair, thus publicly to read my recantation." 

A later President of the same illustrious corps, 1834, uses similar language: — 
" Some fourteen years ago I advanced an opinion . . . that the entire earth had . . . been 
covered by one general but temporary deluge ... I also now read my recantation." (358) 

AVere it not for such denials of Cuvier's six-chiliad doctrine (to which hundreds might be 
added of the whole school of true geologists at the present day), then, it would be evident 
to archaeologists that "geology" must be of necessity a false science: and for the following 
reason : — It has been shown [supra, p. 562], that the first chapter of the " book of Genesis" 
is an ancient cosmogenical ode, with a " chorus " like the plays of Grecian dramatists ; — 
that its authorship, if entirely unknown, is not Mosaic ; — that its age, the style being 

(350) Such as, the Rev. Dr. Pte Sjuth, the Rev. Dr. Hitchcock, or " The Friend of Moses." 

(351) Genesis; vii. 18, 19; — C.ihen's TcjcI; i. p. 21. 

(352) Cosmos; Otte's trans., 1850, i. p. 28, 31, 330-332. 

(353) Essay on the Theory of the Earth; 1817 ; p. 171. 

(354) Gliddok; Otia JEgyptiaca ; pp. 61-69. 

(355) Aixsworth: Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldcca; London, 1S38 ; pp. 101, 104-107. 

(356) Dowlze: Tableaux of XeM Orleans; 1832; pp. 7-17. 

(357) McCuLLOCH : System of Geology ; 1. p. 445. 

(358) Rev. Dr. J. Pte Sinm: Relation, &c.; 1841; pp. 138, 139, 141. 



664 mankind's chronology. 

Elohislic and the ■writing alphabetical, cannot ascend even to the tenth century before c. ; 
and that, being based upon the harmonic scale of 7 note.^, in accordance with the erroneous 
planetary system of Chaldaic magianism (of 5 plands, and the sun and moon) ; it is an arbi- 
trary human production, founded upon ignorance of the physical laws and phenomena of 
Nature — as this Nature is unfolded by science in the nineteenth century. 

In consequence, did geologists pretend to arrange the dozen, or more, distinct creations 
manifested in the earth's crust through rocky stratifications and different fossil remains 
(divided from each other by immeasurable periods of interjected time), according to the 
"1 musical notes" of Genesis, they would perpetrate a caricature of God's works more 
gross, and less excusable, than that of CosuAS-Indicopleiistes : at the same time that they 
would make parade of stolid ignorance oi philology and biblical exegesis such as every Ori- 
entalist, versed in archaeology, must laugh to scorn. On the other hand (whether practical 
" geology " be or be not a fiction), were a philologist at the present day to argue, that the 
writer of " Genesis i-ii. 3" possessed more knowledge between the fifth and tenth centuries 
before c, than Cosmas did in the sixth after that era, his logic would establish two things: 
1st, his absolute ignorance of geology ; 2d, of every principle of historical criticism. 

Indifi'erent, ourselves, to the self-appropriation, by either side, of one or both of these 
branches of the alternative, we cannot leave the "Deluge" without one observation; the 
force of which theologers and geologists would do well to keep constantly in view. It is, 
that this genesiacal Flood is inseparable from NuKA's Arlc, or boat. Without the buoyant 
convenience of the latter, let ethnographers remember, the entire human race would have 
been drowned in the former. 

We could quote a real historian, and living divine, who seriously speaks of Noah as " the 
great navigator." We have seen a wondrous plate of the "Ark," (359) exhibiting the No- 
achic family pursuing their domestic and zoological avocations with the placidity of a Van 
Amburgh, and the luxuriousness of a Lucullus. We have read abundant descriptions of this 
diluvian packet-ship, in ecclesiastical and ponderous tomes, "usque ad nauseam." But, 
there is no work that does such pains-taking justice to the "Ark; " there is no man who 
has exhausted Noachian seamanship, antediluvian ship-building, cataclysmal proprieties, 
human and animal (from the "leopard lying down with the kid" in their berth, to the 
cheerful smartness of Ham the cabin-boy) — than Father Kircher,(360) almost two centuries 
ago. It is a shame that some great publisher does not reprint such a sterling good work, 
abounding in plates ; as it might be a most useful field-manual to the orthodox geologist, 
and pleasing, at the same time, to children. Unable to do adequate honor to the Arkite 
researches of this Herculsean Jesuit, we must be content with the lucid description, in 
plain English, of the Rev. Dr. Lightfoot ; who, living above two hundred years nearer to 
the Deluge than ourselves, no doubt knew considerably more than we do about the vessel 
that survived it. (361) 

" The dimensions of the Arke were such, as that it had contained 450,000 square cubits 
within the walls of it, if it had risen in an exact square unto the top ; but it sloping in the 
roofe, like the roofe of an house, till it came to be but a cubit broad in the ridge of it, did 
abate some good parcell of that summe, but how much is uncertain ; should we allow 50,000 
cubits in the abatement, yet will the space be sufficient enough of capacity, to receive all 
the creatures, and all their provisions that were laid in there. The building was three 
stories high, but of the staires that rose from story to story, the Text is silent; in every 
story were partitions, not so many, as to seclude one kinde of creature from another, 
for that was needlesse, there being no enmity between them, while they were there, and it 
would have been more troublesome to Noah to bring their provisions to them : but there 
were such partitions, as to divide betwixt beasts and their provisions in store : betwixt 
provisions and provisions, that by lying neer together might receive dammage. The doore 
was in the side of the lowest story, and so it was under water all the time of the flood ; but 
God by so speciall a providence had shut them in, that it leaked not. In what story every 
kinde of creature had its lodging and habitation, is a matter undeterminable ; how their 
excrements were conveyed out of the Arke, and water conveyed in, the Text hath con- 

(359) Yeates: Dissertation on tlie Antiquity, Origin, and Design of the piincipal Pyramids of Egypt; London, 
1833; pp. 9, 10, and pi. i. 

(360) Z>c Area Noi; 1 vol. fol., Amsterdam, 1675. 

(361) The Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the Old Testament; London, 1647; ch. vi. pp. 8, 9. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



GG5 



cealed. All the creatures were so cicuratcd and of a tamed condition for this time, that 
they lived together, and dieted together Tvithout dissention : The wolf dtvelie with the lamb, 
and the leopard laij down with the kid, and the calf and the young lion together : and Noah or 
an3' of his family might come among lions, dragons, serpents, and they had forgot the 
wildness and cruelty of their nature, and did not meddle with him." 

Chronology, therefore, among men of science, possesses relation neither to the unknown 
epoch of the " Deluge," nor to that of the " Creation." These events, scientifically un- 
seizable, are abandoned by positivists to theological tenacity. 

ArchiEologists, in efforts to re-arrange the AVorld's occurrences from the chaos into which 
ecclesiastical presumption had cast them, now pursue an altogether different process of 
inquiry. Beginning from to-day, as a fixed point in history if not in universal nature,(362) 
they reti'ograde, as closely as possible, year by year to the Christian era ; said to be 1 °<bZ 
years backwards from the present year. From that assumed point, chronologei-s continue 
to retrocede, year by year, so long as history or monuments warrant such annual registra- 
tion of events : but when, owing to absence of record or to confusion of accounts, the 
impossibility of identifying a given date for a given occurrence becomes manifest, they 
endeavor to define it approximately within a few years, more or less. In the ratio of their 
recession into the mists of antiquity, so does the possibility of fixing an approximate epoch 
diminish ; and, therefore, it becomes necessary to group a given number of events into 
masses ; which conventional masses become larger and less distinctly marked in proportion 
as they are remote from that era we call " the Christian." 

The era of the miraculous birth of Jesus was the stand-point of chronologists ; the 
pivot upon which every modern system turns. How minutely precise to the mathematician 
this era is, may be perceived, by archaeologists, at a glance. 

Epochs of the Nativity. 

Tear of Rome. Year tefore C. 

According to 3 authoriiies — Tillemont, Mann, Priestley 7i7 7 

" 4 " Kepler, Capellus, Dodwell, Pagi 748 6 

" 5 " Chrysostom, Petavius, Prideaux, Playfair, Hales 749 5 

" 2 " Sulpitius Severus, Usher 750 i 

" 8 *' Irenasus, Tcrtullian, Clemens Alex., Eusebius, 

Syncellus, Baronius, Calvisius, Vossius 751 3 

" 7 " Epiphanius, Jerome, Orciius, Bede, Salian, Sigo- 

nius, Scaliger 732 2 

" 3 " Alexander Dionysius, Luther, LabbjBus 753 1 

The moment of the Nativity is, conseijuently, aero 

Year after C. 

« 1 « Herwart = 754 1 

" 1 " Paul of Middleburgb 755 2 

" 1 " Lydiat 756 3 

35 authorities, of the most orthodox schools, here differ among themselves ten years 
about the era of the grandest proeternatural event in human annals ; which event is itself 
dependent in epoch upon the implied accuracy of a date — Anno Urhis Conditce, the " year 
of the building of Rome " — that, in his next pages, the Rev. Dr. Hales (363) shows to be 
fluctuating, according to six dates established by 34 chronologists, between the assumed year 
B. c. 753 and b. c. 627! 

And this is what theologers term "chronology." In the American edition of Calmet,(364) 
the date of the Nativity appears thus (the reader being free to adopt, in a free country, 
whichever date he pleases) — the editor naively remarking, " It must, however, be borne in 
mind, that the particularity of the dates here assigned rests chiefly on mere conjecture": — 



Year of World. 


Before Christ. 


Before A. D. 


Year of Christ. 


Calmet. 


H.\.LES. 


Calmet. 


Calmet. 


4000 


5 


4 


1 



(362) IIcmboldt: Cosmos; i. p. 178; note, on "The English Sunday"! 

(363) iVeiu Anahjsis of Cliron.; 1S.30; i. pp. 214, 217; Gliddon; Chapleri; 1843; p. 33; and Olia; 1849; p.42. 

(364) Dictimary; " Chronological Table ;" 1S32; pp. 947, 9S1. 

84 



666 mankind's chronology. 

However, avers the Rev. Dr. Home, (365) " The true date of the birth of Christ is four 
years before the common aera, or a. d." This date we should not be unwilling to accept 
but for the Rev. Dr. Jarvis (366) — " The date being taken of December 25, by reckoning 
back thirty years from his baptism, we come to his birth, a. j. p. 4707, six years before the 
common ajra." It would not be decorous in us to hold fast to such dogmatic extension by a 
Churchman who sacrilegiously derides a mitre — "Abp. Newcombe could say, 'Jesus was 
born, says Lardner, between the middle of August and the middle of November, a. u. c. 
748 or 749. (Cred. I. 796, 9, 8d ed.) We will take the mean, time, October 1.'! ! ! " The 
notes of admiration are the Rev. Dr. Jarvis's. 

We have preferred quoting the latest authorities; but it need not be observed to the 
learned that this discussion has been revived periodically during the last ten centuries with 
no better result, than when agitated previously between the unbelieving Rabbis and the 
all-believing Fathers. Ex. gr., John of Spain (Z&l) sums up: — 

" That there has been sought in what season of the year, in what month, and on what 
day our Saviour was born : some place this birth at the winter solstice ; others, at the 
equinox of autumn or at the equinox of spring." 

And again, Bossuet, one of the most enlightened men of his age, winds up his chrono- 
logical investigations as follows : — 

" Birth of Jesus, son of Joseph and Mary. ^It is not agreed as to the precise year when 
he came into the world, but it is agreed that his true birth precedes by some years our vulgar 
era. Without disputing further upon the year of the birth of our Lord, it suffices that we 
know it happened in the year 4000 of the world." [ ! ] (368). 

If we inquire the age of Jesus at his death, Bossuet tells us, that — "According to 
Matthew, he was 83 years old ; to Pagan legend, 21 ; to Luke, 39 ; to Bossuet, 40," 

"Common Christians," as the Rev. Dr. Hitchcock designates them (ubi supra), may 
start back in amazement at these results upon the year of the Savior's birth, which the first 
slashes of an archseologic scalpel have now laid bare. Mystified by childlike or fraudulent 
authorities, they may or may not be grateful for the truth ; but their conscientiousness will 
hereafter whisper to their minds that it is safest, perhaps, to become more charitable towards 
men of science ; whose unwearied struggles to arrive at a chronology are superinduced by 
acquaintance with these facts. In the meanwhile, readers of Strauss and Hennell know 
why the settlement of the year of Jesus's nativity is one of those things not to be looked 
for ; because, as Scaliger wrote — " to determine the day of Christ's birth belongs to God 
alone, not to man." 

To " uncommon Chrigtians," whose effrontery has led them to accuse Egyptologists of 
dissensions as to the epoch of the first Pharaoh, Menes, (by no thorough hierologist dog- 
matically fixed) we have merely to advise their prior determination of the year of Christ's 
nativity, before they henceforward venture into Egyptian polemics wherein they themselves 
are the only parties liable to " get hurt." 

In a recent hieroglyphical work, to which allusion will be briefly made in its natural 
department, the Royal Astronomer, Professor Airy, (369) through profound mathematical 
calculations, obtains a celestial conjunction which he designates "2005 b. c. ; April 8th." 
" B. c." implies before Christ . Now, as no human being can determinetheyearof Christ's 
advent ; and inasmuch as the foregoing table exhibits a difference of opinion oscillating 
between ten years at least ; we would respectfully solicit the astronomical era upon which 
the learned Professor founds his minute coincidence. Is it upon the " star of the east "(370) 
seen by the Magi ? Or does he take the unknown moment of time " c." to be zero ? Among 
archaeologists, to say "B.C.," merely implies before an epoch conjectural for one or more 

(365) Inirod. to the Crit. Study and Knowledge of the Soly Scriptures; 8th ed., London, 1839; iii. pp. 527, 535. 

(366) Chronol. Introd. to the Hist, of the Church ; London ed., 1844; Preface, p. vii., and pp. 535, 563. 

(367) Quad. Istor. del. Lit. Ann.; Venezia, 1829. 

(368) Bossuet : Discours sur VHist. Univ. ; and Art de vlrif. Its Dates, par les BenSdictins de Saint-Maur. 

(369) JEfora; JEgyptiacm ; London, 1S51; pp.216 217. 

(370) Matthew; ii. 1, 9, 10; omitted by Mark; called an "angel" mLuke ii. 9-15; and unmentioned by JOHN, 
Tide Stradss: Vie de Jesus; 1839; i. pp. 254-292. 



EGYPTIAN. 667 

yeavs ; but, -witliout some more miitliematical indication of the astronoviical date of the 
birth of Jesus, those Egyptian calcuhxtious made at the Royal Observatory must be pregnant 
with error: and, at present, seem as valueless to chronological science, as are the /(iCT'o- 
gbjphic malinterpretations that originated such a waste of official labor and of nationally- 
important time. 

To us, however, the forms " b. c." and "a. d." are merely conventional. No astrono- 
mical certitude is implied by their use. This year, which is the LXXVIIth of the Indepen- 
dence of these United States, may be, for aught we know, " a. d. 1850" or "a. d. I860;" 
although vulgarly termed " the year 1853." When we use the customary era, chronologi- 
cally, it simply means one thousand eight hundred and fifty-three years backwards from the 
present day ; and " b. c." signifies whatever number of years the necessities of illustration 
compel us to place before the 1853d year thus specified. AVe leave Astronomy to astronomers. 

With this proviso constantly present, the reader will understand that the only ancient 
chronological era, positively fixed, is the Nabonassarian — "February 26, b. c. 747." All 
other dates in ancient history are to this subordinate; although, for ordinary purposes, 
save when phenomena in the heavens can be historically connected with human events 
passing on the earth, " b. c." is both usual and adequate to the requirements of archseological 
science ; still more of ethnological, wherein precision of specific eras is less imperative. 

Our object, in this Essay (III), is to lay before the reader a general view of the relative 
positions which Egypt, China, Assyria, Judaia, and India, now occupy, in the eye of the 
monumental chronologist, on the tableau of different human origins. Like every other 
science that of chronology is progressive : in the cases of Egyptian and Assyrian time- 
registry essentially so; for, at the present year, 1853, the former study is immature, the 
latter scarcely commenced. That of China must be accepted upon the faith (which there 
is not the slightest reason to impugn) of what Chinese historians who, having no theological 
motives for unfair curtailment or for preposterous extension, have rebuilt from the archae- 
ology of their own country. There is but one nation of the five of which the utmost limit 
can, nowadays, be absolutely determined, and that is the Judoean ; whose chronicles, in 
lieu of the first place still claimed for them by ignorance, now occupy, among archaeologists, 
a fourth place in universal history. For Greece, Rome, and more recent populations, 
according to the criteria of their own annals, we refer the reader to well-known histories. 

It will be remembered that, in " Types of Mankind," chronology is only one element out 
of many ; and that we here profess merely to present the results of those chronological 
laborers who are now reputed to be the most scientific, and consequently the most accurate. 

CHRONOLOGY— EGYPTIAN. 

"TJn certain public, ce public qui tour h. tour admet sans preuve ce qui est absurde, et rejette 
sans motif ce qui est certain, satisfait dans les deux cas, parce qu'il se donne le plaisir de trancher 
les questions en s'epargnant la peine de les examiner; ce public qui croit aux Osages quand ils 
viennent de Saint Malo, niais qui ne croit pas aux Chinois, quand ils viennent de Pekin; qui est 
ferniement conTaincu de I'existence de Pharamond, et n'est pas bien sCir que le latin et rallemand 
puissent Stre de la meme famille que le Sanscrit ; ce public gobe-mouche quand il faut douter, 
esprit fort quand il faut croire, hochait et hoche encore la tSte au nom de Champoluon, trouvant 
plus commode et plus court de nier sa decouverte que d'ouvrir S2l grammaire." (^ill) 

"Quant aux hommcs eminens qui ont conquis une belle place dans la carrifere des etudes egyp- 
tiennes, il ne pent etre question ici d'analyser leurs livres: il suflit que Ton sache bien que tous 
ont marcbe franchement dans la voie ouverte par Champoluox, et que la science qui a dQ sa pre- 
miere illustration aux Young, aux Cbampollion, aux Humboldt, aux Salvoliui, aux Nestor I'Hote, 
et dont la realite a ete proclamee sans retinenee par les Sylvestre de Sacy et les Arago, compte 
aujourd'bui pour adeptes fervens et convaincus, des hommes tels que MM. Letronne, Ampere, Biot, 
Wgrimee, Prisse, E. Burnouf. Lcp?ius, Bunsen, Peyron, Ga/.zera, Barucchi, Gliddon, Leemans.— 
[Abcken, Birch, Biickh, Bonomi, Brugscb, Brunet de Presle, De Saulcy, De Rouge. Harris, Hincks, 
Kenrick, Lanci, Lenoruiant, Lesueur, Mariette. Maury, Morton, Nott. Osburu, Perring, Pickering, 
Eaoul-Rochette, Sharpe, Ungarelli, Wilkinson,] &c. — On connait maintenant les amis et les ennemis 
du systeme de Ch.vmpoluon." (372) 

" In short, the little spring of pure water which first bubbled from the Rosetta Stone, 
has, in twenty-three years, now swoln into a mighty flood; overwhelming all opposition; 

(371) Ampere: Hecherches en 6gypte et en Nuhie; 1st art.; Revue des Deux Jlondes, Aug. 1S46; pp. 390,391; — 
see also, 76id.; Promenade en Amerique; Rev. des D. Mondes, June, 1853, pp. 1225, 1226. 

(372) De Saclct: De l'£tu<ie des Hiiroglyphes ; Eev. d. D. Mondes, June, 1S46; p. 983. 



668 mankind's chronology. 

sweeping aside, or carrying in its surges, those whose inclinntion would induce tliem to stem 
its force ; and, at the present hour, we know more of positive Egyptian history and of the 
ancient inhabitants of Egypt, ages previously to the patriarch Abraham, than on many sub- 
jects we can assert of our acquaintance with England before Alfred the Great, or with 
France before Charlemagne!" (373) 

The work last cited, accessible to every reader of English at an insignificant cost, renders 
explanations on the incipient steps of hierological discovery herein superfluous. As a 
synoptical report of the progress of Egyptian studies it is correct enough, for general pur- 
poses, to the close of the year 1841. Our present point of departure is a. d. 1822. 

" With Dr. Young's key. and Champollion's alphabet contained in his letter to M. Dacier, 
a group of scientific Englishmen, headed by Henry Salt, and subsequently aided by A. C. 
Harris, commenced in Egypt itself, about 1822, the scrutiny and examination of all the 
monuments of antiquity existing, from the Sea-beach to Upper Nubia, from the Oases to 
the peninsula of Mount Sinai, and in every direction through the Eastern and Western Deserts. 
These gentlemen, mutually aiding and co-operating with each other, were enabled to take 
instant advantage of the ti'ue method of interpretation. Egypt was then all virgin ground. 
Every temple, every tomb, contained something unknown before ; and which these gentle- 
men were the first to date, and to describe with accurate details. A more intensely inter- 
esting field never opened to the explorer — every step being a discovery. Nobly did these 
learned and indefatigable travellers pioneer the way, and mighty have been the results of 
their arduous labors. They procured lithographic presses from England ; and, at their 
individual expense, for private circulation, Messrs. Felix, Burton, and Wilkinson printed 
(at Cairo — 1826 to 1829) and circulated a mass of hieroglyphical tablets, legends, genealo- 
gical tables, texts mythological and historical, with other subjects, which, under the modest 
titles of " Notes," (374) " Excerpta," (375) and " Materia Hieroglyphica," (370) were dis- 
seminated to learned societies in Europe. Lord Prudhoe's distant excursions and correct 
memoranda rendered the collections of antiquities, with which he enriched England, 
extremely valuable ; and his labors were the more appreciated, as his lordship's liberal 
mind and generous patronage of science were above any sordid motives of acquisitiveness. 
Mr. Hay's own accurate pencil, aided by various talented artists whom his princely fortune 
enabled him to employ, amassed an amount of drawings that rendered his portfolios the 
largest then in the world. The researches of all these gentlemen have been of incalculable 
value to the cause. They have preserved accurate data on subjects,(377) that the destroy- 
ing hand of Mohammed Ali has since irrevocably obliterated; and as they all pursued 
science for itself, they deserve and enjoy a full measure of respect. The rumor of their 
successes reached Europe ; and Champollion, with reason, apprehended that, if he delayed 
his visit to Egypt any longer, the individual labors of English travellers would render that 
visit as unprofitable as unnecessary. National jealousy was excited ; and, to preserve her 
position as the patroness of Egyptian literature, France determined not to be anticipated. 

"In 1828, the French government sent a commission, consisting of Champollion le Jeune, 
and four French artists, well supplied with every necessary outfit, to Egypt, in order that 
the master might, for his own and his country's honor, and at her expense, reap the harvest 
for which his hand had sown the seed. A similar design having suggested itself to another 
patron of arts and sciences, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the celebrated archaeologist and 
oriental scholar. Professor Ippolito Rosellini, of the University of Pisa, and four Italian 
artists under his direction, were appointed a commission to proceed to Egypt, with the 
same intent as the French mission. It was amicably arranged by the respective govern- 
ments, and between the chiefs of each expedition, that their labors should be united ; and, 
in consequence, the French and Tuscan missions were blended into one, and both reached 
Alexandria in the same vessel, and prosecuted their labors hand in hand from Memphis to 
the second Cataract. They returned in 1829. 

"It was" amicably arranged, between Champollion and Rosellini, that they were to com- 
bine their labors in the works that were to be issued; each, however, taking separate 
branches — Champollion undertaking the illustration of the " Historical Monuments," and 
the grammar of the hieroglyphic language of Egypt — to Rosellini was assigned the task 
of elucidating, by the "Civil Monuments," the manners and customs of this ancient people, 
and the formation of a hieroglyphical dictionary. Each set to work by 1830; but Cham- 
pollion, finding his end approaching, hastened the completion of bis grammar. Intense 
application had prostrated the fragile frame which enveloped one of the most gifted mental 

(373) Gliddov: Chapters on Early Egyptian History; New York, 1843; p. 10: 15th ed., Philad., 1S50. 

(374) Felix: republi.<!he(l in Italian, at Pisa; but now out of circulation. 

(375) James Halliburton: out of print, and extremely rare. 
(370) Wilkinson: like the preceding. 

(377) Gliddon: Appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe on the Destruction of the. Monuments of Egypt; 1841; 
London, Madden. 



EGYPTIAN. 669 

capacities ever vouchsafed to man. The government gave him, in the College de 
France, a professor's chair, created for him alone ; and his address to his pupils, at the 
first and only occasion accorded to him by Providence, is a marvel of eloquence, sublimity 
of tliought, and classical diction. 

'•lie linished his grammar on his death-bed, and summoning his friends around him, 
delivered the autogr;iph into their custody, with the injunction ' to preserve it carefully, 
for I hope it will be my visiting card to posterity.' A few weeks after, Champollion le 
Jeune was followed to the grave by the noblest men of France ; and the wreath of ' Immor- 
telles ' hung over his sepulchre (at his native town, Fiyeac), symbolized the imperishable 
fame of the resuscitator of the earliest records mankind has hitherto possessed." 

His posthumous works were put to press at the expense of the nation, nor is their entire 
publication as yet complete. Death removed Rosellini (1841) before the Monumenli dell' 
Egilto e delta Kubia received his final touches : and his worthy Italian colleague, Ungarelli, 
also died (1846) previously to the termination of the latter's Intcrpretatio Oheliscorum Urbis. 

AVe may now proceed with a brief historical sketch of the steps through which Egyptian 
Chronology has become the criterion whereby the annals of all antique nations are now 
measured ; subjoining references sufficient for the educated inquirer to verify bibliographi- 
cal accuracy. 

When Fourier, the polytechnic philosopher, in that masterpiece of eloquent erudition — 
the Preface to the " Description de I'Egypte" — claimed a period of twenty-five hundred years 
before the Christian era, (378) for the monuments which he, and the corps of illustrious 
Savans of whom Jomard is the surviving patriarch, had beheld in the valley of the Nile, 
his intuitive grasp of the amount of time adequate to the construction of then-unnumbered 
piles as gigantic in their architecture as diversified in their sculptures, obtained but little 
favor with the scholars, and none with the public of Europe, from 1810 to 1830. As when 
the immortal Harvey announced his discovery of the circulation of the blood, no surgeon, 
over forty years of age, but died an unbeliever in the theory ; so forty years after the 
utterance of this chronological estimate by Fourier, and notwithstanding the victorious 
labors of the hierologists, do we still encounter cultivated minds unwilling to accept, or 
incapable of comprehending, the general truth of his proposition. 

Equally unpalatable was this scale of 2500 yearn, at the time of its publication, to the 
representatives of two distinct schools ; whom, for convenience sake, we will designate as 
the long and the short chronologists. On the one hand Dupuis and those astronomers who 
had claimed as much as 17,000 years b. c. for the erection of the temple of Dendera, and 
on the other, the followers of the Petavian and Usherian computations of the chronological 
element in Scripture, coincided in its rejection ; the former deeming it too resti-icted, the 
latter too extensive for their respective cosmogenical theories. And, in a controversy in 
which the first principles of historical criticism, and a common basis of debate were alike 
wanting ; before Young had deciphered the first letter in the hieroglyphical name of Pto- 
lemy ; before Champollion-le-jeune's " Precis" broke the spell in which the antique writings 
of the Egyptians had been bound for fifteen centuries : and at a day when absolutely nothing 
was known of the respective ages of Nilotic remains ; the dogmatical assertions of the latter 
were infinitely preferable to the hallucinations of the former. 

On his death-bed, in 1830, Fourier was solaced by the glimpse which Champollion, then 
just returned from his triumphant mission to Egypt, afforded him of the probable accuracy 
of his prospective vision : but, before the founder of Egyptological science could arrange 
the enormous materials collected for his chronological edifice, the 4th of March, 1832, over- 
took Champollion on his own death-bed, in the act of bequeathing the manuscript of his 
immortal Grammar, as "my visiting-card to posterity." (379) 

In the same year, Rosellini commenced the publication of the "Monument! dell' Egitto 

(37S) Cn.vMPOLUON-FiGEAc: Fourier el Napoleon — I'ligypteetles cent jours; 1844; p. 61. 

(379) Grammaire £ffyptien7ie ; 1835; Introduction. See also ia CB\-^ifoii,ioy-FioEAC (Notice sur les Manuscrits 
autographes de Cliampoltion le Jcune, pcrdus en I'annee, 1832, et retrouves en 1840; Paris, 1342) the account of 
that wretched larceny which, while it accounts for the non-publication up to this hour of all the Manuscripts 
left by this indefatigable scholar, compels the historian to wipe his pen after writing the name — Salvoliot. 
The example had, however, been previously set by the plagiarist of John Hustee's MSS. 



670 mankind's chronology. 

e della Nubia;" in ■which, for the first time, an effort was made to emhrace in one grand 
compendium all Egyptian documents in that day deciphered. Inheritor of the ideas, and 
associate in the labors of the gi-eat master, the Tuscan Professor's frame-work of chro- 
nology reflects Champollion's views on Pharaonic antiquity down to the close of 1830. The 
practical result of the erudite Italian's researches was the monumental restoration of the 
lost history of Egypt, back to the XVIIIth Dynasty, computed by him at b. c. 1822, — and 
the vindication of the general accuracy of Manetho, back to the XVIth dynasty, at b. c. 
2272 : (380) confirmed by Champollion-Figeac,(381) with many improvements and valuable 
suggestions ; mainly drawn from "les papiers de mon Frfere." 

In 1835, Wilkinson's admirable work, " Topography of Thebes," presented a summary 
of the learned author's personal exploration of Egyptian monuments during some twelve 
years of travel in the valley of the Nile. The epoch of Menes, first Pharaoh of Egypt, 
was conjecturally assigned to the year b. c. 2201 ; but the accession of the XVIIIth dynasty 
placed at B.C. 1575, corroborated by the collation of hieroglyphical and Greek lists, evinced 
the critical author's appreciation of the solidity of Egypt's chronological edifice, and of 
Manethonian authority, at least up to the latter era. 

We thus reach the year 1836; when b. c. 1822 as the maximum, and b. c. 1575 as the 
minimum, for the accession of Manetho's XVIIIth dynasty of Diospolitans, were already 
recognised by the world of science in general principle as established /acto .• and sixteen 
centuries of lost monumental history became resuscitated from the sepulchre of ages, 
through hieroffli/pMcal resea,rches that only commenced in a. d. 1822.(382) 

But there had been, in Egypt, times before ! there were still extant the pyramids, with 
the lengthy chain of tombs extending for above 20 miles along the Memphite necropolis, 
unexplored ; — there were the "unplaced Kings" recorded in the "Materia Hieroglyphica " 
— the " Excerpta" — and the "Notes" — of Wilkinson, Burton, and Felix ; — and there existed 
in the museums of Europe, as well as throughout the valley of the Nile, innumerable ves- 
tiges, recognised by every qualified student of Egyptology to belong to ages long anterior 
to the XVIIIth dynasty — immensely older than the year 1575 — 1822 b. c. ; to say nothing 
of many biblical and classical texts that attested the necessity for more elbow-room in the 
chronology of the ancient Egyptians. Every one felt it : — every man who had beheld the 
storied ruins in Egypt itself asserted it, with more or less assurance according to the elas- 
ticity of the social atmosphere he breathed : — every hierologist knew it. 

How was the conscientious discussion of these overwhelming questions avoided ? Why 
were the countless monumental documents, that vindicated the claims of Manetho's first 
fourteen human dynasties to historical acceptance, left out of sight ? Eosellini, while faith- 
fully publishing all the materials in his possession, and throwing back pyramidal questions 
into the category of things anterior to the XVIth dynasty, having the fear of Petavius be- 
fore his eyes, modestly declares — " Nii a me occorre indagare piu addentro in tanto biij'o di 
tempi." (383) Wilkinson, — in whose invaluable " JIateria Hieroglyphica," among a host 
of "unplaced Kings," the names of Shoopho, Shafra, and Menkera, builders of the three 
great pyramids of Geezeh, had been published years before, and two of them at least read 
and identified, — Wilkinson, appalled perhaps at the authority of Usher, jumps at a bound, 
in his Plate I. of the " Dynasties of the Pharaohs," from MENal, over SE-NEFER-KE-RA 
and RA-NEB-NAA, to RA-NUB-TER (which last he places in the XVth dynasty at b. c. 
1830) ; omits every " unplaced King " published in his previous researches ; ignores some 
fifty Pharaohs whose monuments prove they lived between Menes and the XVIIIth dynasty ; 
and assigns only the year b. c. 2201 (!) to Menes, " for fear of interfering with the Deluge 
of Noah, which is 2348 b. c." 

"I am aware," wrote, in 1835, the yet-unknighted Mr. Wilkinson, "that the era of 
Menes might be carried back to a much more remote period than the date I have assigned 

(380) Gliddox: Chapters; 1S43; pp. 48, 49, and General Table, pp. 64, 65, 66. 

(381) £g;/pte Ancienne; TJnivers Pittoresque, 1S39. 
(oS2) Ch.uipollion : Lettre d M. Dacier ; 1S22. 
(383) MonummliStorici; 1832; vol. 1. p. Ill 



EGYPTIAN. 671 

it; but as we have as j'et no authority further than the uncertain accounts of Manetho's 
copyists to enable us to fix the time and the number of reigns intervening between his 
accession and that of Apappus, I liave not placed him earlier, for fear of interfering with 
the date of the deluge of iSoah, which is 23-18 b. c." (384) 

The inconsistencies inherent in this scheme of chronology were exposed in 1843 ; (385) 
nevertheless, in his most excellent later work, " Modern Egypt and Thebes," 1843, as well 
as in his " Hand-book," 1847, this erudite Egyptologist has left chronological disquisitions 
pretty much as he had defined them in 1835 — as if inquiry had been stationary in Europe 
during twelve years ! — although, when treating geologically on the antiquity of the Delta, 
" il laisse percer le bout d'oreille " in the following scientific assertions : — 

" AVe are led to the necessity of allowing an immeasurable time for the total formation of 
that space, which, to judge from the very little accumulation of its soil, and the small dis- 
tance it has encroached on the sea, since the ei'ection of the ancient cities within it, would 
require ages, and throw back its origin far beyond the Deluge, or even the Mosaic era of the 
Creation." ((i86) 

In consequence. Sir J. G. Wilkinson granted a reprieve of some few years to poor Menes ; 
for (1837) in the same " Manners and Customs,"' this Pharaoh's accession is placed at 
B. c. 2320 ; or only 28 years after the Flood ! 

It is sufficient, herein, to point out to the reader, that the year 1836 closed with a mighty 
stride, already accomplished, into the "darkness of Egypt;" through which a mass of time, 
exceeding jff/ten centuries in duration, was irrevocably restored to the world's history. The 
mutilated annals of the oft-maligned Priest of Sebennytus were vindicated by an unan- 
swerable appeal to monuments contemporaneous with the Pharaohs recorded by him, back 
to his XVIIIth Theban dynasty. More than one-half of the twenty-five hundred years 
claimed by Fourier, and Napoleon's " Institut d'Egj'pte," was thenceforward restored to 
positive history by the Ilierologists. 

The years 1837 to 1839 witnessed the munificent expenditures, and fulfilment of the 
grand conception, of a Vyse ; the self-sacrificing exertions of a Perring, but for whose for- 
titude, enthusiasm, and engineering skill, small, indeed, would have been the scientific 
results accruing from such immense undertakings ; and the archaeological acumen of a 
Birch, in deciphering and assigning an historical place to the fragmentary legends disen- 
terred among some 39 pyramidal mausolea (387) of the Mempldte and Arsinoite nomes.(388) 
Simultaneously with these successes, the Tablet of Abydos, that most precious register of 
the genealogy of the Ramessides, found its way to the British Museum. (389) 

Lenormant, (390) we believe, was the first to apply the new discoveries to chronology ; 
and Nestor L'Hote (391) to tetread the Memphite necropolis, and verify some of the data 
obtained by the English explorers. 

The combined result of these researches, in the year 1840, was the recognition of the 
great principle, that the pyramids, without exception, antedated the XVIIIth dynasty, 
already established between the fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries b. c. : — that a mass 
of "unplaced Kings," and a vast field of unopened tombs in the burial-ground of Memphis; 
together with a prodigious variety of lesser monuments, stretching from the peninsula of 
Sinai to the temples of Samneh and Soleb in Upper Nubia ; still preserved authentic records 
coetaneous with the first twelve dynasties of Manetho : and that, from out of the chaos, the 

(384) Topograph!/ of Thebes; 1835, pp. 506 and 509. 

(385) GuDDON : Chapters ; pp. 51, 52. 

(386) Manners and Customs ; 1837-'41; i. pp. 5-11; ii. pp. 105-121 ;— compare Oto .^jrjfp^jaca ; pp. 61-69. 

(387) Operations carried on at the Pyramids of Geezeli, from 1837 to 1839. 

(388) Suaepe; Clironologij and Gengraphy of Ancient Egypt; 18-19 ; pi. 11, 3Iap, Ancient Egypt under Ant. Pius. 

(389) Lkpsics: Auswald; 1842; pi. 11; — Brace: Gallery of Antiquities; part ii. pi. 29, and pp. 66-71; — Le- 
iroxxe: Tabu d' Abydos, imprimee en caracteres mobiles; Paris, 1815; pp. 24-36; — Bdnsen : Egypt's Place; 
1848; pp. 44-51; — De Roug£: Examen de VOuvrage de M. Bunsen; 1847; pp. 16, 17, Exlrait des Annates de 
Philosophie dirctiennes ; and Ibid. : Deuxieme ZcUre d 31. Alfred Maury, sur le Sesostris de la Jfllme Dynasde ; 
Kevue Arclieologique, 15 Oct. 1847 ; pp. 479, 480; — Lesuecr: Clironotogie des Rois d'£gypte; ouvrage couronne; 
Paris, 1S4S; pp. 200-263; — Pri^se: y^otice sur la Salle des AncClres de Thoutmes III.; Kev. Archeol.; Paris, 1845. 

(390) Eclaircissemens sur le Cercueil de Mycerinus ; Pari?, 1839. 

(391) LdlresdiyypU: Paris, 1840. 



672 mankind's chronology. 

IVth Manethonian dynasty, cotemporary witli the building of the Geezeh group of pyra- 
mids, loomed like a meteor in the night of time. 

Some perceptions were entertained, about those days, even in America, of the probable 
extent to which monumental researches would eventually carry the epoch of Menes. In 
1845, Bunsen's era for this monarch was b. c. 3643 ; and in 1849, Lepsius's is b. c. 3893. 
Our "Chapters" (1843) assert, that "if 1000 more years could be shown admissible by 
Scripture, there is nothing in Egypt that would not be found to agree with the extension." 
It is a happy coincidence, exhibiting how different minds, in countries widely apart, rea- 
soning upon similar data, arrive at conclusions nearly the same, that, if the above " 1000 
years " be added to our former conjectural and minimum estimate, printed ten years ago, of 
the date of Menes, noted at about b. c. 2750,(392) the sum b. c. 3750 falls, almost equi- 
distantly, between the eras assigned to this primordial Pharaoh by two of the three highest 
hierological chronographers : — the third, it need scarcely be observed, being Mr. Birch ; 
who, whilst tabulating Egyptian events in the recognised order of Manethonian dynas- 
ties, (393) has never yet put forth an arithmetical system of hieroglyphical chronology. As 
remarked by us {Otia, p. 45) : — 

" We are dealing, in events so inconceivably remote, with stratified masses of time, and not 
with supposititious calculations of the exact day, week, month, or year ; in futile attempts 
to ascertain which so many learned investigators " ne font qu'un trou dans I'eau." 

Our sketch of the progressive conquests over the past, commenced by Champollion in 
1822, through which a pathway has been hewn, inch by inch, by the axes of the Hiero- 
logists, far into the briery jungle of Pharaonic antiquity, has reached the year 1843; and 
already Fourier's "twenty-five hundred years b. c." for the monuments of the Nile, even 
to the uninformed eye, began to wear the garb of probability — to the hieroglyphical stu- 
dent, who had actually beheld with his own eyes these monuments in Egypt itself, they had 
assumed in that year the aspect of certainty. 

It is a remarkable fact, that with the exception of Wilkinson, whose chronological con- 
sistency has been indicated (supra), not one of those Egyptologists of whom the critical opinion 
is now authoritative, and who, at this day, yet aspires to the name of a sAorZ-chronologist 
(that is, one to whom the Usherian deluge, at B. c. 2348, is a bed of Procrustes), has ever 
studied Egyptian monuments in Egypt ! Much allowance, therefore, should be made for 
living English scholars who still, like the ostrich, bury their heads in sand ; surrounded as 
they are, essentially, by the "intellectual flunkeyism" for which this age, in England, is 
eminently celebrated among scientific men on the Continent and in the United States. The 
ponderous weight of brains, congealed in the " cast-iron moulds " of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, presses upon British intelligence and education with the numbing power of an 
incubus. Among recent vindicators of the claims of Egypt to the longest chronology is 
Ferguson (■' True Principles of Beauty in Art," &c., London, 1849), to whose crushing pam- 
phlet we must refer admirers of the educational " standard of a by-gone and semi-barba- 
rous age," upheld in "the Sister Universities;" with which standard the citizens of repub- 
lican America, of course, need have nothing to do, physically, morally, or intellectually. (394) 

The discovery made by Lepsius, in 1840 (not publicly known for some years later), that 
the Tablet of Abydos, between Cartouche No. 40 and No. 39, omits the Xlllth, XlVth, XVth, 
XVIth, and XVIIth Manethonian dynasties, ihMS jumping over the entire Hyksos-period, (395) 

(392) I am happy to find that this (by myself long ago abandoned — Olia, pp. 37-42) scheme of the possible 
epoch of Menes, approximates so nearly to the date adopted by Nolan ; who places, according to the " Old Chron- 
icle," Menes (whom he takes to be Noah!) at B.C. 2673; or only ten years difference from "my reduction 
of the Old Chronicle, e. c, 26S3," five years previously — (compare Egyptian Clirmiology analysed; London, 1848; 
pp. 133, 156, 212, and 399, with Chapters, p. 51). Still less does it differ from the point at which a " great 
authority, whose permission I have not asked to give his name," fixes {astronomically speaking) the era of 
Egypt's first Pharaoh : viz., B. c. 2714-'15 — the very date (b. o. 2715) to which I had reduced Manetho, in 1843. 
Compare Literary Gazette: London, 1849; pp. 485, 522, and 641; with Chapters; p. 51.) — G. R. G. 

(393) " Relative Epochs of Mummies," in Olia Mgyptiaca ; pp. 78-87 ; also, pp. 113-115. 

(394) Observations on the British Museum, National Gallery, and National Recm-d Office; London, 1849. 

(395) Bdnsen: JEgypten's Stclle; 1845 ; ii. p. 277; and Egypt's Place; 1848; pp. 42, 49, 52. Compare Hincks: 
On the Egyptian Stele; 1841; p. 68; and BAJicccni: Discursi Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; Torino, 1845; 
pp. 129-131. 



EGYPTIAN. 673 

had marked a new era in the chronological consideration to be awarded to some royal gene- 
alogical Tablets. This discovery was by far the most important feature of that day ; but 
so varied and unforeseen were the victorious achievements effected, in the year 1843, by the 
Prussian Scientific Mission, among the pyramids, from Memphis to the Labyrinth ; so com- 
pletely have they revolutionized all preceding judgments upon Nilotic antiquity ; that we 
must pause to indicate how they originated, and where they are to be found. 

Chevalier Richard Lepsius, long celebrated as Corresponding Secretary of the Institute 
of Archceological Correspondence at Rome, directed his studies into Egyptology soon after the 
publication of a prize-essay, (396) that placed him in the front rank of linguistical scholar- 
ship in 1834. A Lettre d M. le Prof. Hippolitc Rosellini aur V Alphabet Ilieroglyphique, 1837, (397) 
next announced, to the world of science, that the loss of the illustrious Champollion 
had but momentarily arrested the onward march of his disciples. The return of Perring 
from Egypt after his indefatigable exploration of 39 pyramids, (398) [rendered the fact 
generally known that, immense as had been his own successes, the necropolis of Memphis 
had, notwithstanding, scarcely begun to yield up its historical treasures. French and 
Tuscan national, with English private enterprise, had been rewarded, in the valley of the 
Nile, by victories over past time as noble as they were scientific. It remained for Frederic 
William IVth of Prussia to give full scope to the hitherto pent-up yearnings of Germany 
towards Egyptian discovery ; and upon Lepsius, in 1842, naturally fell the mantles of his 
predecessors. 

With eight coadjutors, the Chief of the Prussian Scientific Mission pitched his tents in 
the shadow of the great Pyramid on the 9th of November, 1842. 

By May, 1843, he was enabled to announce that the Germans had gleaned the sites of 
"thirty other pyramids, entirely unknown to him (Mr. Perring), or to any preceding travellers. 
Of these, not a few are of very considerable extent, bearing evident traces of the mode 
in which they were raised, and surrounded by the ruins of temples, and extensive fields 
of tombs or burial-grounds. All these pyramids, without exception, belong to the ancient 
kingdom of Egypt before the irruption of the Hykshos, who invaded Lower Egypt about the 
year 2000 b. c, and the whole of them were erected (those at least between Abrorooash and 
Dashoor) by kings who reigned at Memphis. To the same period belong also the majority 
of the effaced tombs, of any importance, that surround them." (399) 

After determination of the sites, and unfolding much of the history of '^sixty-seven pyra- 
mids," sepulchres of ancient Egyptian sovereigns; together with "one hundred and thirty 
private tombs" of noble families, with these sovereigns coetaneous, back to the '^fourth 
thousand year before Christ," the Prussians proceeded up the river ; exploring every foot 
of ground, as far as Soba on the Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek), and Senndr to the 13th degree of 
N. latitude ; returning to Thebes on the 2d November, 1844. While his able assistants prose- 
cuted the necessary labors amid Theban ruins, Lepsius crossed the Red Sea and explored 
the Sinaic Peninsula ; not only, thereby, rescuing from perdition hieroglyphical records of 
mining operations conducted between the IVth and the Xllth dynasty, 3400 — 2200 b. c, 
but also ascertaining that, if the Gebel Serbdl be not the Mount of Moses, of which there 
is little doubt, (400) the peaks above the Convent of St. Catherine most assuredly are not. 
Revisiting Thebes, Lepsius left it with his party on the 16th May, 184-5 : and after exam- 
ining the land of Goshen, much of Palestine, and touching at Smyrna and Constantinople, 
landed at Trieste on the 5th January, 1846 : having spent above thirty-six months in unpar- 
alleled monumental researches on the river, alluvium, and deserts of the Nile. 

The reader will now perceive that we are dealing in realities; that our Egyptian deduc- 
tions are based upon actual and positive researches, made by the " primi inter pares " of 

(396) Palaographie ais MUtdfiir die Sprachforschung zundchst am Sanscrit nachf/ewiesen ; Berlin, 1S35; 8vo. 

(397) Annali ddV Instiluto di Cmrispondenza ArcMolngica; toI. ix.; Koms, 1837. 

(398) Tyse: The Pyramids from Actual Suney; iiird vol. ; 1841. 

(399) Lepsics; XTeber den Bau der Pyrumiden: Berlin Academy, August, 1843; pp. 2, 3; — see the order of 
announcement of these discoveries in Guddon : Otia ; 1849 ; pp. 30-42. 

(400) Tour from Tliebes to the Peninsula of Sinai, in Marcli and April, 1845; transl. CoiTRELL ; London, 1846. 
We possess the German edition ; with its tinted map, without which Lepsics's certain discovery is not so evident 
to the general reader. 



674 mankind's chronology. 

living Archasologists, previously qualified by lengthened discipline, and furnished by muni- 
ficent governments with facilities as unexampled as unbounded. We subjoin a list of the 
■works (401) since published by Lepsius, that have been carefully consulted in the prepara- 
tion of "Types of Mankind;" and may mention that, while one of its authors sojourned 
at Berlin in May, 1849, both are in frequent epistolary communication, on the themes this 
work discusses, with the esteemed Chevalier himself. 

Consequently, whether the deductions drawn by the authors of the present volume be 
right or wrong, the fads upon which these are grounded are vouched for by the highest 
authorities. No attention is bestowed, in " Types of Mankind," to the puerilities of the 
ephemeral tourist, to the twaddling inanities of the unlettered missionary, or to the Egyptian 
hallucinations of the theological rhapsodist. At the present day (without disparagement to 
the less-known literary resources of other cities on our continent), (402) a qualified student, 
in this year a. d. 1853, can sit down quietly at Mobile, Alabama ; and the books contained 
in four private libraries will enlighten him, upon almost' every point our work discusses, 
with smaller trouble and greater economy of time, labor, and money, than if he resided for 
years, without previous knowledge of these works, in the valley of the Nile : or, should such 
student prefer Philadelphia, there, at her Library, his bibliothecal aspirations can be satisfied. 

How utterly hopeless it is for any man (apart from erudition) unsupported by enormous 
pecuniary means, to advance Egyptian sciences, at the present day, by a steam-boat excur- 
sion up the Nile, may be inferred from three facts. In 1844-5, Ampfere, one of the living 
luminaries of archseological knowledge, was sent out by the French Government expressly 
to make discoveries. His " Kecherches en Egypte et en Nubie " in literary excellence are 
unsurpassable; yet, withal, his predecessors had left him so little to do, without a pro- 
tracted sojourn, that he refers to Lepsius for every novelty discoverable : — 

" Je n'ai pas touche, sans un certain respect, ce livre des.Rois, commence par lui avant 
son voyage d'Egypte, et qui contient une collection de^noms royaux plus complete qu'aucune 
autre nffpeutl'etre, et un ensemble de chronologic Egyptienne depuis I'ancien roi M^nes 
jusqu'a Septinie Severe. Cette s6rie va plus loin encore, car M. Lepsius ne s'arrete pas 

■a ce nom, le dei-nier qu'eussent trouve ecrit en hieroglyphes Champollion et ses autres suc- 
cesseurs. M. Lepsius a €ii assez heureux pour decouvrir, dans un petit temple de Thebes 
oil Champollion avait trouvg le nom d'Othon, les noms de Galba, de Pescennius Niger, et, ce 

■qui est plus important, de I'empereur Dice. Par cette decouverte, M. Lepsius prolonge la 
serie hieroglyphique d'un demi-sifecle au d^la de Septime Sevfere, oil elle s'arretait jusqu' 
ici. On a done une suite de monumens et d' inscriptions qui s'etendent depuis 2500 avant Abra- 
ham jusqu A 250 ans apris Jesus Christ. II n'y a rien de semblable dans les annales 
humaines." (403) 

Two years previously, Prisse d'Avennes had rescued the Ancestral Chamber of Earnae, 
the Tablet of Ramses XIV, (404) and other precious relics, from Turkish demolition. A 
residence of sixteen years in Egypt, of which about five in the Upper country among the 
monuments, had enabled this proficient Orientalist to fill his portfolios with every archseo- 
logical item discovered, chiefly too by himself, between the departure of the French and 
Tuscan Scientific Commissions under Champollion and Rosellini, 1830, and the advent of 
the Prussians in 1842. So valuable were M. Prisse's self-sacrificing labors in Egyptology 

(-101) Vorlijiifige Nachricht ilber die lijcpedition ; Berlin, 1849 ; — Briefe aus JEgypten, JStMopien, und der HaJb- 
insd des Sinai; Berlin, 1852; also, its excellent English translation, by Mr. Kenneth B. II. Mackensdb: "Dis- 
«OTeries in Egypt," &c. ; London, 1852; — Einleiiung zur Chronologic der ^gypter; Berlin, 1848; vol. i. ; — Ueber 
der Erskn JEgytisclien GOttarlcrds ; Berlin, 1851; — XJeher den Apislcreis ; Leipzig, 1853; — XTeber die ZwSIfte 
■.^gyptiscJie KiJnigsdynasUe ; Berlin, 1853; — and, above all, the magnificent Denlcmuler aus ^gypten und 
JEthiopien; Berlin, 1849; folio. Of this vast work, besides a series of the earlier ethnological plates kindly 
selected for him by Chev. Lepsihs, and in his own possession, the writer has enjoyed the free use of two copies 
at Mobile, in the private libraries of Mr. A. Stein and of the Rev. Dr. ILinnLTON — to both of whom he here begs 
to reiterate his obligation — and of another in the Philadelphia Lihrai-y. Altogether, he has seen the plates 
down to Abt7i. III., M. 172. 

(402) I am .speaking of public libraries. The private library of my honored friend, Mr. E. K. Haight of New 
York has been, from the commencement of my studies in 1S42, the main source whence my individual facilities 
have been drawn. 

(403) Eecherches en £gypte ; vii. ; Thfibes, 21 Jan. 1845 ; — JRevue des Deitx Mondes ; 1842 ; p. 1035. 

(404) Salle des Anccstres de Thoutmes III; Rev. Archeol.; 1845; pp. 1-23, tirage h part; — Birch: Egyptian 
Inscription in tJie BibliotUgm NaJtUmale; Trans. R. Soc. Lit., new series, iv.; 1852. 



EGYPTIAN. . 675 

deemed by Parisian science that, at national expense, he was appointed to continue the 
great folios of ChampoUion ; (405) at the same time that his contributions to the Revue 
Archcologique are standard documents for posterity. 

Last though not least, in Egypt itself resides a gentleman, afHuent and influential, versed 
in many branches of ancient lore as thoroughly as 30 years of domicile have familiarized him 
■with modern affairs, who never allows an opportunity of advancing archceological science 
to escape him ; nor will any Egyptian student mistake our allusions to A. C. Harris. (406) 

No clap-trap pretensions to acquaintance with hieroglyphical arcana recently made by 
theologers who speak not any continental tongue through which alone these subjects are 
accessible — no "ad captandum " figments of the possession of Oriental knowledge when men 
cannot spell a monosyllable written in the Hebrew alphabet — detract from the Memphite 
exhumations conducted at French ministerial expense by a Mariette ; for whose enormous 
discoveries in the Serapeum, as j^et confined to reports, we wait impatiently. 'T were well 
if, in view of the contemptuous silence with which Egyptologists treat their publications, 
some writers on these matters were to become readers. 

Our part, however, is to indicate to the reader those sources upon which Egyptian chro- 
nology is dependent at the present day, in regard to the date of the first Pharaoh, Menes : 
a personage considered, in the subjoined works, to be historical; and neither connected 
with the mythical Meslrceans invented by the Sj'ncellus (407) in the seventh century after 
c. ; nor, except nationally, with the MT«RIM (not Mizra'im) of the Hebrew Text, whom, in 
our examination of Xth Genesis, we have proved to be nothing more or less than the 
"Egyptians," inhabitants of MiZR, Muss'r ; the Semitic name of "Merter," Hffypt [supra, 
p. 494] : — 

Authorities. Dates of Menes. 

1539, Paris Lenoemaxt: Cercueil de Mycerinus — B. c. 

IVth Dyn. (p. 24) " Jlycerinus, la date de 4136 avant J. C." 

Add Illd " Africanus " 214 " 

" lid " " " 302 « 

" 1st « " " 263 « 

4015 

1540, Paris Champoluon-Figeac : V 6gypte Ancienne 5867 

1845, Berlin Buckh: Mandho und die Hundssternperiode 5702 

1845, Turin Bardcchi: Discorsi Criticisoprala Cronologia Egizia 4S90 

1845, Hamburg Bdnsen: .Jlgyptens Slelk in der Wdtgesdiichte 3643 

1846, Paris Henry: L'£gi/ptc Pharaonique 5303 

184S, Paris Lesuecb: Chronologic des Itois d' £gypte 5773 

1849, Berlin LEPSirs: Chronologie der Aigypter 3893 

1851, Dublin HixcKS: Turin I'apyrus 3895 

1851, London Kenrick: Egypt under the Pharaohs 3892 

1854, Philadelphia.. Pickeeixg: Geographical Distrihulion of Animals and Plants 4400 

The views of the authors of Types of Mankind, while with Humboldt, (408) for reasons to 
be given anon, they follow Lepsius, incline to the longer rather than to the shorter period. 
Ampere's opinion has been previously cited. The following is that of the first hierologist 
of France, Count Em. de Rouge, Conservator at the Louvre Museum : — 

" Les efforts de M. de Bunsen seraient la meilleure preuve du contraire ; aprfes avoir, 
sans egard pour I'histoire et les monumens, suppose des ri'gnes constamment coUaleraux, trois 
dynasties a la fois et huit ou dix rois simultanes pendant la moitiij des 12 premieres dynas- 
ties, il n'en fixe pas moins le rfegne de Men^s a I'an 3643 av. .1. C. L'obstinc fils de Cha- 
naan, mutil^ avec acharnement pendant 3 volumes, se relfeve enfin de ce lit de Procuste oil 
I'avait dtendu son critique impitoyable, etl'on s'apper9oit alors qu'il diSpasse encore de plu- 



(405) Continuation des Monumens ; 100 plates; 1848; — Papyrus £gyptien ; 1849. 

(406) Mr. Harris's contributions, In the Trans, of the R. Soc. of Literature, the Kevue Archcologique, and in 
the pages of several Egyptolo^rists, are too numerous for specification here; but we may refer to his papyrus, 
"Fragments of an Oration against Demosthenes," London, 1848; also to the papyric fragments of "Book.<! 
of HomeiyfcJWieniEMm, 8 Sept. 1849), and of the "Grammarian Tryphon" (Athenirum, 7 Dec. 1S50): while of 
the very important work — "Hieroglyphical Standards representing Places in Egypt supposed to be Nomes and 
Toparchies, collected by A. C. Harris," >I. li. S. L., 1S52 — his kindness allows us to acknowledge receipt. 

(407) Letron.ve: in BiOT's Annie Vague des £gyptiens ; p. 25 : — supra, p. 494. 

(408) Cosmos ; ii. pp. 114, 115, 124 : — supra, p. 245. 



676 mankind's cheonology. 

sieurs si&cles les mesures qu'on lui avait impos^es au nom des calculs que la chronologie 
ordinaire avait fond^s sur la genealogie d^ Abraham." {4Q'i) 

We moreover coincide entirely in the same author's doctrine, -when, after indicating the 
various chances of miscalculation inherent in Egyptian no less than in all other chronolo- 
gies, he declares : — 

" These causes of error, which cross each other in every direction, make up a large part 
of uncertainty, for any chronological sum that it may be wished to draw from the sole 
addition of reigns, after a number of centuries at all considerable. The chances of inex- 
actitude augment with the number of partial sums ; and I have always thought that an un- 
certitude of more than 200 years was very admissible, in the ciphers that result from 
monumental dates combined with the lists of Manetho, when one remounts to the XVIIIth 
dynasty, after the expulsion of the shepherds." (410) 

Nor need any doubt be entertained upon De Eoug^'s adoption of the most lengthy chro- 
nology, when he declares elsewhere — " Were we to accept the data most clearly preserved 
in Manetho, the Xllth dynasty must have preceded the Christian era by thirty-four centu- 
ries." (411) 

We have already seen that, in England, the profoundest hieroglyphical scholar, Birch of 
the British Museum, tabulates Manethouian dynasties in their serial order, but without 
encumbering his monumental discoveries with any arithmetical chronology. Kenrick fol- 
lows Lepsius. Hinck's former depression of the reign of Ramses II., in the XVIIIth 
dynasty, and of Thotmes III. to the year 1355 b. c, on the ground that Egyptian armies 
(born amidst solar calorics) avoided the heat of the weather,(412) was an argument too 
feeble to be seriously combated ; but the matured judgment of this universal savant favors 
every scientifical extension demanded for Nilotic annals. 

" A statement has been preserved, to which I am now inclined to attach more credit than 
I did formerly, that the Egyptians reckoned all the dynasties from Menes to Ochus as occu- 
pying 3555 years. If from this number we subtract 2291, which the Egyptians reckoned 
from Menes to the end of the Xllth dynasty, we have 1264 from the end of the Xllth 
dynasty to Ochus, or to 340 b. c. This would place the Xllth dynasty between the limits 
1817 and 1604 b. o. ; and I am disposed to accept these dates as the genuine Egyptian 
computation. Nor indeed do I see much reason to question their correctness." 

Followers ourselves "of the German and French school," we pause not to debate the 
learned Irishman's deductions as to such an untenably modern date for the Xllth dynasty; 
but, adding his accepted 3555 years to the reign of Ochus, b. c. 340, we are gratified in 
finding that Dr. Hincks, (418) with several Germans and Frenchmen, places Menes at 3895 
years before c. ; and henceforward, therefore, can enrol, as we have already, his great name 
among the long chronologists. 

On the opposite side, as representative of the shortest Egyptian computation, stands a 
gentleman, whose vast classical erudition, and keener criticism, we are always proud to 
acknowledge ; and it is with pain that, having so often availed ourselves of his instructive 
pages, especially in regard to biblical history and exegesis, that, in Egyptian chronology, 
we must protest against the contracted system of a great Hellenist, Mr. Samuel Sharpe. 
With respectful deference we would, however, submit objections to his assumed dates for 
Osirtesen, whom he arbitrarily changes into an " Amunmai Thorl. ;"(414) still more em- 
phatically to his views upon Menes. Scientific criticism, to be practically useful, miist be 
free ; and pupils, often, of Mr. Sharpe in its application to the Greek New Testament, and 
to the theosophical notions of the Alexandria School, we feel persuaded that no writer of 
the day loves truth more than himself. We may therefore utter our mode of viewing it. 

(409) Examen de VOuvrage de M. Bunsen; p. 82, Annales de Philosophie Chreticnnes, 1847. 

(410) De Ronoi: Mimoire sur quelques Pherwmenes Celestes; Kev. Arched., 183; p. 654; — Comp. Otia, p. 41. 

(411) Sur le Sesostris de la Douziime Dynaslie ; Rev. Archeol., 1847 ; p. 482. 

(412) Rev. Dr. Hincks: On the Age of the Jrmith Dynasty; Trans. R. Irish Acad., 1846; xxi. :q|||-9. 

(413) Observations of Dr. E. Binels, in Wilkinson's "Hieratic Papyrus of Kings at Turin," 1851; pp. 57, 68. 

(414) History of Egypt; new edition; London, 1846; pp. 7, 9, 10;— Chronology and Geography of Ancient 
Egypt ; 1849 ; pp. 4, 14, pi. 2, figs. 25, 32. 



EGYPTIAN. 677 

The contemporaneousness of Egyptian dynasties (415) we have always repudiated ; (41G) 
but, until the appearance of Lepsius's " Book of Kings," when our assent may possibly be 
yielded (if monuments to us now unknown establish it), in respect to the 1st and lid, Vlth 
and Vllth (Vlllth), Xth and Xlth, Xlllth and XlVth, and XVth and XVIth, Manethonian 
dynasties, we should commit the same fallacy, so frequently blamed in others, if we spoke 
dogmatically on that point without the new documents of the Prussian Mission. There is 
no more foundation, however, for Mr. Sharpe's dynastic arrangement than were we to 
make Canute's invasion of England coeval with Willi.vm the Conqueror in the reign of 
James I., under the synthronic sway of George III and the Prince Regent. It is a 
favorite hypothesis of his own ; in which not an Egyptologist coincides. But for the expo- 
sure of a radical error in Mr. Sharpe's system — root of all his deviations from hierological 
practice — our knife must be applied to one of its many vital spots. In his immensely- 
valuable folio plates, {iVJ) through inadvertency, he had read 

nfr, (418) the "lute," iheorbe, in lieu of I it, (419) the " blade of an oar," 



as the sculpture stands. Through misapprehension of the groups (in line 9 compared with 
line 2, of the same inscription), Mr. Sharpe then deemed that this malcopied sign "nfr" 

was the homophone of 

b, (420) the " human leg ;" 



J 



and, in consequence, he always reads "nfr" as if it were the latter articulation — "That 
the arrow-shaped character is rightly sounded B or V is proved by its admitting that sound 
in the above four names, as also in No. 160 and No. 165." (421) The extraordinary meta- 
morphoses of well-known royal names which this misconception, founded upon a mistake, 
has occasioned, are too evident to the hierologist to require comment. Unfortunately, 
through such concatenation of fallacies, Mr. Sharpe (422) transmutes the prenomen of 
Queen AMENSeT,(423) and the nomen of this queen's husband AJIENEMHA, (424) and 
the oval of MENKERA,(425) into a fabulously bisexual " Mychera-Amun Neitchori" — 
rolls up the IV th, Vlth, and XVIIIth dynasties into one — and thus makes the 3d pyramid 
of Geezeh (b. c. 3300) contemporary with the majestic obelisk (b. c. 1600) in the temple 
of Karnac ! It is as if one were to call Edwakb the Confessor the sa,me personaffe as " Vic- 
toria and Albert ;" and then to insist that the former's tomb in AVestminster Abbey must 
be coeval with the equestrian statue of Welmxgton at Hyde Park corner ! (426) 

Mr. Sharpe's restricted system of Egyptian chronology, for times anterior to Thothmosis 
III. (placed by him in the 14th century b. c), may now be considered as "non-avenu." 
But, while compelled to shatter its superstructures down to his XVIIIth dynasty, let no one 
impute to us lack of respect for the profound author of the "History of Egypt" — a work 
that (from page 30 to 692) ever has our warmest admiration. Contenders for the longest 

(415) SniBPE: Clirondogy ; pp. 14, 15. 

(416) Guddon: Chapters; p. 57; — Otia; pp. 39, 45. 

(417) Sharpe: Inscriptions in British Museum ; pi. cxvi., line 9, and line 2. 

(418) BuNSES: £g. fl., i. p. 5S7, No. 31; — Champollio.v: Dictionnaire; p. 293, No. 338 — "NOFRE." 

(419) BixsEx: No. 30 : — Champollion : p. 378, No. 459 — " TOUW." 

(420) BcNSEX : p. 558, B, 1 ; — Champoluon : p. 100, No. 60 — " B." 

(421) aircmolnffy ; p. 4. 

(422) Op. oil. ; p. 6, Nos. 60, 61, 60; and plate ii., figs. 60, 61, 62. 

(423) KosELUXi : Cartouche No. 103. 

(424) Ibid.; Cartouc/ie No. 103/ 

(425) BuxSEN : JEgypltns Slelle ; iii., pi. i. — 3fen-ke-ii-ra. 

(426) IMs a year ago since this was written, and so reluctant do I feel to contradict a respected fellow- 
laborec^f^t I should have suppressed these comments but for a " rifacimento " of the same doctrines reported 
in the London Athenaeum, Nov. 19, 1853. " The third aim of the paper was to show that the 3d and 4th pyra- 
mids were both made by Queen Nitocris, who governed Egypt during the minority of Thotmosis the Illd. Tho 
name of King Myccra has been found in both of these pyramids; Mycera is the first name of Queen Nitocris [!], 
and it was probably the name used in Memphis for Thothmosis the Hid." kc—i^Si/ro-Egyptian Soc., Nov. 8.) 



678 mankind's chronology. 

human chronology ourselves, it is imperative upon us to carry the outworks of truly- 
erudite short-chronologists before storming their last English citadel: a facile exploit now 
to be performed. 

" The thistle that was in Lebanon 
Sent to the cedar that was in Lebanon 
Saying, 'Give thy daughter to my son to wife ' : 
And there passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon, 
And trode down the thistle." (2 Kingsxiv.9.) 

On the part of one of the authors of "Types of Mankind," old Nilotic associations — on 
that of the other, convictions of the scientific worthlessness of HoEiE jEgtptiac^,(427) 
have, for two years, restrained both of them from printed notice of this production : and, 
if now they conjoin to chant its requiem, the necessity is superinduced, on one hand, by a 
desire to vindicate Egyptology ; on another, the deed has been fastened upon the writer 
individually by the incessant ofBciousness of theologers in the United States, in local obtru- 
sions uncalled-for, and in appeals continual to the illusory authority of an adolescent scholar. 

It has been already shown [supra, -p, 670] how Mr. Wilkinson, in 1835, had obliterated, with 
a dash of his pen, all the " unplaced kings " he had previously published ; (428) and had 
cut down the era o/Menes to the year b. c. 2201, "for fear of interferinff with the deluge." 
During twelve years, Sir Gardner Wilkinson compassionately refrained from diluvial inter- 
ference ; but, from 1837 (429) to 1847, (430) he made a retrocession of Menes, on a sliding 
scale, to the year b. c. 2320 ; thereby placing this unfortunate king amid the paludic mias- 
mata (he was killed by a hippopotamus) consequent upon that grand catastrophe — only 
tioenty-eight years after Archbishop Usher's cataclysm, with which the gallant Knight 
scrupled to interfere. 

The consequence was, that, for twelve years, no hierologist thought it incumbent upon 
him to quote Wilkinson in matters of chronology ; even if scientific justice toward the 
latter's innumerable Egyptian discoveries occasionally induced Egyptologists to cite a most 
erudite author notoriously chary of mentioning the labors of continental contempora- 
ries. (431) 

Solitude, however, in time becomes tiresome even to an anchorite. Between the years 
1835 and 1847, the bound made by Egyptian studies was enormous. Lepsius, followed by 
the whole school of Champollionists, had discovered the Xllth dynasty ofJlanetho; (432) and 
the XVI — XVIIth dynastic arrangement of Rosellini, abandoned by every other scholar, 
survived, in 1847, through Wilkinson's Hand-look alone. It became desirable, therefore, 
to " wear ship" in the smoke of Cairo, and to reappear to windward on the other tack; just 
as if the gallant Knight had been sailing in line with Manetho's Xllth dynasty all the time ! 
A " cat's paw " of breeze, nevertheless, was requisite for these nautical evolutions, and 
HoTOB MgyptiacoR kindly wafted it over seas to the London " Literary Gazette." 

"And I think this conjecture," wrote the author of Horce, (433) "strengthened by the 
fact, that Sir G. Wilkinson has found with the name of Phiops (Pepi) a king's name, which 
I believe he agrees with me in considering as that of Othoes, the first king of the Vlth 
dynasty." — "And this explanation is most strikingly confirmed by a fact [known 14 years 
previously (434) to every reader of Rosellini!], of which some very remarkable instances 
are found in some of the unpublished papers of Sir Gardner Wilkinson, which he has 
kindly shown me, as well as in some of his published works ; that in numerous sculptures 

(427) Sora JEgyptiacx — "or the Chronology of Ancient Egypt discovered from Astronomical and Hiero- 
glyphical records upon its Monuments ; including many dates found in coeval inscriptions from the period of 
the building of the Great Pyramid to the times of the Persians: and Illustrations of the History of the first 
nineteen Dynasties, showing the order of their succession, from the Monuments." London, Murray, 8vo, 1851. 

(428) 3rateria HCeroglyptdca ; Cairo, 1827-32; Supplemmt, and Text, Malta. 

(429) Manners and Customs; 1837 ; i. p. 41. 

(430) Hand-boolc far Travellers in Egypt; 1847; p. 17. ^ 
(4:jl) Gliddon: CTiopiers; p. 11, a. Mf 
(432) BvsSEH -.^gyptensSielle; 1845; i., Torrcde, pp. 13, 19 ; ii. pp. 271-362; iii. pi. 3. 

(4-33) Literary GaneUe; 1849; p. 486; "Cairo, May, 1849." 

(434) Compare also Lepsius— "Culte frequent en Nubie de SesertusenllL". Zettre, 20 Jirin, 1845 ; inBer. 
Archfiol., June, 1844, p. 208. 



EGYPTIAN. 679 

in Xubia, tvc find kinjrs of the XVIIIth dynasty worshipping Sesertesen [Wilkinson always 
wrote " Osirtasen "] HI. as a god. "(435) — "I was unable to iind it [^IIor-em-bai!'\ during 
my last visit to Thebes, owing to its but once occurring, and to the great extent of the 
tomb; and I have to tliank Sir Gardner Wilkinson in giving me a copy of it."(43G) — "I 
must express my obligations to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, for his having greatly promoted 
these investigations, during his last visit to Egypt, in discussing ivith ne every point of im- 
portance in the first four numbers (all I had then written), as well as for the kindness and 
liberality which he showed me in allowing nie to examine and copy many of his unpub- 
lished transcripts from Egyptian monuments." (437) 

These meritorious acknowledgments were due to the paternal solicitude with which the 
gallant Knight had watched at Cairo over Ilorce. Nevertheless, expostulations were ad- 
dressed from London to its author about the suppression of the names of so many other fellow- 
laborers ; as well through private channels, as also hinted, in public session, before the 
" Syro-Egyptian Society." (438) 

Years passed away. The 12 articles entitled Horce. JEgyptiaccn, originally published in 
the " Literary Gazette," having received unparalleled aid from the highest quarters, reap- 
pear, considerably altered, in a beautiful octavo. 

We read first Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson's endorsement of Horce.: (439) — 

" It is indeed the less necessary to enter into a detailed examination of the chronology, 
and the succession of the Pharaohs, as Mr. Stuart Poole's work on the subject will soon be 
published; and I have much pleasure in stating how fully I agree with him in the contempo- 
raneousness of certain kings, and in the order of succession he gives to the early Pharaohs." 

Secondly, we admire Horm's re-endorsement of Sir Gardner Wilkinson : (440) — 

"/have avoided, as much as possible, quoting or examining the works of others, except- 
ing Sir Gardner Wilkinson. My object has been to explain what /learned from the monu- 
ments ; not to combat the assertions of others. Sir Gardner Wilkinson stands in a position 
different from that of any others who have written on the subject ; he has never written to 
support a chronological hypothesis [' in order not to interfere with the Deluge,' siipral. and 
is entitled to the utmost confidence on account of his well-known accuracy, the many years 
which he has spent in the study of the monuments in Egypt, and the caution which he has 
shown in refraining from putting forth any complete system of Egj'ptian chronology: /am 
aware how greatly /disagree with all others who have written on this subject; but it is a 
sutficient consolation to me, since all differ, that it is little more to differ from all others 
than to difi'er from all of them but o«e."(441) 

Thirdly, Sir Gardner Wilkinson again endorses IIotcr : (442) — 

"And the contemporaneousness of others [kings — entirely arbitrary!] have been very inge- 
niously and satisfactorily explained by Mr. Stuart Poole, in his Jlora; Egyptiacoe ; where he 
acknowledges that it was first suggested to him by Mr. Lane. That arrangement may be 
seen in the following table, which he has obligingly communicated, and which I have the more 
pleasure in inserting, as / agree u-ith him in the contemporaneousness of the kings, and in 
the general mode of arranging those of the same line." 

Fourthly, The Friend of Moses endorses both : — 

" So complete and satisfactory is the train of evidence adduced by Mr. Poole, that Sir 
J. G. Wilkinson, one of the most learned of living men, in all that relates to Egyptian 
archajology, has openly published in his last great work on the Architecture of Egypt, his 
entire concurrence in the views of Mr. Poole, and his conviction of the complete and satis- 
factory character of the evidence that gentleman has adduced from the monuments." (443) 

Ever and anon, after reiterating this endorsement, the same Friend of Moses adds 
in Italics : — 

^'' Egypt, with all her splendid Monuments, is found a witness [as much as and not less than 
Spitsbergen] to the truth of the Bible, and to the correctness [•' credat Judseus Apella !" ] of 
the Mosaic chronology. . . . Theie concessions of the Chevalier Bunsen prepare us to receive 
with greater confidence the statements of Mr. R. S. Poole, in his Horce JEgyptiacce, claim- 
ing to adduce proofs from the monuments themselves, that several of the dynasties which 

(435) Ihid.; p. 552; "Cairo, June, 1849." 

(436) Itjid. : p. 522. 

(437) Uiid. ; p. 910. 

(43S) London, 10th April, 1849; Literary Gazette, 28tli April, 1849. 

(439) Ilorce JEgyidiacce ; Preface, p. 23 — citation from WilKiNSON : Architecture of Ancient Egypt. 

(440) fforai; p. 23. 

(441) flora; p. 23. 

(442) Hieratic Papyrut of Turin ; 1851 ; p. 29. 

(443) " Mobile, Jan. 27, 1852" — Southern Presbyterian ; Milledgeville, Ga., Feb. 19, 1852. 



680 mankind's chronology. 

have been generally represented as successive were actually contemporaneous, as e. g. the 
twelfth and the fifth [ ! ] ; and that thus, the monumental history of Egypt covers not a 
period of duration beyond what may be readily reconciled with [poor Moses!] the Mosaic 
chronology as given in the Septuagint. A conclusion, to the accuracy of which, Sir J. G. 
Wilkinson has affixed the sanction of his great name in these matters." (444) 

The FeiejsD or Moses soon after becomes mystified : — 

" I. became acquainted with several gentlemen of distinction in the learned world. . . . 
Mr. R. S. Poole, a bold writer on Egyptian chronology." (445) 

He next assures us : — 

" I have carefully compared the copies taken by Champollion in all iliese tombs and temples, 
from the second Cataract to Thebes, and I have collated his hieroglyphics, line by line [this 
is the more miraculous, as it was performed between Alexandria, Nov. 12, and Cairo, Feb. 
14 — after going up the Nile, 1200 miles, to Samneh; and returning, 1050 miles, to Cairo!], 
and character b;/ character, with the originals. . . . There is a magnificent error somewhere — 
though /am not prepared [ ! ] to point out where ; nor how precisely it may be detected 
and exposed. Of one thing /am satisfied — that Sir J. G. Wilkinson, and my kind young 
friend, Mr. R. S. Poole, of the British Museum, are much nearer the truth, in their chro- 
nology, than is Dr. Lepsius, or the Chevalier Bunsen." (446) 

The scientific reader now comprehends our local situation, and will compassionately forgive 
the inhumanities which such every-day offences compel us finally to perform. " Le jeu ne 
vaut pas la chandelle ; " else we would at once refute Hora Egyptiacce, page by page, 
and hieroglyphic by hieroglyphic; in the interpretation of which last the juvenile author 
(or Sir G. Wilkinson) has committed blunders as egregious as they are multiform — alto- 
gether unpardonable in the actual state of hierology. For the present, our criticisms shall 
be chiefly confined to the publication of " three fragments," upon the principles of a world- 
renowned master, Letronne. (447) They are from the highest Egyptologists in Europe ; 
two of them in epistles to the authors ; one already in print. 

First Extract. (448) 

" I have nothing to say about the book of Poole, if not that I regard it as a juvenile 
and sufl[iciently-pretentious essay, written without conscientiousness, and dangerous rather 
to the theologians than to science." 

Second Extract. (449) 

" Not one of its followers can read three lines of hieroglyphics correctly. The G. P. 
Y. (450) and G. P. M. (451) are only in the mind of the author. Examined by the micro- 
scope of philology, all vanishes into a few unimportant observations — for example; 

, is not " the first month" — " the first half month," 

of the Great Panegyrical Year ; but merely 

= "monthly," ^^ ^^ = "half-monthly." 



^ 



The consequence is that this expression does not fix the age of Chuff [builder of the great 
pyramid]. The " 7th .^-^^^^i" (452) on the base of the Karnac obelisk, refers to the 

seven smai, or periods-months, I believe that the 
obelisk was in the quarry. Hence the whole 
cyclical part is a delusion ; and all the inferences 
are nil. The rest of the book is a string of hypotheses — where there are not actual mis- 
apprehensions." 

Third Extract. (453) 

: " Mr. Poole is of the number of those young workmen wio deserve that one should tell 
them the whole truth. Either he has not read what recent archseologists have written 

(444) The Friend of Moses; New York, 1852; pp. 376, 377, 514. 

(445) Mobile Daily Advertiser, Oct. 9, 1862 — " Correspondence — Paris, Sept. 14, 1852." 

(446) Mobile Daily Register, April 1, 1853— "Letter from Egypt — Cairo, Feb. 14, 1853." 

<447) Trois Fragments — Mgmoires et Documents publics dans la Kevue Archeol.; Paris, 1849; pp. 100-119. 

(448) Letter to Mr. Gliddm. 

(449) Letter to Dr. Nott. 

(450) Horce ; p. 59 — " Great Panegyrical Year." 

(451) Do.; p. 56 — "Great Panegyrical Month." 

(452) Do. ; p. 66. 

(453) De EoDa£: Phinomenes Celestes; Rev. Archgol., 15 Feb. 1853; pp. 664, 665; siM note. 



i 



EGYPTIAN. 681 

upon this subject, ■which would be inexcusable ; or he has read them and does not cite 
ihem, which would be still more grave. I have not read the name of Lepsius a single 
time in his book, in respect to all these questions so lengthily treated in the Introduction to 
Chronology [Berlin, 1848-9]. . . . Not content with this discovery [viz., the imaginary Pane- 
gyrical Months] M. Poole thinks also to find other new cycles, with the dates which refer 
to them. I confess that it has been impossible for me to comprehend how, in the presence 
of pretensions so important, Mr. Poole has not deemed himself obliged to prove the truth 
of his allegations, by minutely analyzing the inscriptions which he alleges. Far from that, 
he contents himself with indicating them, and sometimes even without producing their text 
in his plates. One cannot lean upon an Egyptian inscription, as upon a passage of Titus 
Livius, without new explanation, and I will frankly say that I believe in none of the cycles 
and in none of the dates of Mr. Poole. ... It is evident that in thus handling the ciphers, 
without controlling their signification and the manner in which they are introduced into 
the inscriptions, one may end in imagining all the periods that one wishes, and in giving 
them a certain appearance of truth to the eyes of persons who can discuss but the results. 
A work thus based must pass for non-avenu." 

But, after all, Horte has no " fear of interfering with the Deluge ;" so the work becomes 
only another thorn in the side of orthodoxy. Mr. Wilkinson (1835, svpra), devoutly fol- 
lowing archbishop Usher and the margin of king James's version, says the date of the 
Flood " is 2348 b. c." In its author's first articles, Ilorce had declared — 

" The date of the accession of Menes, the first king of Egypt, is probably that of the 
commencement of the first great panegyrical year and first capital year. Eratosthenes and 
Josephus [say, modern computators on these ancient writers] place his accession some- 
what later — namely, about 2300 years b. c, instead of 2715. The history of the 1st, 2d, 
3d, 4th, and 5th dynasties [of the IV-Vth dynasties, Lepsius found the amplest details, 
while the author of Horce dwelt only 15 miles off, at Cairo !] is but scantily furnished us by 
Manetho and the monuments, and the latter give us but one date [and that fabulous!], 
that of the commencement of what / have called the second great panegyrical year in the 
time of Supliis I., the builder of the great pyramid, and second king of Manetho's fourth 
dynasty, B. c. 2350." (454) 

Ilorce thus fixed the building of the great pyramid two years before Wilkinson's 
Deluge; and set SIexes on the throne, in Egypt, 367 years before the same authority's 
catastrophe. But, it was promptly shown, that Ilorce, in selecting the year B. c. 2715 for 
Mexes, had merely stolen another man's thunder (455) : wherefore, when its author came 
to reprint those twelve articles in an octavo volume, he so translated his hieroglyphics, 
astronomically, as to obtain two years' difference! — "The commencement of the great 
panegyrical year which preceded that of the Suphises, / have already shown to be in the 
year n. c. 2717" (456) ; and then he informs us that " the Septuagint chronology dates the 
Dispersion of Mankind about the year b. c. 2758 ; that is, about 41 years before the era 
of Menes"! 

Computations upon the different copies of the LXX, every one of them as rotten as the 
MSS. themselves, cause the Creation to fluctuate between b. c. 5904, and b. c. 5054. (457) 
And the above sentence merely shows its penman's incompetency to discuss Septuagint 
questions. To the reader of our disquisition on Xth Genesis [PeLeG, supra, p. 545], the 
following specimens oi Ilorce' s biblical knowledge will be amusing; as much as, to use its 
author's favorite adjective, the latter's credulity is " remarkable": — 

" / therefore believe that the Vague year was instituted in the time of Noah ; probably 
by Ham [!], not by Noah. . . . / have only to notice one other important epoch of Bible 
history — the dispersion of nations. The division [read " split"] of the earth is indicated 
as having occurred at the birth of Peleg [a "split"]; when we are told, (Gen. x, 25), 
' unto Eber were born two sons ; the name of the one (was) Peleg (or division) ; for in his 
days was the earth divided.' [Vide supra, what the Hebrew writer meant!] Now, it was a 
common custom of Hebrews to name their children from circumstances wliich occurred at 
their birth ; and the custom of ancient Arabs was precisely the same, and has continued 
to the present day. We cannot reckon as exceptions to this the few cases where God 
changed a name, or imposed a new one ; and in the latter case the old name was retained 
with the new one[!]. The hirlh of Peleg, according to Dr. Hales, happened b. c. 2754; 

(454) Art. XII.; Literary Gazettf.. Dec. 15, 1849; p. 910; — compare Art. VII., p. 522. 

(455) " By my reduction of ' Manetho '—2715 " B. c. ; Guddon, Cliaj)., 1843, p. 51 :— and Hand-book, 1849, p. 47. 

(456) Op. cU.: p. 63, and p. 97. 

(457) RicaoLi : Clironol. reformaia ; p. 293. 

86 



682 



MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. 



but, cfiloulateil from my hate of the Ex- , 
odus, B.C. 2758."(4.58) — "/say that 
the Pharaoh of the Exodus reigned un- 
doubtedly not more than about one 
year ; for, although his being drowned 
in the Red Sea is not expressly men- 
tioned by Moses, it is so mentioned 
in the 136th Psalm [what a clinching 
argument !], and / hold all the books 
of the Bible to be equally true. "(459). 

It is to be deplored that, after being 
promoted for his Hebraism to a post 
in the British Museum, " my kind 
young friend," as the Friend of Hoses 
affectionately terms him, should have 
expunged these delightful samples of 
pious feeling from the republication of 
ITorcB in its octavo form. So imbued, 
yre fear, is he likely to become in that 
enlightened institution with self-imrao- 
lating principles, that it would not sur- 
prise us to learn through newspapers 
that norm likewise — as Scaliger says, 
" ut signatius loquar" — for the sake 
of Oriental literature were to turn 
Mohammedan. 

No inclination remains to follow 
Horde's farthing-rush-lightany further. 
We leave the pupil for the teacher, 
when we here exhibit on the margin 
a table printed by Wilkinson in the 
pamphlet-text accompanying the lat- 
ter's truly - valuable contribution to 
archiBological science — The fragments 
of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin: con- 
taining the names of Egyptian Kings, 
with the Hieratic inscription at the bach. 

Here is that "magnificent error" 
which the Friend of Moses could not 
discover by going to Egypt : — 

"Respecting the construction of the 
table, he observes : ' The relative po- 
sitions and the lengths of most of 
these dynasties are founded upon some 
kind of monumental authority. The 
rest / have placed within approxima- 
tive extremes. There are several 
points of exact [!] contemporaneous- 
ness, as in the 2nd and 4th and 5th 
dynasties, again in the 5th and 15th, 
and in the 9th and 11th; and these, 
with other evidence of the same nature, 
enable us to adjust the general scheme 
of all the dynasties.' " (460) 

Reader! Suppose a Chinese archae- 
ologist, with a little red button on 
his cap, were to come all the way 
from Pe-kin to America, and tell us 
that good old king Egbert was a 



1200 



1300 



1400 



1500 



1600 



1700 



1800 



1900 



-2000 



2100 



2200 



2300 



2400 



2500 



2600 



2700 

















1— I 
X 


















x' 








> 










> 







M 

X 


X 












*^ 




> 




X 


X 










II ^4 




> 


> 




l-H 


1-H 


s 

li 


M 


^t 











•spx3iid3>is 



(458) Art. X.; Lit. Gaz.; p. 611. (459) AH. T.; Lit. Gaz.; p. 432. (460) Hier. Papyr. ; pp. 30, 31, and taUe, p. 31. 



EGYPTIAN. 683 

mytlie — that the consecutive dynasties of our common English father-land could fit no Hot- 
tentot's estimate of tlie chronology of John-Chinaman's sacred book, the Chou-king ; unless, 
after rejecting Boudicea and Caractacus, we were to permit his reduction of Danes, Saxons, 
Kormans, Planfaf/cnets, Lancastrians, Yorkiles, Tudors, Stuarts, Orangites, Hanoverians, &c.; 
together with all British, Scottish, and Irish, periods of anarchy ; not forgetting Cromwell 
and the Commonwealth ; into one century. Suppose that, after proving why every Anglo- 
Saxon had erroneously classified, as distinct, those personages, epochas, and historical events, 
which the "Tribunals of Literature" of China had pronounced to be identical, the said 
mandarin were to show us how beautifully the whole could be reduced, through electro- 
magnetic typography, into one line of a table, and expressed algebraically by an ar, repre- 
senting an infinitesimal fraction of a second of Creative time. What should we say to His 
Excellency "Uncle Josh"? 

Now, whatever the American reader might be pleased to hint to such Chinese mandarin, 
would be uttered in demotic tongue with "brutale franchise" by old Manetho (could his 
mummy arise) to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, at the first glance over the above table : where, 
in wilful disregard of Lenormant, ChampoUion, Bockh, Barucchi, Bunsen, Henry, Lesueur, 
Lepsius, Hincks, Kenrick, Pickering, Ampfere, De Koug^, Birch, and of every hierologist 
past, present, and to come, the gallant Knight has made the Illd, IVth, Vlth (VII), Vlllth 
Egyptian dynasties (consecutive in Manetho and, where mentioned, serial upon all monu- 
ments), contemporaneous! — has actually jammed eleven dynasties, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, 
XII, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, into a space (2200 a 1700) of 500 years ! And perpetrated, 
too, all these inexplicable vagaries with theological applause, when, by placing Menes (1st 
dynasty, Tldnites) at 2700 b. c, he shows that valiant knighthood, in a. d. 1851, no longer 
creeps all over "for fear of interfering with the Deluge of Noah; which {was) 2348 b. c." 
before an aspirant to ecclesiastical patronage had won his gilded spurs. 

We dismiss, therefore, Horon JEgyptiacoi as beneath scientific notice, reserving to our- 
selves the privilege of a reviewer's criticism, whenever circumstances may demand its 
annihilation. With it we snap ofi' the last published peg upon which short-chronology can 
suspend its clerical hat ; because Mr. Sharpe's arrangement of Egyptian dynasties anterior 
to the XVIIIth has been respectfully disposed of. AVhen other writers, with hieroglyphical 
handles to their patronymes, adventure into the rude arena of archaeology as champions 
of sAor(-chronography, may their armor be well tempered and their lances tough ! 

The list of Zon^-chronologists, above given, comprehends the " preux chevaliers " of 
archa?ological science at this day. The minimum of their respective dates for Menes is 
B. c. 3643 ; the maximum approaches the 6th chiliad b. c. By each authority all biblical 
computations, Hebrew, Samaritan, and Septuagint, are thrown aside among the rubbish of 
the things that were. 

" The sum of all the dynasties varies according to our present sources from 4685 to 5049 
years ; the number of kings from 300 to 350, and even 500. It is evidently impossible to 
found a chronology on such a basis, but Syncellus tells us that the number of generations 
included in the 30 dynasties was, according to Manetho, 113; and the whole number of 
years, 3555. This number falls much short of what the summation of the reigns would 
furnish according to any reading of the numbers, but is nearly the same as 113 generations 
would produce, at any average of 32 years each." (461) 

Fifteen years ago, the learned ethnographer, De Brotonne, reasoning upon this very 
number, "3555 de Manethon," obtained b. c. 3901 as "le chiffre le moins ^leve " for 
Menes. (462) 

To neither of the present writers have these results been unknown : — 

" On my return to Cairo [April, 1840, from a voyage with Mr. Harris to the second cata- 
ract], I devoted a twelvemonth's leisure to the verification of the solidity of the basis upon 
which hieroglyphical revelations had placed Egyptian monumental chronology. The result 
■was a conviction as profound then, as subsequent researches, — echoed by the voice of uni- 
versal erudition, and embodied in the works of a host of savans whose names gild the 

(461) Kenrick: Andent Egypt under the J'haraohs: 1850; ii. p. 93. 

(462) POiations el Migralions : i. p. 203. 



684 mankind's CHRONOLOGr. 

brightest page illuminated by science in the XlXth century, — have since demonstrated its 
accuracy, of the utter impossibility of reconciling Egyptian facts, geological, topographical, 
ethnological, hieroglyphical, and historical, with Archbishop Usher's system of patriarchal 
chronology. 

" A manuscript compilation, over which an old and valued colleague, M. Prisse, and 
myself wiled away at Cairo many delightful weeks in reciprocal exchanges of our several 
gleanings, under the title of " Analecta Hieroglyphica," condensed every cartouche, with 
references to most of the historical monuments, known to hierologists up to April, 1841 ; 
and, as many personal friends are aware, this manuscript is still a most important ground- 
text and manual to those who, like myself, are anxious to ascertain the stability of prior 
investigations, before hazarding the erection of a theoretical superstructure." (4C3) 

What, then, is the present state of scientific opinion on the era of Menes ? The reader 
has it before him in the list on p. 682; and, without perplexing himself with vain speculations 
founded upon ignorance of the stupendous materials transferred from Egypt to Berlin by 
the Prussian Mission, let him do as we do, await patiently for the publication, hourly due, 
of Lepsius's "Book of Kings." The authors may be pardoned when stating that, in 
books, manuscript-notes, and epistolary communications from Egypt, Italy, France, Ger- 
many, and England, they probably possess as much specific and detailed information here 
at Mobile, on Egyptian monumental chronology, as most men in the world, less a dozen 
European hierologists — with whom they are in agreeable accord. When, therefore, they 
put forward no dogmatical system of their own, but wait for the "Book of Kings," they 
act themselves in accordance with the counsel offered to fellow-inquirers. Should Lepsius's 
work reach their hands before the issue of the present volume, a synopsis of its chron- 
ology will be appended to our essay. We may also look forward to Biot, the scholarlike 
astronomer of France, for a profound investigation of the astronomical data, revealed by 
Egyptian monuments, in their relations to mundane chronology ; (464) which will supersede 
any future recurrence to the cyclic reveries of such youthful star-gazers as Horoe. 

Should, however, a qualified student desire to prepare himself for thorough mastery of 
Lepsius's "Book of Kings," he should commence with Rosellini's Monumenti Slorici ; and, 
that being fundamentally acquired, his next guide is Bunsen, JEgypiens Stelle in der Weltge- 
schichte ; wherein most of the royal Egj'ptian names, discovered up to 1845, are compared 
with the classical lists, and in which the grand alteration produced by Lepsius's resuscita- 
tion of the Xllth dynasty (unknown to the lamented Pisan Professor, or, in 1847, to Wil- 
kinson), is abundantly set forth. " There is no royal road to the mathematics," nor is 
there a straighter path to the comprehension of Egyptian chronology than the one we 
indicate ; but, after these two works, the study of Lepsius, Chronologie der JEgypter, 
"Einleitung, 1849," becomes imperative. 

Such reader will appreciate the general correctness of the following method of verifying, 
archseologically, the progressive layers in which Egyptian history stretches backwards from 
the Christian era, assumed at 1853 years ago : until the unknown-commencements of Nilotic 
humanity merge into an undated, but ante-alluvial, period of geology. (465) 

We gladly borrow the first points of departure, in our journey from the Christian era 
backwards, from Sharpe (466) : — 

" The reigns of Ptolemy, of Darius, of Cambyses, and of Tirhakah are fixed by the Baby- 
lonian eclipses. Hophra and Shishank are fixed because they are mentioned in the Old 
Testament, since the length of the Jewish reigns, after Solomon, is well known, while those 
Jewish dates are themselves fixed by the earliest of the Babylonian eclipses in the reign 
of Tirhakah. Thus are fixed [by Mr. Sharpe] in the Table of Chronology the dynasties 
of Sais, Ethiopia, and Babastis. Petubastes lived in the first Olympiad ; this fixes the 
dynasties of Tanis." 

Thus, king by king, and event by event, we ascend with precision back to Alexander the 
Great, b. c. 332 ; and thence, through the XXXIst, XXXth, XXIXth, XXVIIIth, XXVIIth, 



(463) Gliddon: Hand-hook; London, Madden, 1849; p. 40;— conf. Nott: Biblical and Physical Histm-y of 
Man: 1849 ; pp. 60-86; — also Chronology, Ancient and Scriptural : South. Quart. Rev., Nov. 1850. 

(464) De Roiig£: Eev. ArcMol., Feb. 1853; pp. 656, 686. 

(465) Gliddon : Otia ; pp. 61-69. 

(466) Chronology and Geography; 1849; p. 13, and table, pp. 14, 15. 



EGYPTIAN. 685 

XXVIth, XXVth, XXIVtb, XXIIItl Egyptian consecutive dynasties, back to SAeSAoNK, 
Shishrtk, founder of the XXIId dynasty; who, conquering Jerusalem "in the Vth year of 
king Rehoboam," (4G7) as is hieroglyphically recorded in Karnac, (408) enables us to estab- 
lish a perfect synchronism, between Egyptian and Judaic history at b. c. 971-3. 

Prior to this date, Egyptian monuments never once refer to the Hebrews, throw not a 
glimmer of light upon Jewish annals ; and with Sheshonk also ceases the possibility of fixing 
anj' Pharaoh, to him anterior, within 5 or 10 years. Chronology, year by year, stops in 
fact at B. c. 972 ; as well in Israelitish as in Nilotic chronicles : although the foundation 
of Solomon's temple cannot be far removed from b. c. 1000. 

Leaving Hebrew computation to ascend along its own stream, innumerable Egyptian doc- 
uments — tablets, papyri, gctiealogical lists, public and private, together with an astounding 
mass of collateral and circumstantial evidence, — carry us upward, through the XXIst, 
XXth, XlXth, and XVIlIth dynasties, reign by reign, and monument by monument, to 
PiAJiSES I. (Ramesu) ; whose epoch belongs to the century 15th-16th b. c. 

Here intervenes a period, though for a few years only, of anarchy ; represented in the 
Disk heresy, and by sundry royal claimants ; at the head of whom stands Atejjra-Bakiian, 
QV Bc'x^-cn-alen ; {^Q^) called by Lepsius "Amenophis IV." But upward from \\\% father's 
reign, Amenoph III, every king is known, with many events of their respective reigns, 
through hiei'oglyphical sculptures and papyri, back to the beginning of the XVIIth Theban 
dynasty, in the reign of AAHMES, Amosis, I ; computed, by Lepsius, to be about the year 
1671 B. c. At this point, which begins the " Restoration," or " New Empire," after the 
expulsion of the Hyksos, we lose the thread of annual chronology, for times anterior to the 
17th century, before c. 

We refrain from discussion of the Hyksos, or shepherd kings. (470) They are supposed to 
occupy the XVIth and XVth dynasties ; and, according to Manetho, their duration covered 
511 j'ears of time. The XlVth dynasty has not been disentangled clearly from the muti- 
lated lists ; and the hieroglyphical records have not yet spoken intelligibly, although they 
are numerous. We pause for Lepsius ; and in the meanwhile refer the reader for a sum- 
mary of the monumental edifices of the OldandtheNewEmpires to his published travels. (471) 
To us at present this " middle Empire" is chaos ; but, even supposing the XlVth, XVth, and 
XVIth dynasties could, by a «/ior<-chronologist, be expunged from Egyptian records, it must 
be remembered, by Zo«^-chronologists, that the XVIIth dynasty stands erect in the 17th 
century b. c. We leave the " middle Empire's" duration to be adjusted along a sliding scale 
from zero upward ; and next proceed to show that we possess above 1500 years of positive 
monuments, behind this "middle Empire," by which all Sepluagini computations of the 
Deluge, at b. c. 3246, or 3146, or 3155, encounter a " reductio ad absurdum." 

The mists begin to clear off as we commence ascending to the latest representatives of the 
"Old Empire" in the land of KAaM, Ha7n, Chemmis : viz., the Sebakhetps and Nepherhetps 
of the Xlllth dynasty (472) : but, at the Xllth dynasty, the glories of the olden time blaze 
forth again effulgently ; (473) thanks to Lepsius's investigutions of the Genealogical Papyrus 
of Turin. (474) 

(467) \ Kings xiv. 25 ; 2 Chron. xii. 2. 

(468) GUDDOS : Cliapkrs ; p. 9. 

(469) Prisse: Legendes de ScJmi ; Rev. Archeol., 1845; pp. 472-474; also his arrangement of these kings, ia 
WiLKi.NSOx, Hand-book, p. 393; — Lepsius: Gutterkreis, -ISil; pp. 40-43; — De Roxsai: Lettre d if . Alfred Maury ; 
Rev. Archeol., 1S49 ; 120-124. 

(470) Guddon: Olia; pp. 44, 45. 

(471) Briefe aus ^gyptcn ; pp. 364-369. 

(472) Birch, in Olia JEgyptiaca ; p. 82; and his HisUmcal TaUet of Ramses II.; 1852; p. 19; — De Rodg£: 
Socliers de Semne ; Rev. Archeol., 1848 ; pp. 312, 313. 

(473) BuNSEN : JEgyptcns Sidle ; ii. p. 271, seq. ; — De Rouafi : Anmtles de Philosophie Chritiennes ; xiv., xt., xti. ; 
and IDncks: Turin Booh of Kings; R. Soc. of Lit.; iii., part i., pp. 128-150; but considerably emended in 'Wn/- 
KiNSOx's Papyrus of Kings; 1850; "Observations of Dr. E. Hincks"; p. 55: — De Roug£: Le Sesoslris de la 
DouzQme Dynastie ; Rev. Arched., 1847 ; pp. 481-489. 

(474) Auswahl; Taf iii., iv., v., vi.: — most superbly recopied by Sir J. G. Wilkinson: Fragments of the Hie- 
ratic Papyrus at Turin; 1851 : but consult also the critical history of this document as di.«played by Champol- 
uov-FiOEAC (Rev. Archeol.), with the caveat that the luckless disposal of these fragments is due to Seyfaetu alone. 



686 mankind's chronology. 

The hieroglyphical names of some of these kings may be consulted in Bunsen ; but we 
borrow from Lepsius this table of the Xllth dynasty ; which cannot become more than 
slightly modified in his " Book of Kings." (475) 

" The XIIth Manethonian Dynasty. 

According to According to Oie Highest year on 

Manetho. Turin Papyrus. the Monuments. 

1. Amenemhe I alone 9 y'rs 9 Am. I [Afr.l6 Eus.l6J 9y'rs 

2. Sesurtesen I and Amcnemhe I. 7 " "| 8. of Am. and Ses. I. 

Sesurtesen I alone 35 " UeSea. I [Afr.46 Eus.46J 45 " 44.ofSes.I=2of Am.II. 

Sesurtesen I and Amenemhe II 4 " J 

3. Amenemhe II alone 28 " i 

,^ . . , TT 1A ■< ^38 Am.II [Afr.38 Eus.38] 3(7) " 35. Am. 11=3. Ses II. 

4. Sesurtesen II & Amenemhe II. 10 " J 

SesurtcEen II alone 28 " 28 Ses. II [Afr.48 Eus.48](2)9« 11. — — 

5. Sesurtesen III 38 " 38 Ses. HI [Afr. 8 Eus. 8] 3(7) " 26. — — 

6. Amenemhe III alone .-... 41 " 1 

,, ttt/a ^wi „ U2Am.IIl[Afr. 8, Eus.42]4(1) " 43. - - 

Amenemhe III & Amenemhe IV 1 " J ] 

7. Amenemhe IT alone 8 " 8 Am. IT [Afr. 8 I 9y'rs3m.27d. 6. — — 

8. Ka-Sebeknefru 4 " 4 Sebek. [Afr. 4] 3 " 10 " 24 " 



Total 213 " 1 " 24 " " 

The XIIth dynasty ends, according to Lepsius, about b. c. 2124. 

Wh.at relics are extant of Xlth dynasty belong to the Enuantefs, (476) including perhaps 
Ra-nub-Cheper, discovered lately by Mr. Harris. 

Little can here be related about the Xth, IXth, Vlllth, and Vllth dynasties, to be intel- 
ligible without a lengthy argument ; but the duration of this last is felicitously suggested 
by Maury. (477) Solid as a rock, however, is the Vlth dynasty ; (478) so is the Vth on the 
Turin Papyrus and through the recovery of all its kings (but one ?) from the tombs opened 
by the Prussian Commission at Memphis. (479) Of the IVth the vestiges surpass belief, 
to persons who have not opened the folio plates of Lepsius's Denkmaler ; wherein the 
petroglyphs of these three dynasties, earliest and grandest relics of antique humanity, 
are now preserved for posterity, so long as the pyramids of Geezeh shall endure. 

With the Hid dynasty Egyptian monuments cease. There is nothing extant of the lid, 
nor coeval with the 1st dynasty. Their existence is deduced from the high state of the arts, 
and the extensive knowledge possessed by the denizens of the Nile, as demonstrated by the 
pyramids, sepulchres, and hieroglyphed records, of the IVth dynasty, compared with the frag- 
mentary catalogues of Manetho and Eratosthenes, and supported by Grseco-Roman tradition. 

MENES — Egypt's first Pharaoh — is recorded, in hieroglyphics carved, during the 14th 
century b. c. at the Theban Ramesium, by Ramses II. as his earliest ancestor ; and, in 
hieratic, on the Turin Papyrus, a document written in the twelfth — fourteenth century b. c, 
"king MeNfl!, of a firm life," is twice chronicled. (480) 

By Lepsius, whose computations we adopt, Menes is estimated to have founded the 1st 
dynasty of Thinites about the year b. c. 3893. 

" There is nothing incredible in such an antiquity of the Egyptian monarchy."(481) Indeed, 
long before hieroglyphical discoveries had demonstrated its natural adaptation to all the 
circumstances of Egypt (when due allowance is made for pre-Menaic chiliads of years for 
alluvial existence), the researches of mathematicians had pointed to similar results. 

" On supposing the 11340 years of Herodotus, taken for the Egyptian seasons of three 
months, we should have 2794 solar years, according to Freret, and 2835 years, according 

(475) Ueber die Zwulfte JEgyptische Kijnigsdynastie ; 1853; p. 28. 

(476) Leemans: Leltre d Sahdini: 1838; No. 22; — and Lettrc d M. Ve Witte: Eev. Archeol., 1848, pp. 718- 
720 ; — Birch, in Otia ^gyptiaca ; pp. 80, 81 ; and Tabht of Ramses II. ; p. 18. 

(477) Clironologie des Dynasties £gyptiennes: Rev. Archeol., 1851 ; pp. 166, 167. 

(478) Bunsen: JEgyptens Stelle: ii. p. 191, seq.; — Mariette: Fragment du Papyrus Royal de Turin ei la Vie 
Dynastic de itanethon; Rev. Arched., 1849; pp. 306-315 ;—Hincks: Trans. R. Soc. Lit., Mar. 12, 1846; p. 137; 
and "Observations" in Wilkinson's Paj)j/i-«s; pp. 63, 54. 

(479) Gliddon: Otia; p. 38. For all details see authorities in the preceding note. 

(480) Coltimn 1., fragment 1, lines 11 and 12; Sir G. Wilkinson's copy. 

(481) Kenrick: Op.cit.; p. 110. 



EGYPTIAN. 687 

to Bailly. These finished at the reign of Sethos and with the war of Sennacherib, in the 
year 710 before J. c. Following this liypothesis, the commencement of Menes fell about 
the year 3504 b. c, according to Freret; and in 3545 b. c, according to Bailly." (482) 

Having thus indicated to junior students of Egyptian chronology the order in which they 
should read the works of our common seniors in this technical speciality of science, we will 
now reverse the process, and exhibit, from MENES downward, the stratifications in which 
Time's hour-glass has marked, historically, the consecutive events witnessed, during above 
forty-three centuries, by the Egyptian " Type of Mankind" down to the 4th century after 
the Christian era; assumed at 1853 years ago. 

It is a convenient plan to group several portions of Egypt's history into the following 
separate masses, like the primary, secondary, and tertiary formations of our earth's crust ; 
and to view the dynasties, in those masses included, as if they were so many distinct strata 
contained in such formations. We thereby divest the subject of the perplexities and du- 
biousness of arithmetical chronology ; because, the viril existence of Menes, as an historical 
entitj', is no more dependent upon ciphers, than Owen's Dinornis giganieus (in palseontology) 
hangs upon a " b. c. 2320" of a Knight's, or upon a " b. c. 2848" of an Archbishop's 
diluvian phantasms. 

I. — The ANTE-MONUMENTAL period. This of course is an utter WawA: in chronology. Sci- 
ence knows not where geology ends, nor when humanity begins ; and the definitive, or 
artificial systems, current on the subject, are of modern adoption and spurious deri- 
vation. 
At what era of the world's geological history the River Nile, the Bdhr-el-abiad iu par- 
ticular, first descended from palustrine localities in Central Africa, along the successive 
levels of Nubian plateaux, through its Egyptian channel to the Mediterranean (beyond the 
indisputable fact that its descent took efiTect after the deposition of the so-termed diluvial 
DRIFT upon the subjacent limestone) is a problem yet unsolved. But were proper investiga- 
tions, such as those commenced in 1799 by Girard, (483) and cut short by European belli- 
gerent interference, entered upon, in the valley of the Nile itself, by competent geologists, 
the alluvial antiquity of the " Land of Khem" could be approximately reached. (484) The 
very rough estimates heretofore made by geologists yield a minimum of 7000 years for the 
depositions of the present alluvium by the river Nile. The maximum remains utterly inde- 
finite ; but, nevertheless, we ai'e enabled to draw, from the data already known, the fol- 
lowing among other deductions, of primary importance to Nilotic chronology : — • 

1st. — Previously to the advent of the "Sacred River" no deposition of alluvium having 
taken place upon the limestone, Egypt was uninhabitable by man. 

2d. — Since the deposition of this alluvium, there has been no Deluge, in the literal Hebrew 
and genesiacal sense of the term, whether in Egypt, or in Asiatic and African countries 
to the Nile adjacent. 

3d. — Humanity must have commenced in the vallej' of the Nile, under conditions such as exist 
at this day, after a sufficiency of alluvium had been deposited for the production of vege- 
table aliment, but at a time when the depth of this alluvium was at least twenty (fifty, 
or more, for aught we can assert to the contrary) feet below the level of the highest 
portion of the Nile's bed at this hour ; but how much soil had been previously depo- 
sited — that is, what its thickness was over the limestone when humanity first developed 
itself in Egypt — it is yet impossible to define. 

4th. — Many centuries (in number utterly unknown) must be allowed for the multiplication 
of a human Type in Egypt, from a handful of rovers to a mighty nation ; and for the 
acquirement, by self-tuition, of arts and sciences adequate to the conception and exe- 
cution of a pyramid : thus yielding us a blank amount of chronological interval : 
bounded on the one hand by the unknown depth and sui-face of the Nilotic alluvial, 



(482) De Brotonxe: Filiations d Migrations; i. p. 198, 199. 

(4S3) Descrij>lion de Vi^ypte: torn. xx. p. 3.3, seq. 

(484) GuDBOx: Otia; pp. 62-69; and "Geological Sections." For the botanical argument, vide PiCKEEDia. 



688 mankind's cheonology, 

sufiBcient for the growth of human food, at the time of man's introduction ; and on 
the other (after this nomad had been transmuted by time and circumstance into a 
farmer and tlien into a monument-building citizen) by the pyramids and tombs of the 
IVth Memphite dynasty ; placed by Lepsius's discoveries in the thirty-fifth century B.C. 

II. — The PYRAMIDAL period, or Old Empire. — Occupying, according to late scientific views, 
about fifteen centuries ; probably beginning with Manetho's first dynasty (king 
OuENEPHis) ; and ending with the Xllth or Xlllth, about twenty-two centuries prior 
to the Christian era. The Xllth dynasty is marked architecturally by the employment 
of obelisks. 

III. — The period of the Hyksos, or Middle Empire. — There being few monuments for this 

period extant, we are dependent, apart from Greek lists, upon the Turin Papyrus, and 
on the names chronicled long after on the "Chamber of Karnac" &c. Here is the 
grand difficulty in Egyptian chronology ; it having been hitherto impossible to deter- 
mine its duration ; which is now generally considered to be far shorter than is esti- 
mated in Bunsen's " jEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte," and perhaps to embrace 
all Scriptural connexions with Egypt from Abraham to the Exodus inclusive; on every 
one of which the hieroglyphics are utterly silent. It includes, however, the XlVth, 
XVth, and XVIth dynasties. 

IV. — The positive historical period, or New Empire. — Commencing about 1600 to 1800 

years b. c, with the Restoration (after the expulsion of the Hyksos tribes), under 
Aahmes, the founder of the XVIIth dynasty. It may be called the 7V??!pZ«-period ; 
because, although temples existed in the Old Empire, all the grand sanctuaries 
standing at present upon the alluvia belong to the XVIIth dynasty downward. 

Dated hieroglyphical records descend to the third century after Christ, with the name of 
the Emperor Decius : (485) but demotic papyri and mummies are extant as recent as the 4th 
century of the same era.(486) Greek inscriptions at Philse corroborate Priscianus, who 
relates how, about a. d. 451, a treaty, between the Christian Emperor of Constantinople 
and the heathen Blemmyes, stipulated that — " every year, according to ancient customs, 
the Ethiopians were to take the statue of Isis from Philse to Ethiopia ;"(487) and a Grecian 
traveller bears witness, in an inscription, that he was once present at the temple when the 
goddess returned. In fact, history proves that ISIS was yet worshipped at Phite, if not 
throughout Egypt, even in the year a. d. 486 : and the pagan emblem of " eternal life," 
Ankh, continued still to be inscribed, in lieu of the Christian cross, over orthodox churches; 
as in the following instance discovered by the accurate Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson (488) : — 

" KAGO^AIKH + EKKAH^CIA " 

Gatlio^Uc + CJmjrch. 

I'inally, to enable the reader to classify, chronologically, the Egyptian data comprised 
in " Types of Mankind," a table is subjoined which the forthcoming " Book of Kings " will 
show to be in the main correct. It is made up, in part from the first volume of the Chro- 
nologie der jEgypter, and in part from Chevalier Lepsius's oral communications to the 
writer at Berlin, in May, 1849.(489) To it are added such excerpts of the Chevalier's 
subsequent epistolary correspondence with the authors as may give a general idea of his 
system, and a precise one of his scientific liberality. 

• ' (485) Lepsius: FoWaw/s'ciVacSricA^, 1849; pp. 17, 29. 

(486) Birch, in Otia Mgypliaca. p. 87. 

(487) Letronne : ilateriaux pour servir d VHistdre du Chnstianisme. 

(488) Letronne ; Examen ArchCologique, "Croix Ansee iJgyptienne," 1846; p. 23. 

(489) Gliddon: Hand-hook to the Nile: London, Madden, 1849; pp. 20-2, 5L 



CHINESE. 689 

Manetho's System of Egyptian Chronology, as restored by Lepsius. 

Efochas anterior to Menes — Cyclic Periods : — 

Divine dynasties ;— 19 gods reigned 13,870 Julian years = 19 Sothic demi-ppriods. 

30 demi-gods " 3,650 " = 30 ftorf/tts of a Sothic-period. 

17,520 " =12 Sothio-periods of 1460 years. 

Anie-hislorioal dyn.: 10 J/ancs, Thinitea, 350 " — commencement of a new Sothic-periocl. 

Epoch of Menes — commencement of Mstorical period ; thirty dynasties : — 

Old Empire: — 1st dynasty — Accession of Menes 3893 B.C. 

Commencement otmonumcnlal period; third dynasty. 

4th dynasty — Pyrajnids and tombs extant — began 3426 ■' 

Subdivisions : — 

5th dynasty — Began about 3100 " 

7th " " 2900 " 

10th " " 2500 " 

12th « Ends about 2124 " 

13th " " 2100 « 

Invasion of the Hyksos — comprising the 

14th, 15th, and 16th dynasties — from about B. c. 2101 to about 1590 " 

Nao Empire — Sestoration : — 

17th dynasty — Began 1671 " 

30th " Ending on the second Persian Invasion 340 " 

Conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great 332 " 

Ptolemaic dynasty began B. c. 323 — ends 44 " 

Boman dominion began 30 " 

Eieroglyphical records of the Emperor Deciua 250 a.d. 

Thus, from an indefinite period prior to the year b. c. 3893, down to 250 years after the 
Christian era, the hieroglyphical character is proved to have been in uninterrupted use ; 
■while, from the year b. c. 3893, modern hierology has determined the chronologic order of 
Egyptian dynasties, through present arch^ological re-construction of the Nile's monuments. 

The Romans held Egypt from the 27th year b. c. until 395 a. d. ; when the sons of 
Theodosius divided the Empire. Egypt lingered under the sovereignty of the Eastern 
Emperors until a. d. 640-1 ; when, subjected by Aameb-ebn-el-As, she became a province 
of Omar's Saracenic caliphate. In the year a. d. 1517 — Hedjra 958 — her valley was over- 
run by the Ottoman hordes of Sooltan Seleem ; and has ever since been the spoil of the 
Turk:— 

O! Egypte, Egypte! . . . Solce supereruni fabulce ei ceque incredibiles posteris . . . sola supe- 
reruni verba lapidibus incisa. Et inhabitabit ^gyptum Scythus aut (ANGLO-) Indus, aut 
aliquis talis. (490) 

CHRONOLOGY — CHINESE. 

" The Philosopher said : S.u( ! (name of his disciple Thseng-tsed) my doctrine is simple and easy 
to be understood. Thseng-tseu replied: 'that is certain.' The Philosopher having gone out, his 
disciples asked what their master had meant to say. Thseng-tseu re.iponded : ' The doctrine of our 
master consists uniquely in possessing rectitude of heart, and in loving ones neighbor as 
oneself" (*91) 

Such were the ethics put forth in China by that " pure Sage " whom three hundred and 
seventy millions of humanity still commemorate, after the lapse of 2330 years, as the 
"most saintly, the most wise, and the most virtuous of human legislators:" this was 
Chinese "positive philosophy" in the Vlth century before Christ; already at the second 
period of its historical development. (492) 

About a century later, in a distinct Asiatic world, the school of Ezra at Jerusalem embo- 
died a similar conception in the compilation termed Deuteronomy, or " secondary law:" (493) 

(490) Bcol-s of Hermes — ilERCURius Trismeoistus's dialogue vfith Asdepiics; — Gliddon : Appeal to the Anti- 
quaries: London, Madden, 18-il, passim. 

(491) The LUN-YU, or The Philosophical Conversations, of KHOCNO-rsEn (Confucius); ch. iv. v. 15; Livres 
Sacrfis de I'Orient, p. 183. 

(492) I'autqizr: Histoire de la Philosophic Chinoite; Revue Indepcndante, Aug. 1844; tirage k part, p. 9. 

(493) N. B. My justification of this date is contained in the suppressed portions of our vol.; supra, pp. 626-'7. 

87 



690 mankind's chronology. 

" But if any man hate his neighbor. &c. . . . then shall ye do unto him, as he had thought 
to have done unto his brother." (494) At an epoch approximate, this idea became simpli- 
fied into a maxim: "Better is a neighbor that is near, than a brother far off:" (495) 
and it is still more concisely expressed in Leviticus: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as 
thyself." (496) 

During the same iifth century b. c, the simultaneffusness of moral as well as of other 
developments among Types of Mankind radically distinct, and remote from each other's 
influences, encounters a parallelism in the beautiful dictum of a Grecian Isocrates — " Do 
unto others as ye would they should do unto you." ^ 

About three generations earlier there flourished in Persia the philosopher Zoroaster ; 
some of whose elevated doctrines have reached our day, although through turgid Grecian, 
Jewish, and Persic streams. " Gate the 71st " of his Sadder contains the following: — 

" Offer up thy grateful prayers to the Lord, the most just and pureOEMuzD, the supreme 
and adorable God, who thus declared to his prophet Zardusht (Zoroaster): ' Hold it not 
meet to do unto others what thou wouldst not have done to thyself: do that unto the people 
which, when done to thyself, proves not disagreeable to thyself.' " (497) 

Five hundred years afterwards, the writer of Matthew {i9i) reported — "Ye have heard 
that it was said : Thou shall love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy ; but I say unto you, love 
your enemies." The writer of Luke(i99) considerably extends the idea in language and 
contextual circumstances — "And he answering said: ' Thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
[Hebraic^, leHOuaH ELoHeK] with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
strength, and with all thy mind, and thy neighbor as thyself:" thus combining, into one dis- 
course, two citations from the Old Testament (500) slightly varied; owing probably to the 
evangelists' habit of following the Greek LXX in lieu of the Hebrew Text. 

But, among the more exalted of the Hebrew nation, in the schools of Babylon and Jeru- 
salem, such pure ethics had been taught long previously. Thus (as our learned friend. 
Dr. J. J. Cohen of Baltimore, opportunely reminds us while writing) : — 

" Let us recall the celebrated reply made by the Pharisee Hillel to a pagan who came 
declaring to him that he was ready to embrace Judaism, if the Doctor could make known 
to him in a few words the resume of all the law of Moses : — ' That which thou likest not 
[done] to thyself said Hillel, ' rfo it not unto thy neighbor ; therein is all the law, the rest is 
nothing but the commentary upon it.' " (501) 

These comparisons made, we can revert with more pleasure to China and to Confucius. 

" The lessons of Khoung-tseu were often less indirect. His moral [doctrine] is summed 
up in the following lines : ' Nothing more natural, nothing more simple, than the principles 
of that morality which I endeavor to inculcate in you through salutary maxims. . . . 1st. — 
It is humanity ; which is to say, that universal charity amongst all of our species, without 
distinction.' " 

Father Amiot, the great Sinicized Jesuit, commenting upon this passage, observed — 
"Because it is humanity, and that humanity is nothing else than man himself." Which 
Pauthier explains : — 

"In Chinese, JIN TCHE : JIN YE: word for word ; humanitas quce, homo quidem. . . . 
To render comprehensible how much humanity, or benevolence, universal charity, was 
recommended by Khoung-tseu, it suflSces to say that the word which expresses it is 
repeated above a hundred times in one of his works, the Lun-yu. And it is pretended, 
with as much levity as ignorance, that this grand principle of universal charity for mankind 
had only been revealed to the world five hundred years after the Chinese philosopher, in a 
little corner of Asia! Quelle pitie! " (502) 

We have deemed it expedient to preface an inquiry into the archaeological bases of 

(494) Deuteronomy, xix. 11, 19. 

(495) Proverhs, xxTii. 10. 

(496) Leviticus, xix. 18. 

(497) Ddbistan, i. 338: and see the same quotation in Hyde, De Sdig. \et. Persarum, p. 471. 

(498) Good Tidings, v. 43 . Sharpe's N. T., p. 9. 

(499) Good Tidings, x. 27, 27 — Jbid., p. 132. 

(500) Deuteronomy, vi. 5, with Leviticus, xix. 18. 

(501) MnnK: Palestine; p. 565; from Babylonian Talmud (Shabbath, ch. 2). Ibid.: Jlefiexions in Appendix 
to Cahen's Bible; 1833; iv. p. 20. 

(502) Chine; pp. 146, 147, and note. 



CHINESE. 691 

Chinese chronology with the above extracts. They will furnish at once to the reader a very 
different idea of the teachings of Confucius (five hundred years before any Greco-Judoean 
writers of the Gospels lived) than he can gather from Macao supercargoes, Hong-kong 
opium-smugglers, or Canton missionaries. Whatever practical developments the latter 
may diurnally give to the sublime principle of "universal charity;" whatever merit may 
be due to the first human being who enunciated this exalted sentiment ; or whatever 
thorough knowledge of humanity's best and loftiest interests such sentiments may imply ; 
all these ascriptions, history attests, equally belong to a Sinico-mongol, Confucius ; who 
died B. C.479, or about 2332 years ago. [See his portrait; supra. Fig. 330, p. 449.] 

Whether among the .ffbT?^' merchants " universal charity" (and there are noble instances) 
be unexceptionably practised, any more than in Wall street, Lorjibard street, or in the 
Place de la Bourse, concerns us not. These commercial princes are taught to reverence its 
principles as much as the Doeias or the Medicis of Christendom ; and they are exposed 
to infinitely greater temptations toward its violation, than are those Chinese archaeologists, 
who, scattered throughout the empire, pursue, at national expense, their historical studies 
of their own monuments ; in lettered seclusion, but with every honorable recompense 
scholarship may aspire to. (503) For above twenty-three centuries, moreover, the 4th and 
5th maxims of Khoung-tseu have been instilled into each generation of them from earliest 
infancy. 

" It is uprightness ; that is, that rectitude of spirit and of heart, which makes one seek 
for truth in everything and to desire it, without deceiving oneself or deceiving others : it is 
finally sincerilg or good faith ; which is to say, that frankness, that openness of heart, tem- 
pered by self-reliance, which excludes all feints and all disguising, as much in speech as in 
action." 

That the moral influence of such principles has not perished, even through the transitory 
irruption of the present and expiring dynasty of Mantchou Tartars, is testified by Sir 
Henry Pottinger in the eulogiums pronounced by hira, at London, upon the high Chinese 
diplomatists with whom he concluded the Treaty of 1844. Nor should Americans forget 
the excellent conduct which such principles have already exhibited among thousands of our 
Chinese fellow-citizens in the State of California. 

AVe have not the slightest right to doubt, therefore, whatever reasonable account Chinese 
scholars may furnish us of their nation's indigenous history ; of which, otherwise, not a syl- 
lable is known to us prior to the fourteenth century after Christ ; and, where not irrational, 
such annals, from such sources, may be received in the more good faith, that the Chinese 
archeologue, having none of our hagiographers' motives for chronological curtailment or 
extension, cares nothing about " outside barbarians," their alien history or superstitions, 
and did not compose his national chronicles with a view to such foreigners' edification. 

The day is evermore passed that modern science should strive to reduce Chinese chro- 
nology, for the mere whim of adapting it to the spurious computations on a Hebrew Text, 
and Samaritan, Septuagint, or Vulgate version ; as was the case before Egyptian monumental 
annals were proved to ascend, at least, to the thirty-fifth century b. c. (504) And we shall 
presently show (sketched also in our table of Alphabetical origins, supra, p. 638), how the 
highest point claimed by Chinese historians, for their nation's antiquity, falls centuries 
below that which hierologists now insist upon for Egypt : so that, if Egypt and Egyptians 
were a civilized country and populous people in the thirty-fifth century, b. c, it would be 
preposterous not to feel assured that Sinico-mongols (indeed every human type of Mongolia) 
were already in existence, in and around China, their own centre of creation, during the 
same parallel ages. What is the objection to believing that China was populated, by her 
Mongolian autocthones, chiliads of years previously? Reader! "one blushes" redder 
than St. Jerome to mention, that, now-a-days, the acceptance of this fact is questioned by 
the Rev. Dr. Thvi, or the Rev. Mr. That: neither of whom, perhaps, has ever studied 
Sinology — never even opened a Sinological work! 

^503) Chine; pp. 194, MS, 228, 236, 24S, 286, 308, 336, 3,52, 359, 388, 397, &c. : also, BiOT, Sur la Constitution Po- 
litique de la Chine au 12ci;i« siecle avant notre ire; 1845; pp. 3, 9, &c. 
(504) De Bbotoxxe: FHiatUmt d ifigraiions des Peuptes; ii. pp. 1-43. 



G92 mankind's chronology, 

The reveries of Fortia D'Urban (505) are now superannuated ; the monstrous extrava- 
ganzas of a Paravey are preserved as ceaseless sources of merriment. (506) To refute 
either, seriously, would be sheer waste of time. The inundations of the river Hoang-ho, 
overcome by the engineer Yu, (507) lie parallel with the Egyptian Xllth dynasty; when, 
in the 23d century b. c, similar causes induced smaller constructions along the Nubian 
Nile : (508) and a reader of Pauthier will as soon associate those local dikings, buttresses, 
dams, and sluices, in China or Egypt, with Usher's universal Flood, as by anybody else the 
Noachiaa deluge might be proposed in explanation of the levees along our Louisianian 
Mississippi. It would be an equal outlay of labor to discuss Hales's views upon Chinese 
subjects ; (509) after his Hebraical knowledge has been so repeatedly shaken throughout 
these pages : nor need we perplex the reader with other works whose authors, like our- 
selves, are not Sinologists ; but who, in this respect unlike ourselves, do not seek for infor- 
mation at its only clear fountains. 

It will be now plain that " Types of Mankind" recognizes for Chinese history none but 
Chinese historians. The chances of error lie uniquely in the channels through which its 
authors receive their accounts: and these, to our view, are completely guarded against 
when we accept Remusat and Pauthier, as, above all Europeans at this day, qualified to 
be their interpreters. Furthermore, every relevant passage from the Jesuit missionaries 
is embraced within Pauthier's volumes. 

Under the caption of Mongolian Origin and ideographic writings, we have displayed the 
argumentative process through which it becomes certain, that Europe knew naught about 
China, nor China aught about Europe, until the end of the 1st century after C. : but modern 
acquaintance with Cathay dates from the Venetian Marco Polo, who resided in China about 
A. D. 1275 ; followed by the first Jesuit missionary. Father Michsel Rogerius, who 
penetrated thither about a. d. 1581; and the second, Father Matthseus Riccius, in 1601. 
From that time, during more than a century, many accomplished Europeans i Societate Jesu 
flocked into the Celestial Empire ; and to their vast labors are we indebted for complete 
reports upon China, derived by them from the highest scholastic and oflJcial sources of the 
realm — which narratives, now collated by Sinologists in Europe with the immense literary 
treasures accessible, in Chinese, to students at Paris and Rome, prove to have been con- 
scientiously executed. No Europeans, before or since, have possessed such opportunities 
for acquiring thorough knowledge of everything Chinese as these lowly preachers of the 
Gospel. Indeed, the oflBoial report made, in 1692, by the " President of the Supreme Court 
of Rites " to the Emperor Khang-hi, and by him approved, alone suffices to show their 
powerful claims upon Mantchou-Tartar affections : — 

"We have found that these Europeans have traversed vast seas, and have come from the 
extremities of the earth. . . . They have at present the supervision of astronomy and of 
the board of mathematics. They have applied themselves with great pains to making war- 
like machines, and to casting cannon; of which use has been made in the last civil trou- 
bles [that is, the missionary ordnance had been found effective in quelling Chinese revolts 
against the Tartar dynasty]. When sent to Nip-chou with our ambassadors [the reverend 
Fathers Pereyra and Gerbillon, i Soc. Jesu,'] to treat about peace with the Muscovites, they 
caused those negotiations to succeed : in short, they have rendered great services to the 
[Mantchou] empire. . . . The doctrine which they teach is not bad, nor capable of seducing 
the [Chinese] people, or of causing any troubles. It is permitted to every body to go into 
the temples of the Lamas, of the Ho-chang, of the Tao-sse ; and it is forbidden to go into 
the churches of these Europeans, who do nothing contrary to the laws : this does not seem 
reasonable." (510) 

The emperor himself had been previously instructed by the scientific Father Verbiest, 
"chief of the bureau of astronomers"; whose evangelical virtues comprised gnomonics, 

(505) ffistaire AnU-diluvienne de la Chine. 

(506) Documents sur le Deluge de Noe: Paris, 1838. 

(507) Pauthier: Chine; pp. 12-4; and his Chovrking; pp. 49-56. 

(508) Lepsids: Nachricht; p. 11 : — Brief e aus ^gypten; pp. 259, 260: — BeRoug^: Phenom. CSestes; Rev. 
Arcligol., Feb. 1853. 

(509) Analysis: i. pp. 199-203. 

(510) Chine: pp. 435, 440, 445-449. 



CHINESE. 693 

geometry, land-surveying, and music. The reverend Fathers Bouvet, Regis, Jartoux, Fri- 
delli, Cardoso, de Tartre, de Mailla, and Bonjour, at government expense, made official 
maps of the different provinces of China, after European methods ; and, at the same time 
that such labors familiarized the whole of these Propagandic missionaries with Chinese 
literature. Fathers Amiot, Gaubil, and Du Halde, devoted their leisure more especially to 
minute study of Chinese archseology. In one word, the admiration avowed by the Jesuits 
for Chinese civilization on the one hand, and the influence which Chinese philosophy pos- 
sessed over their intellects on the other, had led to such a fusion at Pe-kin, during the 17th 
century, that one is at a loss to decide whether the Chinese were becoming converts to spi- 
ritual Christianity, or whether the disciples of Loyola were adopting the materialistic "doc- 
trine of the Lettered." 

Unhappily for our desires to solve this curious problem, certain puritanic Dominicans 
arrived from Rome ; and. Pandora-like, let loose fanatic ills heretofore preserved hermeti- 
cally. It was they who started that everlasting question whether the Chinese word chang-ti 
be a synonyme for "God" or the "sky." Pig-tailed converts to Christianity a la Jesuite 
were incontinently bambooed by hog-tails d la Dominicain ; for heretical notions upon an 
equivocal point by aliens indicated for Mongol salvatory " credo." Khoung-tseu's "uni- 
versal charity" being interrupted by swinish brawls at which the writers oi Leviticus {liW) 
would have shuddered, policemen duly reported their real causes to mandarin magistracy : 
which reports, in official course, reached a new embodiment of the Sun upon e.arth, Young- 
tching. This unsophisticated Tartar at once relieved himself, and his successors for more 
than a century, of these foreign theologers, by shipment of a live cargo, including mission- 
aries Jesuit and Dominican, consigned to Macao under judiciary "bill of lading," about 
the years .*.. d. 1721-25. 

It is to the Jesuits, nevertheless, that impartial science looks back, gratefully, for throw- 
ing the portals of Chinese history widely open to European Sinology : and it is especially 
to the late R^musat, Klaproth, and Ed. Biot, as to MM. Stanislas Julien and Pauthier, that 
our generation owes the reappearance of Chinese studies on the continent, since the demise 
of the famed historian of the Huns, Deguignes. At Paris, the Chinese department of the 
Bibliothfeque Imp^riale comprehends quantities stupendous of that country's literature. 

Every element for our purposes being in consequence accessible, we proceed, Pauthier's 
works in hand, to sketch 1st, — the mode through which archseologists in China have defi- 
nitely tabulated, in precise stratifications, the relative order of national events; and 2d, — 
to present a chronological table of Chinese dynasties, from such tabulations accruing. 

It is as certain as any other fact in history (512) that about 1000 years b. c, parallel with 
the reign of Solomon, books existed in China with such titles as these: — "Laws of the 
administration of ancient kings;" and that recurrence was common to "ancient docu- 
ments." It is also certain that arts and sciences continued to prosper down to the year 
484 B. c, (513) when Confucius compiled the Chou-king, sacred book of the Chinese, from 
anterior documents. Literature was immensely difi"used among the " Lettered" in China; 
when, B. c. 213, Chi-hoang-ti burned all the books which torture could extort, together 
with multitudes of their readers ; (514) because the latter quoted the former against his 
imperial inn_ovations. Nevertheless, this splendid miscreant served practical objects, not 
altogether indefensible, when he relieved the empire of its "old-fogiedom;" to judge by 
the withering oration of his prime-minister, Li-sse: — 

" Prejudiced in favor of antiquity, of which they admire even the stupidities, they are 
full of disdain for every thing which is not exactly chalked after models that time has 
nearly efiTaced from the memory of man. Incessantly they have in their mouths, or at 
the tips of their pencils, the three Ho-ang [the Chinese august triad], and thejZoe Ti [the 
Chinese pentateuch]." 

Nearly 2000 years previously, disputes among religious sects in China had risen to such 

(511) XI. 7. 

(512) Chine ; pp. 59, 194, 200. 

(513) Chou-ling, Prtface du Fire Gaubil; Paitbier's " Liv. Sac. de rOrlent," Paris, 1843; pp. 1, 2. 

(514) Chine; pp. 222-228. 



694 mankind's CIIEONOLOGr. 

an intolerable pitch, that the pious Emperor Mou-wang, about b. c. 950, records how Tao, 
in B. c. 2337, in order to suppress false prophecies, miracles, magic, and revelations, — 

" Commanded the two Ministers of Astronomy and Religion to cut asunder all commu- 
nication between ' sky ' and earth ; and thus (says Mou-wang) there was no more of 
what is called this Ufting-vp and coming-down." 

And, so inveterate, in sporadic instances of the Chinese mind, was this childish reliance 
upon invisible powers, that fifteen centuries after the burning of the books, the Minister 
Tchang-kouei, about a. d. 1321, during a period of great physical calamities, pestilence, 
inundations, &c., felt it incumbent upon his office to include the subjoined remarks in a 
long and manly expostulation : — 

"A prince must not think to govern his country save as the father of his subjects ; and 
it is not through Bonzes [Budhist priests] that he must seek felicity. Ever since the Bonzes, 
the Lamas, and the Tao-sse, make so many prayers and sacrifices to their idol, 'Heaven' 
has given constant signs of its indignation; and until such time as one sees the worship of 
Fo [Budha] abolished, and all these priests driven away, one must expect to be unhappy." 

Such political necessities may palliate some of Chi-Hoang-ti's deeds ; which obliterated 
so much of earlier literature extant down to the Chinese " era of the martyrs" for 
science, b. c. 213. 

Upon accession of the famous JTan dynasty, b. c. 202, a reaction in favor of letters im- 
mediately commenced ; and from this period of "renaissance " downwards no nation upon 
earth possessed, till recently, annals comparable to the Chinese. About b. c. 176, the 
Chou-king of Khoung-tseu was recovered, partly, by taking down the recitations of a 
nonogenarian savant, Fou-cheng, who had been president of literature prior to the con- 
flagration of libraries. Through this venerable scholar (who is to the Chinese what Ezra 
was to the Jews) and the fortuitous discovery, b. c. 140, of a copy of the Chou-king with 
other books in the ruined house of Confucius, the more important documents of Chinese 
antiquarian lore were restored. 

European authors, who claim that we possess the plenary words if not the autograph of 
Moses, have doubted this account. We accept it, notwithstanding, in good faith; because 
neither the books themselves nor their transcribers pretend to supernaturalism in any 
shape ; whilst the nature of the local researches subsequently undertaken renders nuga- 
tory such unwarrantable European objections. 

" But the man who has thrown the grandest €clat over the reign of the Emperor Wou-ti, 
is Sse-ma-thsian, whom M. Abel Remusat has called the Herodotus of China." [515) His 
portrait is given under our Fig. 331 [^supra, p. 349]. About b. c. 104 he commenced his 
Historical llemoirs; which, in 180 books (extant in European libraries, and consulted by 
the Sinologists we quote), furnish a vast encyclopsedia of Chinese annals, of every kind, 
from the reign of the old Iloang-ti, 2697 years before c, down to b. c. 140. 

" Sse-ma-thsian made good use of all that remained of the Classical Books ; of those of 
the Ancestral Temple of the Tcheou-dj'nasty ; the, Secret Memoirs of the House of Stone, and 
of the Golden Coffer ; and of the registers called Plates of Jasper. It is added that he 
stript the Liu-ling, for what concerns the laws ; the Tactics of Han-sin, for what regards 
military affairs ; the Tchang-tching, for what relates to general literature ; and the Li-yi for 
every thing that is relative to usages and ceremonies." 

There are no further breaks in Chinese archaeological labors down to our time ; which 
researches, for care and magnitude, may challenge the universe. We mention, however, 
only the Eesearches profound of the Monuments left by Savans, published at royal expense, in 
348 books, by Matouan-lin, in a. n. 1321; which covers history from the twenty-fourth 
century B. c. down to the twelfth after c. Copies exist in European libraries. After the 
death of Chi-Hoang-ti : — 

" The tombs, the ruins of cities, the canals and rivers, saved some moneys, some 
bronze vases, some urns and other objects of his proscription. A certain number of 
these has been found since the fall of the Thsin-dynasty. They have been carefully 
collected and preserved in museums or in private cabinets ; descriptions have been made 

(515) Chine; pp. 246-248. 



CHINESE. 695 

of them, accompanied by figured designs that faithfully reproduce them with their ancient 
inscriptions. The emperor Kien-loung, who reigned from a. d. 1736 to 1796, caused to be 
published, in 42 Chinese folio volumes, ^ description and engraving of all the antique vases 
deposited at the Imperial Museum. An exemplar of this magnificent work, which has no 
rival in Europe, being at the Bibliothfeque Royale of Paris." 

Pauthier has selected, out of 1444 vases of difiFerent species contained in these " Memoirs 
of the Antiquities of Occidental Purity," those beautiful specimens we behold, reduced 
in size, in his work. (516) 

The earliest originals, now extant in China, go back in date to the C/ian^'-dynasty, b. c. 
1766: — an epoch when Abraham, according to Lepsius's computation of biblical chro- 
nology, was yet unborn. One more ancient inscription, upon a rock of Mount Heng-cMn, 
yet remains to vindicate the engineering ability of Yu. It dates about the year b. c. 2278; (51 7) 
and is therefore parallel in age with the thousand records we possess of Egypt's Xllth 
dynasty. Its translation, given by Pauthier, disconnects it from any diluvial hypotheses . 
with which, moreover, no geologist or archajologist need distress himself further. 

We trust the reader has now attained to our point of view, and perhaps perceives three 
things — 1st, the historical meritoi'iousness of Chinese literature; 2d, the nature of the 
materials examined by Jesuits whose evangelical prepossessions were essentially hostile to 
the literature they laud ; and 3d, that there are Sinologists living in the world competent 
to liberate historical truth from chances of error. AVe now proceed to lay before him a 
brief summary of Chinese time-registry ; commending to his perusal the "Researches upon 
times anterior to those of which the Chou-king speaks, and upon Chinese mythology," by 
Father de Prfimare, together with an old rule of Vico's.(518) 

"We have heard Diodorus Siculus declare, in respect to ihe pride of nations, that these, 
' whether they may have been Greek or barbarian, have pretended, each one, to have been 
the first to discover all the comforts of life, and to have preserved their own history since 
the commencement of the world.'" (519) 

Greece, Rome, and Judaea, possess first their fabulous and then their semi-historical 
periods. Tradition alone pierces through the gloom of the latter, in the ratio of approxi- 
mation to the several epochas at which given nations first began to chronicle their events. 
In later days, progressive science invests such fables and faintly-shadowed incidents of a 
nation's childhood with the garb of mythico-astronomical sanctity. Thus does the founder 
of chronology, Manetho, preface his historical dynasties with cycles of Gods, Demigods, and 
Manes; thus do the compilers of Genesis antecede Abraham with symbolical names of 
mythic patriarchs gifted with impossible longevity ; and so do the Chinese place mythology 
before history. The sole difference being that neither did Manetho nor the Chinese arch6- 
ologues ever believe their respective mythologies to be otherwise than unhistorical : at the 
same time that the whole of these antique systems represent that instinctive consciousness 
of nations who feel that an unrecorded national infancy must have preceded a recorded 
national adolescence. 

Chinese Ante-historical Periods. (520) 
Pan-kou — first symbolical man — followed by the three Hoang, viz. : — 

1st. — Reign of the Sky. 
2d.— " " Earth. 
3d.— " " Man. 

They are comprehended in a grand cyclic period of 129,600 years ; composed of twelve 
parts called conjunctions, each of 10,800 years. 

(516) aiinie; p. 201 ; Plates 38-44. 

(517) HAd.; pp. 53-54. 

(518) Liv. Sac. de V Orient; pp. 13-42. 

(519) Vico : Seiema JVuova ; Principles, axiom lii. 

(520) Chine ; pp. 22-24 ; — Idvret Sacris, pp. 16, 19. 



C96 



MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. 



Meta-historical Period. 
FoTJ-Hi — first Emperor — estimated at b. c. 3468 

Several of his descendants are named, witli traditionary discoveries in arts 

affixed to each personage. 
Fou-hi, however, is a collective name under ■which the Chinese figure many centuries of 
national existence coupled with progressive developments in civilization, marked by con- 
secutive artistic inventions : just as the Hebrews ascribe all legislation to their noun of 
multitude, Moses. This traditionary and semi-mythical /rsi Emperor stands parallel with 
the Egyptian IVth dynasty, during the tliirty-fifth century b. c. The latter is positively 
historical: to reject the former, on the imaginary ground of recent mundane antiquity, is 
rendered futile by existing pyramids at Memphis. Fou-hi, Menes, and Abraham, to us 
appear equally historical, as human individuals who once lived ; although of none of the 
three are contemporaneous monuments, carved by their respective people, now extant. 

Historical Period. 

Chronological Table. — We condense into dynasties that chronology of all the Sovereigns 
who have reigned in China, (from b. c. 2637 down to a. d. 1821), which Father Amiot trans- 
mitted from Pe-kin to Paris in 1769 ; and which is printed " in extenso " at the end of 
Pauthier's Chine, after collation with the learned Jesuit's manuscript notes, and with parts 
of the 100 volumes of the Chinese chronographic work Li-iai-ki-sse. 

The 61st year of the Chinese emperor Hoang-ti, corresponding to our b. c. 2637, falls, 
according to Lepsius's computation, within Egypt's " Old Empire," and between the Vlltb 
and Xth dynasties of Manetho, in any case during the pyramidal period. 



nd 



nid 

IVth 
Tth 
TIth 

vnth 

Vlllth 

IXth 

Xth 

Xlth 

Xllth 

xmth 



XlVth 

XVth 

XVI th 

XVIIth 

XVIIIth 

XlXth 

XXth 

XXIst 

XXIId 

XXIIId 

XXIVth 



1st Dynast!/ — 1st King, Hoang-ti, "Yellow Emperor," 61st year 

JPive successors down to Yao, b. c. 2337. 

" 6th " Yao, Slstyear 

" 8th " Chon, 9th of his synthronism 

[Monuments commence — "Inscription of YU," B. o. 2278.] 

"Hia'" — 1st King, Yu, 10th year of his synthronism 

" 4th " TcBOVNG-KAT^ia bth y ear ot his veign, eclipse of the Sun, 

B. c. 2155 (521) 

"Chang" 

[Contemporary vases exist, dating from B. c. 1766.] 

"Tcheou" 

"Thsin" [whence the name of "China"] 

"Han" 

King YouAN-Ti, of the "VTei," A.D. 292. 

"T^iu" 

"Northern Soung" 

"Tsi" 

"Liang" 

"Tchin" 

"Soui" 

"Ihang" 

The Five Little Dynasties. 

"Posterior Liang" 



2637 B. c. 



2277 
2277 



1st, 

2d, "Posterior T/ian^".. 

3d, 

4th, 

5th, 



"Posterior Tsin" 

■Posterior San" 

'Posterior Tcheou" 

"Soung" 

"Kin, simultaneously with Soung".... 
Commencement of " Youan," Mongols.. 

Mongols 

"Ming" 

" Tai-thsing," MantchourTextata 

Now reigning — and down to 



2155 


u 


1783 


« 


1134 


.<. 


255 


a 


202 


iC 


265 A.P 


420 


tt 


479 


a 


502 


a 


657 


<i 


581 


€<• 


618 


ii 


907 




923 




936 




947 




951 




960 




1123 




1260 




1295 


K 


1368 


« 


1616 


it 


1821 


K 



24 Dynasties, whose consecutive rule covers years 4458. 



(521) Chine, p. 58 ; and ChoU'king, p. 47 : — but, compare Bioi, Syzigies, 1848, for astronomical doubts. 



ASSYRIAN. 697 

Egyptian priests had told Herodotus, (522) that lengthened experience and observation 
of their own history enabled them to predicate the future through the cyclic recurrence of 
the past. In no chronicles do similar causes oftener reproduce similar events, through 
l.erpetual cycles, than the reader of Pauthier will recognize among the Chinese. No 
political acumen is required by historians to foretell the inevitable downfall of the present 
alien Manlchou-Taxtar dynasty. Its doom is sealed ; its knell is ringing. One fact will 
illustrate its Tartarian despotism, and explain the repugnance to prolongation of its hateful 
rule nurtured in the bosom of every true Chinaman; precisely paralleled by Arab hatred 
to the cognate 'i&viax- Turks. 

In the same manner that the radical poverty of the Ottoman speech compels the Turk to 
draw all his polite terms from the Persian, his scientific from the Arabic, so, in China, the 
uncouth and slender vocabulary of the J/anic/ioM-Tartars became enriched, after their 
conquest, with Chinese words of civilization. This gave offence to the Tartar emperor, 
Kien-loung ; who, anxious to preserve the Manlchou idiom in its natural if barbaric 
"purity," appointed an Imperial Commission, to compose, from Slanlchou radicals, 5000 
new words, to stand in place of those which his courtiers had borrowed from the Chinese 
tongue. This new nomenclature, printed and proclaimed, was imposed upon all high 
government functionaries ; who had thus to learn 5000 unknown words by heart, under 
severe penalties ! Truly, as ChampoUion-Figeac remarks — "II n'y a qu'un Tarlare regnant 
Bur des Chiiiois qui soit assez puissant pour introduire d'embl6e et par ordonnance cinq 
mille mots dans une langue ! " (523) 



CHRONOLOGY — ASSYRIAN. 

" The spider weaves his web in the palace of Caesar ; 
The owl stands sentinel upon the watch-tower of Afrasiab! " 

(FiRDOosEE — Sliah Nameh.) 

The eighteenth century, fecund precursor of those conquests in historical science th.at 
have immortalized the nineteenth, passed away, without permitting its contemporaries to 
illumine the gloom which, since the decline of the Alexandria School at the Christian era, 
for 2000 years had enveloped with equal obscurity the pyramids and temples of the Nile, 
the lightning-fused towers and crumbling brick mounds on the Euphrates and Tigris, or the 
rock-hewn sepulchres and thousand-pillared fanes of "lorn Persepolis." 

In the year 1800, absolutely nothing was known about these huge colossi of the past 
beyond the fact of their existence I 

A wondrous change has been wrought, by half a century of research, in historical 

knowledge : almost inconceivable when we reflect that, upon the Assyrian theme before us, 

* modern science knew nothing in 1843 — only ten years ago. " Palpitants d'actualit^s," 

Lamartine would say, are these glorious discoveries — still damp from the press are the 

volumes that unfold them. 

Antithesis serves to place past ignorance and present information in the strongest light. 
Persepolis and her arrow-headed inscriptions suffice by way of illustration. 

The German Witte ascribed these ruins, not to human agency, but to an " eruption of 
the earth." De Roesch deemed them the work of an antediluvian Lamcch, " whose exploits 
are exhibited in these sculptures." Discarding Homer's Iliad in the sense vulgarly under- 
stood of its glowing heroics, De Rcesch believes Persia to be figured by Troy, Media by 
Europe, and Assyria by Asia. According to this logopoeist, or compiler of invented facts, 
the Grecian siege of Ilium was but a war between Medes and Persians: and the cuneatio 
letters of Persepolis "record a series of kings from Cain to Lamech." 

Chardin, in 1673, pronounced these remains to be about "4000 years old;" a limit too 
restricted for the astronomer Bailly : who attributes the foundation of Persepolis to the 

(522) Aptly cited by Henry, L'£gypte Pharaonique, ii. pp. 27, 28. 

(523) Paliographie UniversdU; 1841; Introductioa, p. 48. 

88 



698 mankind's chronology. 

Persian hero, DjemsJdd, (524) -whose fabulous because mythic epoch he fixed at 3209 b. c. 
To the same Iranian demigod are these edifices assigned by Sir W. Jones, estimating their 
age at about 800 years before Christ. 

Semitic historians ■without exception, as Sheridan neatly observed, " draw upon memory 
for their wit, and upon imagination for their facts:" wherefore slim clews to a reality 
could be obtained through them. Like the libraries of Alexandria, of Jerusalem, of China, 
of Budhic Hindostan, and of Hebraical Christendom, those of ante-Mohammedan Persia 
perished, from similar fanatical causes, in Saracenic flames with the dynasty of Chosroes, 
about A. D. 637. Such fitful traditions as survived the wreck of Persic literature became 
invested (after B^dawee destructiveness had become altered into caliphate restorations) 
with the hyperbolic extravagancies of Eastern poetry and romance. 

One immortal epic, Firdoosee's Shah Nameh, or "Book" of Kings," composed in the 
eleventh century, purports, indeed, to cover 3600 years of his country's annals, from the 
taurokephalic Kaiomurs down to the Arab invasion. Persepolis, under its local name of 
Istakhdr, is mentioned in twenty-eight passages, and its existence is referred to as coeval 
with Kai-kobad ; whose apochryphal era, under Sir W. Jones's hypothesis, falls about B. C. 
610 : but, neither from the " History of the early kings of Persia" by Mirkavend, in the 
fifteenth century, nor from the " Dabistan," was archseological acumen able to disentangle 
a solitary thread indicative of the age, the builders, or the writings, of Persepolis. 

As in Egypt the present fellclh, or peasant, ascribes the pyramids to " Pharaoon" (525) 
or Pharaoh — a name to him the synonyme for Satan — so in Persia, the illiterate native is 
content that .an ancient edifice should be the work of Suleyman ; at once the archimagus 
of Oriental necromancy and the sage monarch of Israel : for at Murghab, PasargadoB, the 
mausoleum whence we have drawn the portrait of that great man [supra, p. 138, Fig. 43] 
whose sculptured epitaph is simply "I am C3'rus, the king, the Achsemenian," is called 
Takhti Sideymdn, or "Solomon's throne." Like Jephtha's, who was buried " in the cities 
of Gilead," (526) Solomon's tomb is shown at Shiraz and again on the road to Kashgar! 
Nimrod is even still more ubiquitous. 

Equally futile were attempts to rescue history applicable to Persia's monuments from the 
Zend-Avesta of Zoroastric attribution, or from the later Boundehesh-Pehlvi : sacred books 
containing the rituals and theosophy of the Guebres, or Persian expatriated ignicolists of 
Guzerat, now called Parsees. From Greek writers alone (Herodotus, Xenophon, Ctesias, 
&c.) were such elements of early Persian history derived as have stood the test of monu- 
mental investigation : but the science of the last century had ransacked all these sources 
without obtaining a glimmer of light as to the nature of Persepolitan wedge-shaped cha- 
racters. Like the once-mysterious hieroglyphs of Egypt, as interpreted by Father Kircher, 
the inscriptions of Persia were supposed to veil occult and awful things, black arts of 
magic, or diabolic talismans. With naught to guide them but the more or less faithless 
copies printed by De la Valle, Le Brun, Kaemfer, and other old travellers, how could the 
opinion of a student be other than a conjecture more or less rational according to the 
mental calibre of each critic ? 

Thus, by Leibnitz and by Cuper, these inscriptions were reasonably conjectured to con- 
tain the letters and elements of " some very ancient writing." Lacroze, the great Copto- 
logist, conceived them to be hieroglyphical inscriptions similar to those of Egypt (at that 
day undeciphered) and of China, which last are not " sacred sculptured characters" at all. 

(524) Djkmshid is the Persic, as SvMsox is the Hebrew, Hercules. The former we opine to be DJo^I, the 
Egyptian Hercules, coupled with S/iaDI, the strmg : the latter is simply S/ieMS-on, the Sun, with its Arabian 
euphonizing suffix. Hercules is but Ilali-GoL. "revolution of heat." Compare Lanci, Paralipmneni ; and Raoci- 
KocHETTE, AxtMologie Comparie; with Dupms in Anthon's Class. Vic, "Hercules." 

(525) " Yd Pharaiion ebn Pharauon " is generally rendered " Thou Pharaoh son of a Pharaoh " ! Why not 
" Thou crocodile son of a crocodile " f Conf. Kosenmolleri Instil. Ling. Arahica ; 1818 ; p. 211. 

(526) Text. Judges xii. 7. The sacrifice of Jephtha's daughter is beautifully told by EuaipmES ; for Iphigmia, 
in its Greek sense of lipiyivta, is only a "daughter of Jephtha." 



ASSYRIAN. 699 

CharJin opinej them to be a "veritable writing like our own;" and Le Brun happily de- 
scribes these ruins as covered with " ancient Persian characters." 

In the face of sensible speculations on matters then entirely inexplicable, the intrepidity 
of ignorance is eseniplified from a quarter whence it would have been least expected ; viz., 
in Hyde's Ilistory of the Religion of the Old Persians (Oxon. 1760). Not only does he deny 
that these Persepolitan Inscriptions are "old Persian writings," but the author backs asser- 
tion with professions of faith :^" I am of opinion that they are neither letters nor intended 
for letters; but a mere playful jeu d^ esprit of the chief architect; who, to adorn the walls 
of Persepolis, imagined a trial of how many divers forms a single elementary stroke (the 
wedge) could be produced combined with itself" ! This is as pitiable for such a scholar, as 
the unfortunate Seetzen's mistake, when he took the sunken spaces between each Himyaritic 
letter for the characters themselves. In the same manner, one of Hyde's contemporaries 
(the Abb6 Tandeau, 1762) stoutly maintained that Egyptian " hieroglyphics were mere arbi- 
trary signs, only employed to serve as ornaments to the edifices on which they were en- 
graven, and that they were never invented to picture ideas." 

These arrow-headed sculptures, like the still-unintelligible carvings on aboriginal monu- 
ments of Mexico, Central America, and Peru, seemed so enigmatical even to the great 
explorer of Babylon in 181C, that J. Claudius Rich disconsolately embodies the sum total 
of knowledge in these words : — 

" Their real meaning, or that of the Persepolitan obeliscal character, and the still more 
complicated hieroglyphics of Egypt, however partially deciphered by the labors of the 
learned, will now, perhaps, never be fathomed, to their full extent, by the utmost inge- 
nuity of man." 

By strange coincidence (serving to add another example of the simultaneousness of dis- 
covery, at every age of human development), while Rich penned the above lament, Grote- 
fend in Germany communicated to Heeren, 1815, those successful decipherings of Perse- 
politan cuneiform inscriptions he had commenced in 1802; which is the identical year of the 
arrival in England of that Rosetia Stone ; whence, about 1816, Young's deduction of the letter 
Lin the name "Ptolemy" originated those astounding revelations from Egyptian sculp- 
tures which are now so familiar in the archeeological world as no longer to require notes 
of admiration. 

Egyptologists, by rough and ready processes, have so completely vanquished opposition, 
that, at this day, disbelievers in Champollion confine their lugubrious chants to hearers 
illiterate and inarticulate : but, to judge by the pertinacity with which one, who is no mean 
scholar, (527) insists that Moses wrote — " The Tigris flows to the east of Assyria; " (528) 
and, therefore, that Botta and Layard have discovered Nineveh on the wrong side of the 
river — the battles of cuneiformists have only commenced! Happily, the Louvre boasts of 
an Orientalist (529) who can always quote to M. Hoefer the Muslim poet's mnemonic to St. 
Louis : — 

"(0 king of the Franks!) if thou preservest the hope of avenging thy defeat, if any' 
temerarious design should bring thee back to our country, forget not that the house of Ebn- 
Lokman, that served thee for a prison, is still ready to receive thee. Remember that the 
chains which thou hast worn, and the eunuch Sabfeeh who guarded thee, are ever there and 
waiting for thee." (530) 

Such was the picture on the obverse page of Assyrian archaeology in the year 1843. Be- 
fore contrasting which with its illuminated face in 1853, it is due to the memory of that 
master, whose teaching of the methods for deciphering the meaning of all antique records 
has been the true cause as well of Champollion's as of Grotefend's successes — and hence 
of the whole of our present Egyptian and Assyrian knowledge — to name Silvestre de 
Sacy. 

(527) Hoefee: La Chaldie, &c.; 1852; p. 146. 

(528) Genesis; u. 14. 

(529) De Longp£eier: Antiquitis Assyriennes ; Eev. Archtol., 1850 ; pp. 429— 132: who reads, most triumph- 
antly, " Le Tigre coule en avanl vers Agsour." 

(530) Michaud: Hist, des Croisades; iv. p. 274. 



700 MANKIN.d'S CHEONOLOGT. 

In that part of our work discussing Alphabetic Origins, the student will find a sufficiency 
of authorities cited to verify the accuracy of those results to which this Tolume is confined. 
Recapitulation here is needless : but, should ever such inquirer follow the developments of 
palseographical discovery, book by book, backwards from to-day, his bark will not ground 
until he reaches the year a. d. 1797, and touches the Memoire sur les antiquiles de la Perse, 
et sur les medailles des Rois Sassanides. Its author, De Sacy, is to pateography that which 
his colleague Cuvier is to palagontology : each being the inventor of the only true method 
of ratiocination in either science. From the former's Memoir we have borrowed many of 
the citations above presented ; and, our remarks being but introductory to Assyrian chro- 
nology, a reference to the excellent compendium of Vaux (531) indicates the shortest road 
to summary annals of cuneiform investigation ; no less than corroborates our assertion that 
monumental Assyria was a blank down to 1843. 

Paul-Emile Botta (whose surname is dear to all American readers of his uncle's Storia 
deW Independenza), appointed French Consul at Mosul in 1842, was the first to resuscitate 
Nineveh since her fall in b. c. 606. Proficient as an Orientalist and Eastern traveller, 
through residence in Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Arabia, since 1829-30, none possessed 
higher qualifications for the task ; yet, with rare modesty, he attributes his own discoveries 
(as Newton to an apple his finding the laws of gravitation) to an accident ; viz., to a couple of 
bricks, brought to him by a Nestorian dyer, who unearthed them whilst digging a founda- 
tion for stoves and boilers on the mound of Khorsabctd. (532) But, these two forlorn bricks 
were impressed with arrow-heads — things which Botta's education at once permitted him 
to appreciate. Ten years have since elapsed. The Louvre proudly displays his sculptured 
deterrations — national typography splendidly perpetuates his unafi'ected narrative — and, 
those who weigh science by " dollars and cents " may sneer at legislative munificence on 
learning that France, in 1849, had already voted $150,000 to eternalize Botta's Assyrian 
deeds ; without either forgetting an individual's future, or considering the balance of an 
account-current between a man and his country thereby stricken. His consulate is now at 
Jerusalem. 

An intimate friend, and enthusiastic spectator of the French Consul's achievements, com- 
menced operations where the latter relinquished them. Henry Austen Layard — of noble 
Huguenot extraction — born at Ceylon, and brought up at Florence, is essentially a man 
of the East. Leaving England in 1839, he reached Mosul, 1842, by way of Germany, 
Russia, Dalmatia, the Bosphorus, Asia Minor, Persia, and Kusistan. His performances are 
familiar to all readers oi Nineveh and its Remains, 1849 ; and Babylon and Nineveh, 2dExped., 
1853. The letters LL.D. and M. P., and the office of Under Secretary of Foreign Afi'airs, 
tell how a nation can reward living merit : at the same time that " Eastern questions " 
point to eventualities not less nationally important. The British Museum consecrates for 
science the innumerable exhumations of Layard. 

Great as have been, however, the exploits of these discoverers, they must not dazzle our 
vision from beholding the less ostentatious if archseologically superior researches of Raw- 
linson and of Hincks ; but for whom, the cuneiform records of Nineveh and Babylon might 
have yet remained sealed books : although, so closely followed have these savants been by 
a Lowenstern, a De Longperier and a De Saulcy ; so materially aided by Birch, Norris, 
and other skilful palaeographers; that by grouping them all into a "Cuneiform School" 
the invidious task of assigning a place to any one is cheerfully avoided. Our inquiry 
simply is, what have they all done in Assyrian chronology ? 

Let it first be observed "en passant," that the long lists of Chaldeean, Arab, Assyrian, 
and Babylonish sovereigns, preserved by Ctesias, Ptolemy, and the Hebrews ; (533) coupled 
with the pseudo-antiquity popularly assigned to the Xth Chapter of Genesis; had occasioned 
the most exaggerated notions, about 1 844-50, of the epochas to which these sculptures of 

(531) Nineveh and Persepnlis ; London, ed., 1852. 

(532) Laires d M. Mohl ; Deeouvertes k Khorsabad, 1845, p. 2 : — Monument de Nirdve, chap, ii., p. 23. 

(533) Fkasek's excellent Mesopotamia, pp. 47-60; and Coky's Ancient Fragments; supply the classical 
authorities. 



ASSYRIAN. 701 

Assj-ria should be attributed. Nowhere was this sentimentality exhibited more strongly 
than at the British Museum. Ninevite bas-reliefs of the 7th century b. c, wei-e reverenced 
by pious crowds who looked upon them as if their carving had actually been coeval with 
the "Tower of Babel"; at the same time that Egyptian relics of the IVth Memphite 
dynasty, belonging to the 4th chiliad before c, and those stupendous granites of the XVIIth- 
XVIIIth dj'nasties, positively dating in the 16th-13th centuries prior to the same era, were 
passed over in contemptuous silence ; although displayed in gigantic halls, whilst Assyria 
(for want of room) lay in an underground cellar ! And yet, withal, the only monumental 
proof of the existence of either BaBeL, or NINWE, 1500 years b. c, depended then, as it 
does now, upon Thotmes Illd's "Statistical Tablet" of Karnac!(534) Nor, excited by 
the magnificence of their monumental resurrections, can we be surprised that the two 
explorers somewhat participated, at that time, in the general feeling. 

But, the habit of dispassionate comparison of art (upon itself alone) among sculptured 
antiquities of every period and region collected in European Museums, had instinctively 
led thorough archeeologists to pronounce the word " modern," over every fragment brought 
to London and Paris from Nimroud or Khorsabad ; and this before a single Assyro-cuneatic 
inscription had been deciphered. First to undertake this thankless office was De Longp^- 
rier ; (535) who proclaimed, to shocked orthodoxy, that nothing found or published of As- 
syrian bas-reliefs could possibly ascend beyond the 9th century ; at the same time that 
Khorsabad had then not yielded anything older than the 7th-8th century b. c. 

Nevertheless, it was published — 

" On the most moderate calculation, we may assign a date of 1100 or 1200 before Christ, 
to the erection of the most ancient [palace] ; but the probability is, that it is much more 
ancient :" (53G) and maintained — " There is no reason why we should not assign to Assyria 
the same remote antiquity we claim for Egypt" [b. c. 3500?]. 

Col. Rawlinson too, whilst conceding that " the whole structure of the Assyrian graphic 
system evidently betrays an Egyptian origin: first organized upon an Egyptian model, "(537) 
formerly considered the Obelisk of Nimroud to date about the I'ith-lSth century b. c. 

Now, this age for Assyrian monumental commencements harmonizes perfectly with Egyp- 
tian conquests and dominion over much of that country, during the XVIIth dynasty, 15th- 
16th centuries b. c. It is merely the archseological attribution of any sculptures, yet found 
and published, to such an epoch that we contest. AVe are the last to curtail any nation's 
chronography ; but, misled so often by hypotheses, we cease to depend any further upon 
arithmetic where not supported by positively archseological stratifications. Lepsius, it seems 
to us, has fairly stated the possibilities of Chaldaic chronology ; (538) and future researches 
by cuneiform scholars will doubtless determine the relative position of each historical stra- 
tum as firmly for Assyria as has been already done for Egypt. 

With these provisoes, we may safely present a synopsis of the last chronological results 
put forth by Layard. Possessing all the resources at present attainable, and profoundly 
versed himself in Assyrian studies, his tabulation of the monumental series of reigns 
inspires full confidence, at the same time that his results accord naturally with the histories 
of adjacent countries and people. (539) 

Ante-monumental Period. 
Into this category are cast the vague and semi-mythical traditions of Nimrod, Ninus, 
Belus, and their several lines ; which, according to classical writers, may ascend to 1903 
years before Alexander, equivalent to 2234 b. c. (540) 

(534) BmcH: Op. cit.; 1846; p. 37: — Two Egyptian Cartouches found at Nimroud; 1848; pp. 161-177: — 
Guidon: Olia; \> 103. Vide also Birch, ^nnais of T/iofmcs J//. ; Archaeologia, 1853, xxxv. p. 160. 

(63a) Sevut Archeolcgique, Oct. 1847 : — Galeric Assyrienne, Musee du Louvre, 1849; p. 16; — Revue Archiol. 
Oct. 1850. 

(536) Latard: Nineveh and its Semains; Am. ed., 1849; pp. 176, 179, 185. 

(537) Commentary on the Cuneiform, Inscriptions, &c. ; 1850; pp. 4, 7, 21, 71, 73, 74. 

(535) Chronologic der JEgypt^r ; i. pp. 6-12. 

(539) Babylooi ; pp. 611-6'25: — already Rawunson extends Assyrian antiquity to the 14th century B. c. ; Jour. 
K. Asiat. Soc., 1853, p. xviii., note. 

(540) liZrsiLS : i. p. 10. 



702 mankind's CHRONOLOGr. ^ 

Genealogical Period. 
This class embraces those Assyrian Kings, of whose reigns no contemporaneous monuments 
have been discovered, but who are recorded in the pedigrees or archives of their succes- 
sors: distinguishing Rawlinson's reading by E, and Hincks' by H. 

King (conjectural reading). Ahmit B. c. 

I. Dekceto (R.) 1250 

II. DrrANUKHA (R.), Divanukish (H.) 1200 

m. ANAKBAR-BETH-HIRA (R.), SHIMISH-BAI/-BlTHKHmA (H.) 1130 

IV. M.ARBOKEMPAD ? > 

T. Mesessimordacds ? J 

TI. Adrammelech I. (R.) 1000 

Tn. Anaku Merodak (R.), Shemish Bar (H.) 9C0 

Monumental Period. 

Till. Sardanapaitjs I. (R.), ASHtmAKHBAL (H.) — North-west Palace, Nimroud 930 

IX. DiVANCBAEA (R.), DiVANOBAR (H.)— Otelisk; cotemporary with Jehu 900 

X. Sa^iMAS Abar (R.), Shamsiyav (H.) 870 

XI. AdRjIMMELEOH II. (R.) 840 

XII. Baldasi? (H.) 

XIII. Ashcrkish? (H.) 

XIV. ? PCL, or TiGLATH-PlLESER „ 750 

XV- Sargok 723 

XVI. Sennacherib 703 

XVII. ESSARHADDON 690 

XVIII. Saedanapalus III. (R.), Ashdkakhbal (H.) 

XIX. (Sou of preceding) 

XX. Shamisbakhadok? (H.) 

Fall of Nineveh 606 

The chronological approximations of our sketch hinge upon the name of Jehu, king of 
Israel, who, on the Obelisk of Nimroud, is made tributary to Divanubar ; thus establishing 
a synchronism about the year 885 b. c. 

Everything yet discovered on the site of Bahel seems to belong to the reign of " Nabu- 
kudurruchur (i. e., Nebuchadnezzar), king of Babylon, son of Na"bubaluchun, king of Baby- 
lon" — not earlier than about b. c. 604. 

Time, the performer of so many marvels in archEeology, will assuredly enable us soon to 
attain greater Assyrian precision ; already foreshadowed through the pending excavations 
of M. Place, and the personal studies of M. Fulgence Fresnel and of Col. Rawlinson, on 
the sites of Mesopotamian antiquity. 



CHRONOLOGY— HEBREW. 

" For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past." — {Psalms xc. 4.) 
" One day is with the Lord [lellOuaH] as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day." 

(2 Peter iii. 8.) 

It would be affectation if not duplicity, on the part of the authors of " Types of Man- 
kind," after the variety of shocks which the plenary exactitude of Hebrew chronicles has 
received at their hands, not to place everything Israelitish on precisely the same human 
footing as has been assigned to the more ancient time-registers of Egypt and of China, and 
to the more solid restorations of Assyria. 

The reader of our Essay I, in the present volume, can form his own estimate of the histo- 
rical weight that Hebraical literature may possess hereafter in scientific ethnography. 

Monumental history the Hebrews have none. Even their so-called " Tombs of kings," 
owing to the absence of inscriptions, have recently occasioned a discussion among such 
deep archseologists as De Saulcy, Quatremfere, and Raoul-Rochette, (541) that shows upon 
how tremulous a foundation their attribution rests. The "arch" and massive basements 
of Jerusalem's temples (discovered by Catherwood, Arundale, and Bonomi, 1832-3) may 

(541) jBewuc Archeologique ; 1851-'52. Also, De Saulcy: Journey round the Dead Sea; 1853; ii. p. 131. 



HEBREW. 703 

belong to ZerubbabeVs or to Solomon's edifices; or, in part, to the anterior Jebusites, for any- 
thing by tourists imagined to the contrary. In the absence of monumental criteria, we are 
compelled to give the Hebrews but a, fourth place in the world's history ; at the same time 
that justice to a people whose strenuous efforts to preserve their records has encountered 
more terrible obstacles and more frequent eflfacements than any other nationality, demands 
the amplest recognition. 

The numerous citations and tables with which the subject of chronology has been already 
ushered, spare us from recapitulation of the manifold instances whereby the Text con- 
tradicts the versions; the numerical designations of a given manuscript, those of another; 
and the modern computations of one individual, the estimates of almost every other indi- 
vidual ; whensoever the date of any Jewish event, anterior to Solomon's semi-pagan 
temple, is the object sought after. 

In fact, we may now realize with Lepsius, that the strictly-chronological element was 
wanting in the organism of Hebrew, as of other Semitish, minds ; until Manbtho the 
Sebcnnyle, about B. c. 260, first established the principles of chronology through Egyptian 
indigenous records ; and, by publishing his results, in Greek, for the instruction of the 
Alexandria School, first planted the idea of human "chronology" upon a scientific basis. 
All systems of computation (heretofore followed by Christendom) take their departure, his- 
torically, from Manetho. 

It is deeply to be lamented, for the sake of education, that no qualified translator has 
yet honored Anglo-Saxon literature with an English version of Lepsius's "Introduction" 
to his Chronology of the Egyptians; of which the writers, through the Chevalier's complai- 
sance, have possessed t)x% first-half smae December,' 1848, and the second since May, 1849. 
Impossible, we fear, until such translation be accessible, is it to convey to the majority of 
our readers, the entirely-new principles of chronological investigation this wonderful grasp 
(of a mind at the pinnacle of the culture of our time) has condensed into 554 pages quarto. 
Erudition stands humbled at the aspect of this volume's conscientious and universal probity 
of citation ; at the same time that its perspicacity of arrangement is such, that those who, 
like ourselves, possess no acquaintance with German, can track the footsteps of its author 
almost paragraph by paragraph. Through the kindness of many Allemanic friends, tho 
writers have been enabled to annotate their copies of the Chronologie der JEgypter with mar- 
ginal and other notes that justify whatever assertions they respectively make upon an 
authority otherwise to them Germanically concealed : and, in consequence, with reference 
to Rabbi Hillel and many of the facts subjoined, they may confidently refer the reader of 
" Types of Mankind" to Lepsius's compendium ; (542) as a ground-text which the writers' 
comparative studies of works in other tongues, more or less familiar, have resulted in 
deeming the highest, in these peculiar branches, of our common generation. In any case, 
a German scholar can easily verify our desired accuracy by opening a •printed book ; four 
copies, at least, of which are now even at Mobile, Alabama. 

We have said that Manetho is the founder of the science called " chronology." We 
mean that he is the first writer who developed through the Greek tongue, at his era the 
language of Occidental science, those methods of computation in vogue from very ancient 
times among the sacerdotal colleges of the Egyptians. He is the exponent, not the inventor 
of his country's system: Eratosthenes, Apollodorus, c&c, are his successors; together with 
Josephus, Africauus, Eusebius, and the Syncellus ; whose Judaico-christian theories have 
been the sources of that fabric of superstition heretofore reputed to inform us concerning 
the epoch of God's Creation. 

No doubt remains any longer that, centuries prior to Manetho, the Egyptian priesthood 
did possess chronological registers ; because, aside from inferences patent in his prede- 
cessor Herodotus's "Euterpe," we have before our eyes in the Turin hieratic papyrus (dating 
in the 12th-14th century b. c, or 1000 years before Manetho) the same system, often with 
the same numerals, of reigns of Gods, Demi-Gods, and Men, that this chronographer sub- 
sequently expounded to the Alexandrian schools. Alas ! Manetho's mutilators, not his 

(542) EiiOeilung ; 1849; pp. 14-20, 359-404, 405-410. 



704 mankind's chronology. 

own imaginary inaccuracies, are the cause of that confusion of personages and dates, from out 
of which modern archaeology is now beginning, through hieroglyphical collations, to emerge. 

Of course, Chinese computations are distinct : being the production of other lands, other 
races, other histories, other worlds of thought and action. So, likewise, may be the lost 
Chaldaean systems, of which fragments survive through scanty extracts of Sanconiatho 
and of Berosus ; or, as we shall see, through the more recent Sanscrit astrologico-cyclic 
fables of the Hindoos : but, with the above exceptions, and (if you please) of Mexico and 
Peru, there is no system of what we call " chronology " but is historically posterior to Ma- 
netho, whose era stands at the middle of the 3d century b. c. 

This is facile of comprehension to the reader of our Essay I. He therein perceives 
that the oldest computatory data based upon Judaic traditions are found in the Greek Sep- 
tuagint ; being itself a collection of translations manufactured at Alexandria after b. c. 250, 
and before b. c. 130; in which, Alexandrian Greek dialects and Alexandre-Egyptian "sothic 
periods" of 1460 years, betray a people, an age, and a fusion of philosophical notions, 
such as could have been produced, through natural causes, in no locality upon earth but. 
Alexandria ; and that too during Ptolemaic generations subsequent to Manetho. 

The next in order is the Hebrew Text. Its canonical antiquity, in its oldest and last 
form, cannot reach up to Ezra in the 5th century, and descends unto the Maccabee princes, 
in the 2d century B.C., i. e. after the writer of the book called "Daniel." But, onv Introductory 
has effaced the validity of textual numeration in any Hebrew codex (no MSS. being 900 
years old) ; because, while on the one hand its radically discordant numbers show that, when 
the Septuagint was translated, the original Hebrew exemplar in its patriarchal enumeration 
either did not then exist, or must have been identical with its copied Greek version ; on the 
other, the Hebrew square-letter character, of this Text's present form, not having been , 
invented until the 9>d century after c, the chronological elements now in the Text must 
originate from manipulations made above 400 years after Manetho. 

Thirdly, and lastly, there is the Samaritan Pentateuch. Its numerical system altogether 
departs, for patriarchal ages, from both the Septuagint and the Hebrew Text. The age of 
its compilation is utterly unknown ; but the palseographic shape of its alphabetic letters 
bring such MSS. as exist now to an epoch below that of our Hebrew Text itself. Sup- 
posing the rumored estimate of one Nabloosian codex did make that unique copy attain to 
the 6th century after c, such fact would merely prove our view to be correct ; but, in Eu- 
rope, no Samaritan MS. is older than the 13th century. In consequence, we cannot accept, 
in scientific chronology, any more than Siracides, the modern hypotheses of that "stultus 
populus qui habitat in Sicimis." 

These facts being posited, one can understand the apparatus and the efforts made upon 
them by the learned Rabbi Hillel, about the year 344 after c, to place Jewish chronology 
upon a scientific basis that it never possessed before his labors. He was acquainted with 
Grecian calendrical computations ; probably with the cycles of Meton and Callippus, the 
mathematical formulae of Theon of Alexandria, and with the chronography of Africanus, 
perpetuator of Manetho. 

A quotation from Lepsius has been submitted on a preceding page. Another extract 
will illustrate his views (543) : — 

"But then it is very improbable that Hillel went to work in the manner that Ideler believes. 
'Evidently,' says Ideler, 'he started from the then-still-generally used (by the Jews) Seleu- 
cidan era, viz. : the autumn of the year 312 B. c. Calculating backwards, his nest epoch 
was the destruction of the second Temple. This epoch he fixed at only 112 years (before) ; 
thus counting more than 150 years too little, and making Nebuchadnezzar contemporary 
with Artaxerxes I. Going back to the Building of the first Temple, the Exodus, the Deluge 
and the Creation, partly according to the express dates of the Bible, partly according to 
his explanation of those dates, he found, as the epoch of the Minjan Shtarolh beginning of 
the year 3450 of the World.' So gross and inconsistent an error of 160 years in so modern 
a time was impossible to a savant of the 4th century. But there is not much diflSculty in 
explaining it, if we suppose, that the Rabbis, after the great hiatus in Jewish literature 

543) C/iraH(??o;7!e — "Kritik dcr Qi-ellen"; i. pp. 363, 364. 



HEBREW. 705 

(which began with the conclusion of the Talmud, 500 a. d. to the 8th century,) did re- 
ceive the few general points, which Hillel had connected with his universal calendar, from 
him, and that then, only then, they began to fill up their universal history of 5000 years 
according to the records of the Old Testament. Indeed, we find neither in the Talmud nor 
even in the ante-Talmudic writings, — ex. gr. in the Seder Olam Rahba, one of the most 
ancient of these writings — the whole chronological fillings up. This seems to have taken 
place in the 12th century ; consequently at the epoch of a long-previously commenced 
scientifico-literary barbarism. From the Creation to the Deluge, and the Exodus, they had 
only to follow the numbers of the Pentateuch to attain the given date (a. m.) 2448 = 1314 
(b. c). But thenceforward they based themselves upon the convenient number of 480 years 
to the Building of the Temple (in the 1st Book of Kings), and according to this they arranged 
the chronology of the time of the Judges. By this, then, was the real link of chronology 
dislocated for 160-170 years, which occasioned the displacement of all the succeeding mem- 
bers. Only when arrived at the next fixed point, in the year (a. m.) 3450= 312 (b. c), 
■was it found, that the chain of events, for the given space from the Building of the first to 
that of the second Temple, was much too long. The history of the second Temple, built 
under Darius Hystaspis, down to Alexander, from whom the Greek era took its name, 
shrunk then at once from 184 to 34 years. At first this created little sensation, but after- 
wards the difficulties becoming greater, they were removed by the simple means of adopt- 
ing Darius II. and (Darius) III,, as one and the same person. In this manner alone can 
we explain the singular phenomenon of an entirely dislocated and mutilated chronology, 
which notwithstanding possesses two firm and only-sure points ; and at the same time offers 
us the most important and probably most accurate determination of the epoch of the Exodus 
by a really learned chronologist." 

It is from the original that the reader must gather, what our space and objects permit 
us not to transcribe, the citations, &c., through which the author establishes his view con- 
clusively. To us the important facts are these — 1st, that the Jews had made no attempts 
at scientific chronology prior to the 4th century after c. ; nor did they complete such as 
their later schools adopt until the 12th. — 2dly, that, through their childlike prepossessions, 
and owing to their superstitious notions that the era of "Creation" could be humanly 
attained, they ciphered out a fabulous number, equivalent to " b. c. 3762," for a divine act, 
which their ignorance of the phenomena of astronomical and geological unceasing progres- 
sion, led them to imagine instanianeous — "Fiat lux !" — and 3dly, that, having blundered 
by 160-170 years, only between the Exodus and Solomon's temple, they sank deeper into 
the mud when, in efforts to account for their own imbecilities, they made one man of two 
Dariuses in order to rob the world's history (184 minus 34) of 150 years! And it is such 
wretched stuff as this rabbinical arithmetic which is to be set up, forsooth, against the 
stone-books of Egypt and Assyria, the records of China, the annals of Greece and Rome at 
the age of Alexander the Great, and every fact in teri;pstrial history! "Well might Le- 
sueur indite the passage above quoted — "Nous sommes, depuis dix-huits cents ans, dupes 
de la sotte vanite des Juifs : " and justifiably may archaeological science hold cheaply 
the acumen of the whole series of those who, amid other conceits, have adopted 480 years 
between Solomon's temple and the Exodus. 

Before examining which fact, it may be expedient that we should set forth our own point 
of view, founded upon the same principles hitherto pursued, viz., that our process is always 
retrogressive ; ever starting from to-day, as the known, and going backwards, in all ques- 
tions of human registration of events. 

The era of Nabonassar, if astronomy be certainty, is a point fixed, by eclipses, &c., in the 
year b. c. 747. Thence, backwards to the " 5th year of Rehoboam," when Jerusalem was 
plundered by the Egyptian Sheshonk (of which event the hieroglyphical register stands at 
Thebes), we have a positive synchronism about the years 971-3, " b. c. ;" for, in ancient 
chronology, asserted precision to a year or so is next to imposition. Thence, taking Solo- 
mon with his " chariots dedicated to the sun," and his Masonico-zodiacal Temple, for 
granted, we accept the era "1000 years b. c," as an assumed fixed point when that temple 
was already completed. We say "assumed," because Calmet's date for the completion of 
this edifice is b. c. 1000 ; whilst Hales's is b. c. 1020 : and, rather than trouble ourselves 
with ascertaining which of these computations may be the least wrong, we would greatly 
prefer discussing whether Solomon ever built a Temple at all. Why, if for the second, or 

89 



706 



MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. 



Zerubbabel's Temple, we have to choose among 19 biblical chronologers, whose maximum is 
B. c. 741, and minimum 479 — if, for a Jewish event of scarcely 2400 years ago, we cannot 
through Judaic books get nearer the truth, according to "chronological" arithmetic, than 
262 years, up or down ■ — how much nearer are we likely to get to another Jewish event 
(itself fraught with preternatural dilemmas), supposed to have happened somewhere about 
2853 years ago, when the epoch of the building of the first Temple depends upon what 
computation we may elect to adopt out of 19 different orthodox authorities for the age 
of the second? 

Thus much for the sake of furnishing our colleagues with practical means of rendering 
ecclesiastical opposers of " Types of Mankind," if not less supercilious, at least more mal- 
leable ; whenever these maybe pleased to obtrude Jewish " chronography " — or, as it is 
fashionably termed, " the received chronology" — into the rugged amphitheatre of Egyptian 
time-measurement. 

Archseologically speaking (not "chronologically"), there is no material objection to such 
assumption as Solomon's Temple at (circa) b. c. 1000 ; a few years more or less. Under 
this historical view, apart from episodic circumstances (to be discussed hereafter), archae- 
ology may rationally concede that Hebrew tradition, through alphabetic facilities developed 
not much less than three centuries posterior, does really contain chronological elements 
back to about 2853 years ago — say to b. c. 1000. 

We continue with Lepsius — 

" The question is now whether we must give up, for lost, the number 480 (to which we 
cannot attach greater importance than to the numerous simple "Arbaindt," or forties [40s], 
in the same parts of Israelitish history) ; and with it, also, every chronological helm for 
events anterior to the Exode ? But such is not the case, because we find, in the [so-called] 
Mosaic writings themselves, a true chronological standard, by which we can compute [the 
chronological weight of] the views hitherto held, and confirm anew the truthfulness of 
Egyptian record. Such a standard I conceive to be the Registers of generations." 

Allusion has been made, in other parts of this volume, to the Nos. 7, 12, 70 or 72, as 
mystic in original association ; and how the latter always, the former two frequently, are 
unhistorical wherever found. To these numbers (of cabalistic employment since the days 
of Jeremiah), we may now add, as equally vague in Hebrew chronography, all the '■^arba'init" 
or "forties." By opening Cruden's Concordance the reader can see a list of above 50, out 
of many more instances, where the presence of "forty" renders the narrative, in this 
respect at least, unsafe. Here is a schedule of some that are positively apocryphal ; 
especially when, through a conventional No. 40, an event, in itself prseternatural, is ren- 
dered still more impossible by th» numerals that accompany it. 

Apocetphal Forties. 



OJd Testament. 

1. Gai.-^n.i " 40 days and 40 nights." 

2. Exod.xxvv.li " 40 days and 40 nights." 

3. Numh. xiii. 25 "40 days." 

4. Deut. ix. 25 "40 days." 

5. Josh. V. e " 40 years." 

6. Jud. iii. 11 "40 years." 

7. 1 Sam. iv. 18 "40 years." 

8. 2 5'aTO. T. 4 "40 years." 

9. 1 Kings xix. 8 " 40 days and 40 nights." 

10. 1 Kings ■x.u.'i. "40 years." 

11. 1 Chrrni. xxvi. 31.. " 40th year." 

12. 2 Citron, xxiv. 1... " 40 years." 

13. Ezra ii. 24 "40 and two." 



14. Nehem.\.15 "40 shekels." 

15. Job xlii. 16 "hundred and 40 years." 

16. Psalms xov. 10 " 40 years." 

17. Ezek. iv. 6 "40 days." 

18. Amosii.lO "40 years." 

19. Jon. ii. 4 " 40 days." 

New Testament. 

20. Matt. iv. 2 ;.... "40 days and 40 nights." 

21. itfarfci. 13 "40 days." 

22. Jb/m ii. 30 " 40 «'x years." 

23. Aetsi.Z "40 days." 

24. Beb. iii. 9 " 40 years." 

25. JfC!).Tii.4, xiv.l, 3 "hundred and 40 four 

thousand." 



"It is evident from the narratives in the Pentateuch, as well as in other books of the 
Holy Scriptures, that in ancient times the number 40 was considered not merely as a round 
number, but even as one totally vague and undetermined, designating an uncertain quan- 
tity. The Israelites remained in the desert during 40 years; the judges, Athniel, Ehud 
{Sepiuag.), Debora and Gideon, governed each 40 years. The same did Eli, after the Phi- 
listines had ravaged the country during 40 years. The 40 days of the increasing and the 
40 days of decreasing of the waters of the Deluge are well known. But one of the most 



HEBRE"W. 707 

striking instances of this use of the number 40 is 2 Sam. sv. 7, where, during the 40 years 
of David's reign it is said : ' And after 40 years it happened that Absalom went to the king 
and said, Let me go to Hebron, that I may fulfil the vow which I have made to Jehovah.' 

'• The Apocryphic books go still farther. According to them, Adam entered the Para- 
dise when he was 40 days old — Eve 40 days later. Seth was carried away by angels at the 
age of 40 years, and was not seen during the same number of days. Joseph was 40 years 
old when Jacob came to Egypt ; Moses had the same age when he went to Midian, where 
he remained during 40 years. The same use of this number is also made by the Phoeni- 
cians and Arabs. [See Dissertatio Bredovii de Gcorgii SyncelU Chronographia (second part 
of the edition of Bonn) Syncellus, p. 33, scq.'\ We must not forget hereby the ArhainM 
(the forties) in Arabian literature ; a sort of books which relate none but stories 
of 40 years, or give a series of 40, or 4 times 40 traditions. They have a similar kind of 
books, which they call Sebaydt (sevens). Their calendar has 40 rainy and 40 windy days. 
Also in their laws the numbers of 4, 40, 44, occur very often. In Syria the graves of Seth, 
Noah and Abel are still shown. They are built in the usual Arabian style. Their length 
is recorded to be 40 ells, and thus I have found them by my own measuring. This may 
also account for the tradition that the antediluvian men were 40 ells high, that is, not 
'about 40 ells,' but 'very tall.' Only afterwards was this expression so naively misunder- 
stood. The Arabs give, in the conversational language, the same sense to siltln, 60, and 
m'ieh, 100. I have already observed, in an earlier writing [Zwei Sprachergleichende Ah- 
handlungen (Two lectures upon the Analogy of Languages), Berlin, 1836, pp. 104, 139], 
that of all the Semitic numerical words, arba, 4, is the sole one which has no connexion 
whatever with the Indo-Germanic, and seems rather to be derived from rab, 31, ' much,' 
n31N, ' the locust.' This would account for its undetermined use.' (544) 

The historical spuriousness of the numeral 40, in its application to human chronology, 
may be illustrated by another example out of many. It is said, " Israel walked 40 years in 
the wilderness," (545) after the Exode. On which Cahen : — 

" It is probable that this itinerary contains but the principal stations : they are in 
number 42. In the first year they count 14 stations ; in the last, or 40th, they count 8 
stations ; thus the 20 other stations occupied 38 years {Jar'hi, in the name of Closes the 
preacher). According to the ingenious remark of St. Jerome, the number 40 seems to be 
consecrated to tribulation: the Hebrew people sojourned in Egypt 10 times 40 years; 
Moses, Elias, and Jesus, fasted 40 days ; the Hebrew people remained 40 years in the 
desert ; the prophet Ezekiel lay for 40 days on his right side. This accordance shows us 
that Goethe had some reasons for conjecturing that the 40 years in the desert might very 
well possess no historical certitude." (546) 

Again — "Thus, during these 40 years, notwithstanding the miserable life which 
the Israelites had led in the desert, maugre the plagues, the maladies, and the wars, there 
was but a diminution of 1820 Israelites and an augmentation of [just!] 1000 Levites. 
Such results exist not within the domain of natural things, and consequently possess 
nothing historical." ..." Savage tribes sing of their petty quarrels, their conquests and 
their disasters, upon the lofty tone of, and even loftier tone than, the greatest nations. 
Thus the septs along the river Jordan had their poets, their national ballads ; these songs, 
there, as everywhere else, have preceded history. AVe have just read extracts from these 
productions, perhaps the most ancient that have reached us. It is probable that to them 
were afterwards added some events of a date much later than the political existence of 
Moabites, Edomites, &c." (547) 

Finally, speaking of the " 40 years " in the Sinaic desert, Cahen observes : — 

" One finds in the Pentateuch only those events that occurred during the first Uoo and 
the last or fortieth year. The history of the intermediary 37 years is totally unknown 
to us." (548) 

All theological conjectures about this unhistoric interval are merely conjectures theo- 
logical; because the Jews used the expression "forty," as we do "a hundred," for a vague 
number of anything uncounted. To Lepsius's numerous illustrations of the utter impos- 
sibility that uneducated nations or individuals can possess any clear ideas about dates for 
circumstances that may have happened during their respective lifetimes, we might add two 
parallels — the first (or Oriental) is that, in Egypt, if you ask an intelligent but illiterate 

(544) LEPSroa: Chrondogie der Mgypler: i. pp. 15, 16, note. 

(545) Josh. V. 6. 

(546) Cahen : iv. p. 158 ; note on Numb, x.xiii. 1. 

(547) Cahen: Op. cit.; p. 134; note on the two censuses in the Desert: and p. 124, on BaAM and Baiak. 
(54S) Op. tit.; p. 96. 



708 mankind's chronology. 

native his age, he cannot express it by years ; but replies, that his stature was about so 
high (holding out his hand at the elevation required), /ee ay&m en-Nussiira — "in the days 
of the Christians;" alluding to Napoleon's conquest of Egypt, 1798-1802: or else tells yon 
that he had not a white hair in his beard, /ce hurriekut el-Qalaa, "at the fire of the cita- 
del " of Cairo, 1825. The second (or Occidental) is, that no Indian, or Negro, in the United 
States (save among the paucity that have been educated), can tell you his own age, by 

years ; but the one dates either from such a time when " he and Col. shot that bar ;" 

or the other from when he butted for cheeses against another negro-kephalus at such a 
local election. 

This introduces a question upon which European biblical commentators, ignorant of 
living Oriental customs, have gone sadly astray. Whenever the number of personages, in 
a given Hebrew pedigree, has been found insufficient to occupy (that is, to fill up naturally 
without improbable longevity), the length of time required to suit the chronological scale a 
given commentator may have elected to invent or follow, it has been incontinently assumed, 
that the Hebrew numerals were right ; and that the anomaly proceeds from the accidental 
loss of one, or more, intermediary ancestors, in the genealogical list. Thus, says the 
learned Dr. Prichard, (549) adopting the suggestions of the great Michselis: — 

" The result is that the difficulty which seems to have induced some of the ancients to 
alter the text requires a different explanation. It can only be solved, as it would seem, 
by allowing an omission of several generations in the genealogies of the Israelites. At 
present only two generations are interposed between Levi and Moses. It is probable 
that several are omiiled." 

So again the Abb^ Glaire, (550) in respect to the two genealogies of Joseph : — 

" The first (method) is to suppose that these names (Ockosias, Joas, Amasias) were wanting 
in the genealogical tables the evangelist made use of; an hypothesis the more probable that 
the names of intermediary persons are often missing in many genealogies of the Old Testa- 
ment. . . . Esdras, in his genealogy, omits seven of his ancestors, by jumping from Amarias 
to Achitob II, father of Sadoc II. . . . The genealogy of Saul, for a space of 800 years, 
names but seven persons. . . . From Mardocheus to Jemini or Benjamin, who lived 1200 
years before, but four are named. . . . From Reuben to Beera, who was carried captive by 
Tiglath-pilesar, they give us but 12 generations to fill a space of more than 1000 years. 
In the genealogy of Judith, for a space nearly equal, there are but 16 generations. By 
fixing, as is commonly done, the generation at 33 years, one perceives that there are a good 
many degrees omitted in these genealogies. . . . Grotius, upon whose acquirements one 
may confide without difficulty, assumes that this happens frequently, as may be seen in 
genealogical trees. Scepe eodem temporis spalio familias inter se comparatas generationes habere 
unam aut alteram plures etpauciores; quod in omnibus stemmaiibus videre est. ' Veut-on un 
example d'une grande in^galitg de generations dans les dififerentes branches d'une meme 
souclie ? Scripture affords one very striking. The children of Jacob {Numb. i. 3) each 
formed a branch or tribe. When, a year after their issue from Egypt, Moses, by the order 
of God, caused the numbering of these tribes, there was found among them a prodigious 
inequality ; but the most surprising is that which was beheld between the tribe of Levi 
and that of Judah : the latter comprised 74,000 males above the age of 20 years, and the 
former 22,300 counting (even) those above one month.' " 

One would suppose, so naively does the Abb^ accept all these numerals as historical, that 
he was actually present ! But these violent statistics are susceptible of more rational solu- 
tion. Such attempts at reconcilement have their unique origin in the uncritical ideas of 
eminent scholars upon the true ages of the composition of the fragments extant of Jeru- 
salem literature ; which the perusal of our suppressed pages might supersede : and similar 
weak explanations would not have been thought of by any Orientalist (Fresnel, Lane, or 
Layard, for instance) who had actually resided among Semitic populations. Lepsius (551) 
is the first, that we are aware of, to have placed the matter in its true light. 

We know that unlettered Arabian Bedawees do preserve, for centuries, orally from father 
to son, their individual and clannish genealogies ; and this too for an almost infinite number 
of generations. They even thus consecrate, legally, the pedigrees of their blood- 

(549) Researches; 1847; v. p. 559. 

(550) Limes Saints Venges; ii. pp. 284-2S5, 201-202; quoted chiefly from Bullet: Ecponses Critiques. 
(551") Op. cit. ; pp. 365, 366. 



HEBREW. 709 

horses. (552) But, as for defining the length of time each tribe, man, or horse, may have 
lived, that the B^dawee has no means of doing beyond his own grandfather's lifetime ; and 
for which he has no annual calendar. Thus, in ante-Mohammedan history, " the battle of 
Khazaz," fought by the MCiadd tribes under Koulayb-Wail against the Yemenite confede- 
racy, is the earliest stand-point of Arabian historical tradition ; (553) but the era before 
Islim — 250 — to which such battle is assigned, has been computed, for these wild children 
of the desert, by later and highly-cultivated Arab historians, and at best conjecturally. 

It would be foolish to deny to the sedentary and somewhat educated Hebrews, of days 
anterior to the Captivity, equal faculties of preserving their own genealogies, that we recog- 
nize among cognate Semitish and still more barbarous tribes of Arabia : nor is there any 
reason to doubt the existence of genealogical lists, stretching backwards for many genera- 
tions, from the days of Ezra. (554) These may even have ascended, ancestor by ancestor, 
to the times of Abraham. (555) But it was one thing to preserve, through saga, rythme, 
song, or oral legend, the names of predecessors in their natural order ; and quite another 
to guess at the duration of these ancestors' respective lifetimes, or to infer, through tradi- 
tionary events with any of the earlier ancestors coetaneous, the chronological remoteness 
of the age during which they lived, excepting approximately. In consequence, Lepsius 
(and we entirely agree with him) sustains, that the genealogies of the Hebrews are probably 
right; but that the chronological computations accompanying these lists are certainly 
wrong. Indeed, of this last fact there can be no doubt, when we remember that Rabbi 
Hillel, in the fourth century after Christ, was the first to regulate Jewish chronology by 
the verbal literalness of the Hebrew Text ; independently of fabulous numeration such as 
that borrowed by Josephus from an Alexandrian Greek system adopted by the writers of 
the Septicagint. The manifest interpolation of an Egyptian " Sothic-period" of 1460-61 
years (so felicitously discovered Mr. Sharpe, supra, pp. 618, 619), obviates further neces- 
sity for recurrence to the spurious chronology of the Greek version. 

These numerical estimates, we now see, are both modern and erroneous. But, to 
convince the reader of the fact; and to prove that the 480 years between the first Temple 
and the Exodus are erroneous ; we copy Lepsius's synopsis, after remarking that, just as 
in all ancient pictures the artist gave colossal proportions to the figures of gods, or heroes, 
while the plebeian classes receive pigmaic stature, so among the antique Israelites, in their 
organic absence of "art," it was customary to assign to the royal line, or High-Priest 
pedigree, the attributes of longevity together with extensively-procreating capabilities ; 
and to measure such exalted patricians by generations of 40 years ; at the same time that 
to the vulgar herd were ascribed generations of only 30 ! 

" I give here a Table of the principal genealogies, in which the Levitish generations 
follow in the same order as they are recorded in 1 Chron. chap. 7 (according to the LXX ; 
in the Hebrew Text, ch. v. and vi.). These are preceded by the genealogical chain from 
Levi to Zadok according to Josephus, and also his list of the High-Priests from Aaron to 
Zadok. Lastly comes a genealogical table of Judah. Albeit I have excluded some other 
genealogies, ex. gr., the three of Ephraim [Numb. xxvi. 35 — 1 Chron. viii. 20; xxi. 24-27), 
because they were in evident confusion and led to no result. 

"The first column," says Lepsius, (556) "contains the patriarchs from Abraham to 
Amram ; next, 12 leaders (chiefs) of the people, beginning with Moses, who seem to have 
been regarded as representatives of the 12 generations of 40 years each ; and thus to have 
occasioned the calculation of 480 years [as the chronological interval between the Temple 
and the Exode"]. Ewald and also Beetheau give another list— for the subject, in general, 
admits of no precision: albeit, for us, the recognition of the division into 12 parts of this 
period is important. But one, likewise, (VIII.) of the aforesaid genealogies (1 Chron. vii. 
39-43) contains 12 generations of one and the same family. It might therefore be possible 
that this last list, and not the other, had originated the calculation of 480 years. This list 
has the peculiarity of beginning with Gersom, the first-born of Levi. But the most noble 
line of the Levites was that of the High-Priests, who descended from Aakon and Kafaath (1. ): 
this list, as well as that of Must (IX.), contains only 11 generations. This may be the 
reason why the LXX count but 440 years." 

(552) Latarb: Babylon: pp. 220, 221, 250, 326-.'!31. 

(553) Fresnel: Arabes artant V Islamisme ; 1st Letter; 1830; p. 16. 

(554) Ezra ; ii. 59-62; Nditm. vii. 61-64. 

(555) Kumb. i. 5-18, 26. (556) Clironologie ; pp. 367-371. 



710 



MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. 



THE JUDAIC LINEAGES 




Series of 

High-Priests 

to Zadok. 

[Josephus, A. J., 

5, 11, 5.] 



■§ 



Tears, a, 

1. Abraham 100 or 30 

2. Isaac 100 30 

200 



Z.ukjk's 

Parentage. 

[Josephus, A. J., 

8, 1, 31 



I. 

Aaron's 

Generations. 

1 Chron, vii. 1-9, 

50-53 ; Bira vii. 

2-5. 



II. in. 

Generations Generations 

Gersom-LiBNi. Kahat-AiaiNADAE 

1 CAron. Til. 20,21. ICViron.vii. 22-24. 

(=Vni.) (=VI.) 



3. Jacob 



100 30 
90 



1. Levi 100 

2. Kahath 100 

3. Amram 100 



400 90 



1. Levi 1. Levi 1. Levi 1. [Levi] 

2. Kaatho.s 2. Kahath 2. Gersom 2. Kahath 

3. Amarames 3. Amram 3. Lieni 3. Aminadab 



1. Moses 

2. Joshua 

3. Othniel 

4. Ehud 

5. Samgar 

6. Barak 

7. Gideon 

8. Jephtha 

9. Simsou 

10. Eli 

11. Samuel, 

Saul 

12. David 



40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 

J40 

40 



1. Aaron 

2. Eleazares 

3. Phineeses 

4. Abiezeres 

5. Bouki 

6. Ozis 

7. Ilei 

8. (Phineeses) 

9. lokabes 

10. Akimelekos ■) 

^30 
= AkiasJ 

11. Abiatharos ) 

...„,. ^30 



1. Aaron 30 1. Aakon 

2. Eleazares 30 2. Eleasar 

3. Phineeses 30 3. Pinehas 

4. losepos 30 4. Abisua 

5. Bokkias 30 5. Buld 



6. lothamos 30 

7. Maraiothos 30 

8. Arophaios 30 



6. TTsi 
1. Serahja 



30 1. (Jahath) 

30 2. Simma 

30 3. Joah 

30 4. Iddo 

30 5. Serah 

30 6. Jeathrai 

30 



8. Merajoth 30 



330 



9. Amai'ja 30 

9. Akitobos 30 ^q Ahitub 30 

10. Zadokos 30 11. Zadok 30 

300 330 



1. Korah 30 

2. Assir 30 

3. Elkana 30 

4. Ebjassaph 30 

5. Assir 30 

6. Thahath 30 

7. Uriel 30 

8. Usija 30 

9. Saul 30 
10. [Jonathan] 30 

300 



The practical result of which is, that all chronologers, by not perceiving the surplusage 
due to these absurd generations of 40 years, have assigned about 160-170 years too much 
between Solomon and Mose.s ; and erffo, the Exodus must descend from b. c. 1491, its date 
in the English version, to b. c. 1314-22, cir-ea. 

After studying the above Table, the reader may perhaps perceive with us several 
things not generally known : — 

1st. — That the whole of this Jewish chronology is unhistorical ; because it is not based 
upon positive records of the number of years each personage lived, but it was fabri- 
cated, long after their times, by semi-scientific, semi-literary, computators ; whose 
process was to assign impossible generations of 40 pears to their country's pre-historic 
heroes ; and then, having obtained a maximum-period in which the lives of such wor- 
thies were thereby inclosed, these modern computators (probably about the 3d cen- 
tury after c, when the Books were re-transcribed into the square-letter alphabet) 
apportioned to each hero, in the anew-manipulated Hebrew Text, those irrecou- 
cileable numerals that have come down to our time. 
2d. — That, whether the genealogical catalogues be right or not, the chronology is a later 
intercalation. 



HEBREW. 



711 



FROM ABRAHAM TO DAVID. 



N 

"Vm. IX. Datid's Parent- 

AssAPH's Parent- Ethan's Parent- age to Judah. 

age to Jahath. age to Mosi. Ruth iv. 18 ; 

1 Chron. Tii. 1 Giron. tU. 1 Chron. ii. 4^13 ; 

39-43. 4t47. Malth. i. 3-6; 

(=.11.) ImU iii. 32, 33. 



IV. V. 

Generations Generations 
Elkana-AMAS.u. Merari- 
1 Chron. Tii. 25- Maheu. 
28. ICliron.y'u. 

(=V1I.) 29, 30. 



Yi. vn. 

Heman's Parentage 
to Jezehak. to Amasai. 

1 Chron. vil. 1 Citron, vii. 

36-38. 33-36. 

(=111,) (=IV.) 



1. [LCTi] 


1. Leyi 


1. Levi 




1. [Levi] ■ 




1. Levi 




1. Levi 




1. Judah 




2. Elkana 


2. Merari 


2. Kahath 




2. Elkana 




2. Gersom 




2. Merari 








3. Amasai (and) 3. Maheu 


3. Jezehar 




3. Amasai 




3. (Jahath) 




3. Musi 




2. Perez 




1. Ahimoth 


30 1. Libni 


1. Korah 


30 


1. JVIahath 


30 


1. Simei 


30 


1. Maheli 


30 


1. Hezrom 


30 


2. Ellsana 


30 2. Simei 


2. [Assir] 


30 


2. Elkana 


30 


2. Sima 


30 


2. Samer 


30 


2. Ram 


30 


3. Elk.Zoph! 
•4. Nahath 


u30 3. ITsa, 
30 4. Simea 


3. [Elkana] 

4. Ebjassaph 


30 
30 


3. Zuph 

4. Thoah 

(Thohu) 


30 
J30 


3. Ethan 

4. Adaja 

5. Serah 


30 
30 
30 


3. Bani 

4. Amzi 


30 

30 


3. Aminadab 39 

4. Nahesson 30 


5. Eliab 


30 5. Hagija 


5. Assir 


39 


5. Eliel 


}30 


6. Ethni 


30 


5. Ililkia 


30 


5. Salma 


30 


6. Joram 


30 6. Asaja 


6. Thahath 


30 


(Elihu) 


7. Malchija 


30 


6. Amazia 


30 






7. Elkana 

8. Samnel 


30 

30 


7. Zeptianja 

8. Asarja 


30 
30 


6. Jeroham 

7. Elkana 

8. Samuel 


30 8. Baesaja 
30 9. Michael 
30 10. Simea 


30 
39 
30 


7. Hasabja 

8. Maluch 

9. Abdi 


30 
30 
30 


6. Boas 

7. Obed 


30 
30 


9. Vasni 


30 


9. Joel 


30 


9. Joel 


30 11. Berechja 


30 10. Kisi 


30 


8. Isai 


30 


10. 


30 


10. [Heman] 


30 10. Heman 


30 12. Aesaph 


30 11. Ethan 


30 


9. David 


30 




300 




300 




300 




360 




330 




270 



3(1. — That, as said before, there are no recorded dates in the Jewish Scriptures that are 
trustworthy ; that, it is we moderns who must make Hebrew chronology for the antique 
Jews — who, until Rabbi Hillel, had not thought of doing it themselves; — and that, 
in these restorations, we cease to tread upon historical ground so soon as we retrograde 
to Solomon's era, said to correspond to b. c. 1000. Beyond that cipher, Jewish chron- 
ology is all conjecture, within a few approximate limitations. 
Moses, or the Hebrews, being unmentioned upon Egyptian monuments of the 12th-17th 
centuries b. c, and never alluded to by any extant writer who lived prior to the Septuagint 
translation at Alexandria (commencing in the 3d century b. c), there are no extraneous 
aids, from sources alien to the Jewish books, through which any information, worthy of 
historical acceptance, can be gathered elsewhere about him or them. 

With these emphatic reservations, we are quite willing to consider Lepsius'S computa- 
tive synchronisms as not merely the most scientific but the only probable. His estimates 
place the Jewish Exodus in the reign of Pharaoh Menephthes, of the XlXth dynasty, about 
the year 1318 b. c. ; (557) or rather between the years 1314 and 1322 b. c. : if we have 
understood our authority correctly : (558) to which we add the following comparative view 



(557) Chronologie; p. 379, compared with pp. 335-337. 



(558) VideGuDDON: Band-hooh; 1849; p. 41. 



712 mankind's chronology. 

of daten for the Mosaic Exodus, as computed by Usher from the Hebrew Text, and generallv 
appended to the English translation authorized since the reign of king James, a. d. 1611 ; 
and by Hales from the Greek Sepiuagint version. The new synchronisms between Hebrew 
and Egyptian events, put forward by Lepsius, may assist the hierological student in authen- 
ticating monumental history through what are still called the established dates of Scripture. 
It will be remarked that, while Hales extends, Lepsius reduces the antiquity assigned to 
each Israelitish era by archbishop Usher. 

Biblical Syncheonisms. 

A. 11.1660. A. D. 1830. A. D. 1849. 

Usher. Hales. Lepsius. 

Epoch of Pharaonic Contemporaries. 

Abraham Amunoph III. (^emnom) b. c. 1920 2077 about ISOO 

Joseph Sbsi 1. (SeiJios) " 1706 1863 « 14G0 

Moses Eamses II. (Jewish oppresBion ■> ^^ (■1394 1328 

.Erod«s(B.c.l322?) Meneptha J ^^^ 11328—1309 

Jewish computation by "forties" ceases so soon as we ascend beyond Moses; who was 
40 years old when he fled from Egypt ; 40 years older when, after dwelling with Jethro, he 
returned to liberate his people ; and oldest hy 40 more years when he died at the age of 120 
— " but no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day."{pb'd) Vico supplies a formulary: 

I. — The indefinite nature of the human mind is the cause that man, plunged in ignorance, 
makes of himself the rule of the Universe. 

It is from this truth that are derived the two human tendencies'thus expressed : Fama 
crescit eundo et minuit prcesentia famam. Fame has travelled, since the world's Creation, a 
very long road ; and it is during the voyage that she has collected opinions so mngnificent, 
and so exaggerated, upon epochas which to us are but imperfectly known. This disposition 
of the human intellect is indicated to us by Tacitus, in his ' Life of Agricola,' where he 
tells us : — Omne ignotum pro magnifico est." (560) 

From Moses backwards to Abraham, post-Christian Jewish computation assumed 100 
years for each generation ; but every dozen MSS. of the Text or versions differ ; and the 
general principle followed seems to have been, to make generations the longer, in the ratio 
that the lifetime of a given hero was more and more distant from each Judaean writer's day. 
The model copied was a Grecian theogonic idea, because the Esdraic Jews proceeded by 
the four Hesiodic ages ; considering their own period to be the Iron ; the Davidic the Brazen ; 
the Mosaic the Silver ; and that from the Abrahamic to the Adamic, to have been the Golden 
age of Hebrew humanity. To Moses, in consequence, they assigned only 120 years of 
longevity ; but his worthier antecedents had their holier lives extended along a sliding scale 
of which the numbers 240, 480, and 960, are the simple arithmetical proportion: their 
divisor being "40." 

Here, then, we have finally arrived at the great fact ; which, in different or less out- 
spoken words, all the scientific authors we have quoted are at this day agreed upon : viz. : 
that the Jews knew not an atom more of " Humanity's Origins " than we do now ; and that as 
they really had no human historical ancestor before Abraham (whose epoch floats between 
Lepsius's parallel at 1500, and Hales's at 2077, b. c), there is no chronology, strictly so- 
called, in the Bible, anteriorly to the Mosaic age ; itself vague for one or more generations. 

This posited, we shall close further argument with a Table of Hebrew Origins ; conform- 
ably to the same principles upon which we have already tabulated the distinct histories of 
Egypt, China, and Assyria. Each of these nationalities possesses its historical, semi-histo- 
rical, and mythical times. And, inasmuch as it ' is conceded by every true historian 
that the Israelites (under the literary aspect in which they first present themselves to the 
gentile world), had been previously educated in Chaldcea ; it will be interesting to place the 
ante-diluvian "patriarchs" of the preceptors alongside those of the pupils. Berosus, 
Philo Byblius, Julius Africanus, Alexander Polyhistor, Eusebius, and the Syncellus, have 
preserved for us transcripts of the original Chaldsean catalogues : the whole texts of which 
are accessible in Cory's Ancient Fragments, or in Bunsen. (561) 

(559) Deut.sxxiv. 6. (560) Vioo : SciemaNuova;VJ20; "Elemento Imo." (561) EgypPs Place;!. ff.70i-719. 



HEBREW. 



713 



Mythological Pebiods. 

Symbolical Ante-Diluvian Patriarchs. 



Hebrmo-ChaMaan Decade. 



Fhcsnico-Chdldfean Decade. 



. years 


36,000 
10,800 
46,800 
43,200 
64,800 
36,000 
64,800 
36,000 
28,800 
64,800 

432,000 


ADaM 
SeTi 

ANoS7i 

KINaN 
MaHaLaLeL 

IRaD 

K/ieNUK 

MeTtUSeLaKft 

LaMeK 

NuKA 


Protogouos 1. 
Genos, Genea 2. 
Phos, pur, phlox 3. 
Cassios, Litanos 4. 
Memrounos, ousoos 5. 
Agrios, alieus 6. 
Chrusor, hephaistos, 

artifex, geinos 
Agros, agroueros 8. 
AmuDOs, magos 9. 
Misor (Sydyc, Saduc) 10. 


= First-born. 

= Genus, family. 

= Fire, light, tlame. 

= Cassias, Libanus(mott«i's). 

= Celsus, '-par coelo," wood. 

— Peasant, hunter, fisher. 


a 


ti 

(t 


_ f Vulcan, fire, artificer, 

I earth-worker. 
= Rustic, agiiculturist. 
= Warrior, magician. 
= Egypt, and the "just" 
l-ing, Melchisedek. 


ti 

Years 



Graco-Chaldccan Decade. 

1. Alorus 

2. Alaparus 

3. Almelon 

4. AmmenoD 

5. Amelegarus.... 

6. Daonus 

7. Edoranchus... 

8. Amempsinus.. 

9. Otiartes 

10. Xisuthrus 



CHALD^ANDELUGE. 

1st jVote. — The 36 Decans of the Zodiac, (552) multiplied by the 12 months of the year, give the mystic 
number 432. The " grand year " of Astronomy — or the time anciently supposed to be 
required for the sun, planets, and fixed stars, to return to the same celestial starting-point — 
was at first 25,000, then 36,000, and lastly 432,000 years; being the supposed duration of the 
ten GrjEco-Chaldfean generations. A Deluge terminated the cycle. (563) 

2d iVote. — The Phoinico-Chaldcean list, derived from Sanconiatho, presents us with the Greek translations, 
not with the real names of its lost Oriental original. The Phoenicians had originally crossed 
from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, and their intercourse with Chaldasa was inces- 
sant; while the two people spoke Semitic dialects. More saliently than the other two forms 
of the same theogony, this Phoenician stream exhibits the rationale of its " ex post facto " con- 
struction. According to it, we hare the stages oi family, hunter, fisherman, artizan, husband- 
man, soldier, priest, and Icing, through which antique humanity developed itself. A parallelism 
Beems to be preserved in the offshoots of the Adamic stem in Genesis, where Abel the wandering 
sitepherd is hateful to Cain the sedentary peasant. 

Chaldaic Ethnological Division — [contained in Xth Genesis.] 

Theoretical Post - Dihivian Commencements. 




KAaM. 
SwAHTHT races. 



Babylonish Theory foe Divebsity of Tongues. 

" City and Tower of B a B y L " - on = confusion = " B a B e L - babblings." 

Hebrew Geographical Origins. 

ARP7ia-KaSD = ORFA-the-CTiaicteom (District). 
SaLaKA = Salacha (City). 

ASBeR = the-yonderer (Tribe). 

PeLeG =: a..split (Earthquake ?). 

Earliest Legendary Ancestors. 

R8C. 
SeRUG. 
NaK7iTJR. 
KeRaKTi. 



(562) Lepbidb: ChromAogie; i. pp 66-76. 



(563) De Broionxe: op. cit.; pp. 234-246. 



714 mankind's chronology, 



Judaic Meta-Hisxokical Pekiod. 

" Thou shalt no more be called AB-RaM fFATHER of the HiGH-land = jlrawum)- 
Thy name shall be AB-RaHaM" (Father of a multitude). (561) 

AhrahamidoR. 

ITsKAaK = "laughter." 
laKoB, surnamed Israel. 
(12 Signs of the Zodiac, 12 Sms, 12 Tribes of Israel.) 
Levi. 
Kohath. 
Amram. 



Judaic Historical Peeiod. 

Moses — assumed epoch 14th century B. a 

[XuterTal between Exodus and the first Temple, about 314-322 years.] 

Solomon — (Chronological times begin) about B.C. 1000 

i^VsJ monumental synchronism, Behoboam and Sheshonk " 971-3 

lAlphahetic-writing does not begin untU the 9th-8th century B. c] 

HiLKiiH — " found a book of the Law " " 620 

Jerusalem huTnt, and Capfaw'iy commenced " 586 

Ezra — Second Temvh — "Vllth year of Artaxerxes " " 457 

Esdraic School — "Renaissance" begins " 400 

Alexander — Tisits Jerusalem " 332 

Alexandria School: 

Manetho — the earliest known cJironologist " 260 

Scptuagint translations commence " 250 

jLTiTiocBxn-Epiphanes — plunders Jerusalem, and bums the books " 164 

Daniel, the Satirist, wrote " 160 

Judas, the Hammerer — restores the books ; " 150 

JUaccalee coin-letters extant — Simeon " 142 

Septiiagint translations finished " 130 

SiRACiDES, Canon closes " 130 

(Roman dominion — B. c. 49.) 

Christian Era. 
Between b. c. 7 and A. d. 3 ; but assumed at 1853 years ago. 

Herod — decorates the Third Temple with pagan Hellenic architecture A.D. 15 

FaU of Jerusalem: 

Tnus razes the Temple to its foundations " 74 

JOSEPHUS — receives the Templar<a^y of the Hebrew Text, as a present team. Tespasian 

at Rome, about " 75 

(Earliest citation of " Gospels " — Justin Martyr, died about 166.) 
Controversies between the Fathers and the Habbis here commence. 
The Oriental Jews transcribe the Text into the square-letter alphabet, during the 3d 
century after c. 

HaxEL Han.\ssi — computes Jewish chronology. " 344 

The Masoretic points begun by Rabbis of Tiberias " 506 

Oldest Manuscrijits of Greek LXX extant, 5th century after c. 
Oldest Manuscripts of Hebrew Text extant, 10th century after 0. 
King James's English Version, printed a. D. 1611. 

(5C4) Genesis; xvii. 5 ; — Cahen : i. p. 42, note 6. 



HINDOO. 715 



CHRONOLOGY — HINDOO. 

" Originally this [Universe] was naught but Sool: nothing else existed active [or passive]. He 
had this thought — I will create worlds. It is thus that He created these [divers] worlds, the water, 
the light, the mortals, and the waters. This water is the [region] above the sky, (365) which the 
sky supports; the atmosphere contains the light; the earth is mortal; and the regions beneath 
are the waters." — (Vedas, " Aitareya A'ran'ya" — Pauthier : Ziv. Sac, p. 318.) 

Although, in our Table of Alphabetical origins, we have dealt as sternly with unhistorical 
Indian documents, as with the metaphysical fables of all other nations, it may be well to 
say a few passing words upon Hindoo chronologies ; lest it be supposed that we are not pre- 
pared to reagitate that which, to us, is do longer a "vexata quaestio." Referring the 
reader to the citations from Wilson, Tumour, and Sykes, therein adduced, we repeat, that 
there is no connected chronology, to be settled archasologically by existing monuments, 
throughout the whole Peninsula of Hindostan, of a date anterior to the fifth century b. c. 

That v.tst centre of creation swarmed with varied indigenous and exotic populations, 
from epochas coeval with the earliest historical nations ; but, if any of these Indian phi- 
losophers ever composed a rigidly-chronological list of events, we have lost the record ; or, 
•what is more probable, the chronological element was wanting in the organism of Hindoo 
minds, until the latter received instruction (from Chaldijean magi scattered by Darius) 
through the Persians ; — tuition greatly improved after contact with the Bactrian Greeks 
during the third century b. c. 

In any case, the extract subjoined will show that the antiquarian dreams of Sir W. Jones 
and of Colebrooke are now fleeting away. 

"Whether safe historic ground is to be found in India earlier than 1200 b. c, according 
to the chronicles of Kashmere [Radjiarangini, trad, par Troyer), is a question involved in 
obscurity : while Megasthenes (Indica, ed. Schwanbeck, 1846, p. 50) reckons for 153 kings 
of the dynasty of Magadha, from Manu to Kandragupta, from 60 to 64 centuries ; and the 
astronomer Aryababhatta places the beginning of his chronology 3102 b. c. (Lassen, Ind. 
AUerthumsk., bd. L, s. 473-505, 507, and 510)." 

From Humboldt (566) we pass on to Prichard; whose Hindoo prepossessions of 1819(567) 
have not only been nullified by Egyptian discoveries, but, with the learned ethnographer's 
usual candor, have become greatly modified by his own later reflections. (568) The inquirer 
can judge from the perusal of the passages referred to whether he can make out a fixed 
chronological idea, in India, prior to the age of Budha in the sixth century b. c. 

Lepsius (569) contents his objects (confined to a general review of the world's chronolo- 
gical elements) by mentioning, that the Hindoo astronomical cycle kali yuga falls on the 
18th Feb. 3102 b. c. ; that the Cashmeerian king Gonarda I. is supposed to have reigned 
about B. c. 2448 ; and that king Vikramaditya's era is fixed at b. c. 68. But he also 
shows that the 4th-5th centuries b. c. comprise all we can depend upon, archaeologically, 
in Hindoo history. 

However, by opening the excellent work of De Brotonne, (570) the reader will easily 
perceive how the Chaldaean astrological cycle of 432,000 years became extended by later 
Brahmanical pundits to one, equally fabulous, of 4,320,000 years : and inasmuch as this 
fact merely invalidates Sanscrit hallucinations the more, we are fain to leave Hindoo chro- 
nology in the same " slough ^f despond" in which we found it. 



Reader! — the task proposed to myself in the preparation of these three svpplemeniary 
Essays here ends. It was assumed under the following circumstances : — 

(565) This is the same cosmogony as that of CoSMAS-Inilicopleustes, herein-before described. Indeed, the notion 
was universal; and, in theography, is so still. 

(566) Cosmos; transl. Otte; 1850; ii. p. 115. 

(567) Analysis of Mythology. 

(568) Researches into the Physical History of Mankind ; 1844 : iv. pp. 98-139. 

(569) Chronologie ; i. pp. 4-5. 

(570) Filiations; i. pp. 238, 239, 414-433. 



716 mankind's chronologt. 

Within the past five years, various sectaries (momentarily suspending polemics amongst 
one another) had entered into a sort of tacit combination to assail those who, like Morton, 
Nott, Van Amringe, Agassiz, and others, were devoting themselves to anthropological 
researches. Each of the above-named gentlemen has successfully repelled the intrusions 
of dogmatism into his especial scientific domain. 

In these literary " mel6es," it has so happened that my surname has'been frequently 
made the target for indiscreet allusions on the part of certain ieologastri ; without any provo- 
cation having been given on my side, through a single personality, in the course of ten 
years' lectureship upon Oriental archaeology in the United States. To treat such in any 
other manner than with silent indifi^erence would have been unbecoming, as well as, at the 
moment of each ofi'ence, unavailing. I preferred abiding my own convenience ; and, in 
the foregoing Part III., have indicated an easy method of carrying " the war into Africa." 

I believe that, thereby, good service is done in the general cause of the advancement of 
knowledge, and in the special one of my favorite study. Archaeology. Geologists, Natural- 
ists, and Ethnologists (absorbed in the promotion of positive science through the discovery 
of new facts), have rarely devoted time adequate to the mastery of Hebraical literature ; 
and, in consequence, they are continually laying themselves open to chagrin and defeat in 
the arena of theological wrangling^. My former pursuits (in Muslim lands) were remote 
from Natural Science, and as they disqualify me from sharing the labors of its votaries, I 
have thought that a contribution like the present, to the biblical armory of scientific men, 
might be of utility ; even if it should merely spare them the trouble of ransacking for 
authorities generally beyond the circumference of their higher sphere of research : at the 
same time that a work such as "Types of Mankind" would be deficient unless the Hebrew 
department of its themes were to some extent complete. To future publication \_supra, 
pp. 626, 627], I reserve further analyses which, without these preliminary Essays, would be 
unintelligible to ordinary scriptural readers. Confident of her own strength. Archaeology 
(let one of this science's thousand followers hint to her opponents) neither courts nor depre- 
cates biblical or any other agitation, and will prosecute her investigations peaceably while 
she can, otherwise when she must. 

Repeating the direct and manly language of Luke Burke — to whose conception of a real 
"Ethnological Journal" scientific minds will some day accord the homage that is its due: — 

"For all our arguments, there is the ready answer that our statements directly contra- 
dict the express words of Scripture, and must therefore be false, however plausible they 
may appear. We may reply that the word of God cannot be in opposition to genuine his- 
tory, any more than it can oppose any other truth, and that therefore the passages in 
question cannot be a portion of this word, or if so, that they cannot have hitherto been 
properly understood. But experience has abundantly proved that such answers as these 
give satisfaction to very few, until facts have become so numerous and unequivocal that 
further opposition is madness. In the meantime, a war of opinion rages, embittered by 
all the virulence of sectarian partisanship, and the credulous and simple-minded are taught 
to look upon the advocates of the new doctrines as the enemies of morality, religion, and 
the best interests of man. For ourselves, we have no ambition to appear in any such 
light, nor shall we quietly submit to be placed in such a position." (571) 

And for myself — whilst thoroughly endorsing the sentiments of a valued friend and 
colleague — I cannot better express the feelings with which I close my individual portion 
of an undertaking that has occupied the thoughts and hands of some men not unknown 
in the world of science, than by applying to our antagonists the last words ever written by 
me at the dictation of him to whom, with being itself, I owe all that mind and heart still 
hold to be priceless after more than forty years' experience of a wanderer's life : — 

"Za medicina divenia amara. Spero che sard, salutifera. Intanio, si prendcrA." (572) 

G. R. G. 

(Howard's — MosaE Bay, 20th July, 1853.) 

(571) ''Critical Analysis of the Hebrew Chronology" — MJin, Jour.; London; No. I., June, 1848; pp. 9, 10. 

(572) John Gliddon, United States' Consul for Egypt (1832-44): Letter to H. Ex. BoGHOS Youssodf Baj — Mo- 
hammed Au's Prime Ilinister — " Cairo, li 5 Febbrajo, 1841." 



APPENDIX I. 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



Kb. (of Notes, <fe.) 

1 Ethnological Journal, London, 1848 ; June 

1, No. I. 

2 Op. cit., pp. 1, 2. An excellent precis of 

the meaning and scientific attributes of 
"Ethnology" has long been published 
by the venerable Jomard, in Mengin, 
Histoire d'Egypte, 1839, iii. p. 403. 

3 Nat. Hist, of Man, London, 1848. p. 6. 

4 Varieties of Man, London, 1851. 

5 North British Review, Aug., 1849. 

6 Op. cit., p. 6. 

7. Knox, Races of Man, Philadelphia ed., 
1850. 

8 Burke, op. cit., p. 30. 

9 Researches, v. p. 564. 

10 Jacquinot, Considerations generates sur 

r Anthropologic (Voyage au Pole Sud), 
Zoologie, 1846, ii. p. 36. 

11 Nott, Two Lectures on the Biblical and 

Physical Hist, of Man; New York, 

1849, p. 64. 

12 The Friend of Moses, New York, 1852; 

Preface viii, and Text, pp. 442, 446, 
449-51, 492-7. 

13 Briefe aus ^gypten und jEthiopien, Ber- 

lin, 1852, p. 35. 

14 Genesis, vii., 19-23. We quote the He- 

brew Text; referringthe reader to Cahen, 
La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, Paris, 
1831 ; Torn. i. p. 21. 

15 Cf. Jacquinot, op. cil., chap. i. From 

this remarkably scientific work we have 
borrowed freely in this chapter, and 
elsewhere. 

16 We ought to mention that Dr. Pickering 

favored us with the sight of his pages 
while they were yet in "proofs." 

17 Op. cit., pp. 161, 163. 

18 Op. cit., p. 41. 

19 Races of Men, pp. 75-99. 
J^20 Des Races Humaines, p. 169. 

21 Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850. 

22 Nott, Two Lectures, 1849. 

23 Researches, ii. p. 105. 

24 Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences ; Philadel- 

phia, 10 Sept., 1850. p. 82 — Additional 
Observations on Hybridiiy in Animals, 
" Reply to the Rev. John Bachman, 
D. D.," Charleston Medical Journal, 

1850, p. 8. 

25 Bodichon, ;fitudes sur I'Algerie, Alger, 

1847, p. 135. 

26 Jacquinot, op. cit., p. 173. 

27 Wood-cut, fig. 1. L'Egypte Ancienne, 

1840, PI. L, and Champollion-le-Jeune's 
description in pp. 29-31. 

28 Rosellini, Mon. dell'Egitto, M. R. clvii., 

clvi., Ix., &c. Mon. Sior., iv. pp. 238- 



No. (of Notes, dSc.) 

44 ; iii. pp. 1, 433, seq. Lepsius, Denk- 
maler, Abth. iii, Bl. 136. 

29 See the discussion in Bishop Warburton's 

Divine Legation of Moses ; and in 
Munk, Palestine, pp. 146-150. 

30 Hennell, Origin of Christianity, 1845, 

pp. 8-21. 

31 Amedee Thierry, Histoire des Gaulois, 

Paris, 1844. 

32 Strabo, lib. iv. p. 176— Fr. ed. 

33 Thierry, p. x.xxv., Introd. W. de Hum- 

boldt held the same opinion. 

34 Hist, de la Filiation et des Migrations d€S 

Peuples, Paris, 1837; i. pp. 294-336. 

35 British Association for the advancement 

of Science, 1850; reported in London 
Literary Gazette. 

36 Antiquites Celtiques Antediluviennes. 

37 Retzius, cited in Morton's MSS. 

38 Schinerling, Recherchessurles Ossemens 

Fossiles, Liege, 1833, i. pp. 59-66: re- 
ferred to in our Chapter XI. 

39 Vide infra. Part H., pp. 469, 470. 

40 Edwards, Des Caracteres Physiologiques 

des Races Humaines, &c., Paris, 1839. 

41 Op. cit., p. 22. 

42 Paulmier, Apergus genealogiques sur 

les descendants de Guillaume, Rev. 
Archeol., 1845, p. 794, seq. 

43 Virey, Hist. Nat. du Genre Humain, 

Disc. Prelim., i. pp. 14, 15. 

44 On the question of hair, consult the mi- 

croscopic experiments of Mr. Peter A. 
Browne, in Proceed. Academy Natural 
Sciences, Philadelphia, Jan. and Feb., 
1851 ; also Ibid., in Morton's Notes on 
Hybridity, second Letter to Editors 
" Charleston Med. Jour.," 1851, p. 6. 

"45 Wood-cut, fig. 2. Italie, Didot's Univera 
Pittoresque. 

46. August, 1849; American ed. 

47 Edwards, op. cit. 

48 Wood-cut, fig. 3. Pouqueville, Grece, 

PI. 9. 

49 Wood-cut, fig. 4. Op. cit., PI. 84. 

50 Wood-cut, fig. 5. Bunsen, iEgyptens 

Stelle, ii., frontispiece. 

51 Wood-cut, fig. 6. Pouqueville, op. cit., 

PI. 85. 

52 Wood-cut, fig, 7. Rosellini, M.R., PI. X.X., 

fig. 66. 

53 Wood-cut, fig. 8. Ibid., PI. xxii, fig. 82. 

N.B. The profiles are reduced with 
exactitude; but we have altered the 
eyes from the Egyptian canon of art to 
ours. 

54 Edwards, op. cit. Mr. Gliddon's two 

years' residence in various parts of 

(717) 



718 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



A'o. (of Notes, tic.) 

Greece led him, he tells me, to observe 
the same fact : particularly among the 
Speziotes ; whence also sprung Canaris, 
the bravest Greek Admiral of the Re- 
^ volution. — J. G. N. 

55 Etudes, pp. 153, seq. 

56 Wood-cut, fig. 9. Crania Mg. p. 54 ; from 

Rosellini, M.R.161 ; M. S. iv. 53, 62, 
250. Compare Wilkinson, Manners and 
Gust., i. pi. 62, fig. 2, a, fi ; and p. 367 ; 
with Osburn, Testimony, p. 137. 

57 Morton's inedited Letter to myself, "Phi- 

ladelphia, 23 Nov. 1842." — G. R. G. 

58 Layard, Babylon, 1853, pp. 144, 231. We 

attribute differences of physiognomy 
chiefly to the ethnographic inferiority of 
Assyrian artists. 

59 Phys. Hist. 1841, iii. pp. 24-5. 

60 Varieties of Man, 1851, pp. 551-2. 

61 De Brotonne, Filiations et Migrationes des 

Peuples, Paris, 1837. 

62 In order that we may not be suspected of 

considering Plato's ethical romance 
about the " Atalantic Isles" to be 
historical, we refer the reader to Martin, 
Etudes sur le Timee de Platon, cited 
hereinafter. 

63 The Archaeology and Pre-historic Annals 

of Scotland, Edinburgh. 1851 , pp. 700-1. 

64 Genesis xi. iil ; xii. 1, 2, 5 — Cahen, i. 

p. 31. 

65 Genesis xvii. 5 ; lb., p. 42. 

■ 66 Genesis xvii. 15; — Lanci, Paralipomeni, 
1845. Travellers have not only hunted 
for, but narrate how they have actually 
found the "double cave" they call 
Machphelah! (Vide report of Syro- 
Egypt. Soc, Nov. 8 — in London Athe- 
nteum, Nov. 19, 1853 ; p. 1391.) 

67 Genesis xxiv. 3,4; — Cahen, pp. 65-6. 

68 Genesis xli. 45; — Lanci, Paral., i. p. 26. 

69 Genesis xxxviii. 2. 

70 E.xodus ii. 19. 

71 Exodus ii. 21. 

72 Exodus xii. 38 ; — Cahen, Text, ii. p. 50. 

73 Leviticus xxiv. 10. 

74 1 Kings xi. 1, 2. 

75 Crania JEg., pi. xi. fig. 2 ; p. 47. 

76 Birch, Criteria, in Otia, p. 84. 

77 Layard, Babylon, p. 610. 

78 History of the Jews. 

79 The Asmonean, New York, 27 March, 

1850, contains a confirmatory article on 
the Jewsof Malabar, translated from the 
Parisian "Archives Iraelites." 

80 Missionary Researches, p. 308. 

81 Remarks on the Mats' Hafar Tomar, or 

" Book of the Letter," an Ethiopic 
Manuscript: Syro-Egypt. Soc, Lon- 
don, 1848. 

82 Encyclopasdia Britannica. 

83 Phys. Hist., 1844, iv. pp. 82, 83. 

84 Wood-cut, fig. 13 — Dubeux, Tartaric. 

85 Borrow, Gipsies in Spain. 

86 Lest our positions should be questioned, 

we refer to Prichard for Continental in- 
stances, to Wilson for the Pre-Celtic in 
Scotland and Scandinavia, to Logan, 
Crawfurd, and Earl, for those among 
islanders of the Indian Archipelago. 

87 Races of Men ; vol. ix. U. S. Exploring 

Expod., 1848, p. 305. 

88 Wood-cut, fig. 14 — Layard, Babylon, pp. 

152, 153. 



No. (of Notes, cC-c.) 

89 Wood-cut, fig. 15— op. cit., pp. 582-584. 

90 Wood-cut, fig 16— op. cit., p. 105. 

91 Wood-cut, fig. 17— op. cit.. p. 583. 

92 Wood-cut, fig. 18— op. cit.i p. 538. 

93 Wood-cut, fig. 19 — Wilkinson, Man. and 

Gust., i. p. 384, pi. 69, fig. 8. 

94 Lepsius, Auswahl, Leipsig, 1840, "Ca- 

non der Proportionen" ; — ibid., Briefe 
ausjEgypten, Berlin, 1852, pp. 105, 106 ; 
— and Birch, Gallery of Antiquities, Br. 
Museum, pi. 33, fig. 147. 

95 Rev. Archeol., 1844, p. 213, seq.; 1847, 

p. 296, seq. :*— Commentary on the Cu- 
neiform Inscrip., 1850, pp. 4-7. 

96 Wood-cut, fig. 20 — Botta, Mon. de Ninive, 

pi. 36. 

97 Wood-cut, fig. 21— ibid., pi. 68 bis. 

98 Polyhym., lx.xvii. ; Bonomi, Nineveh, pp. 

182, 301. 

99 Wood-cuts, figs. 22, 23 — Botta, op. cit., 

pi. 14. 

100 Wood-cut, fig. 24 — Lettres de M. Botta 

sur ses decouvertes a Khorsabad, J 845, 
pi. xxii., and p. 28. 

101 Essai de dechiffrement de I'Ecriture As- 

syrienne, 1845, pp. 22-25. 

102 De Longperier, Galerie Assyrienne, 1850, 

p. 16; and Nos. 1, 12, 27, 33. 

103 Gliddon, " Hist. Sketches of Egypt," No. 

5, New York Sun, Jan. 14, 1850. 

104 Wood-cut, fig. 25 — Botta, Mon. de Ni- 

nive, pi. 45. 

105 Wood-cut, fig. 26 — Layard, Monuments 

of Nineveh, folio pi. 42. 

106 Wood-cut, fig. 27 — Layard, Babylon, pp. 

1.50, 143-4. 

107 2 Kings xviii. ; Isaiah xxxvi. 

108 Wood-cut, fig. 28— Layard, Babylon, pp. 

617-9. 

109 2 Kings XV. 19-21. 

110 Wood-cut, fig. 29— Layard, op. cit., p.361. 

111 Vide infra. Part IIL, p. 714. 

112 Deuteron. xxiii. 8, 9; Cahen, v. p. 99. 

113 Egyptian Cartouches found at Nimroud, 

R. Soc. Lit., Jan. 1848, p. pp. 164-71 

114 Mr. Birch's translation — Private letter to 

G. R. G. 

115 Wood-cut, fig. 31 — Rosellini, M. R., pi. 

xii. fig. 46 ; — Conf. Bunsen, .lEgyptens 
Stelle, iii. p. 133. 

116 Bonomi, Nineveh and its Palaces, 1852, 

pp. 77, 78. 

117 Babylon, pp. 153-9, 280-2, 630-1. 

118 Egypt. Inscrip. inBibliotheque Nationale, 

1852, p. 17. 

119 Wood-cut, fig. 32 — Layard, Babylon, p. 

630: — Lepsius, Denkmiiler, Abth. iii. 
Bl. 88. 

120 Babylon, 623. 

121 Birch, Stat. Tablet of Karnac, 1846, pp. 

29, 37: — Gliddon, Otia ^Egyptiaca, p. 
103. 

122 Birch, in Layard's Babylon, p. 630: — or 

Lepsius, Auswahl, Taf. xn. line 21. 

123 Wood-cut, fig. 33— Rosellini, M. R., pi. i. 

fig. 2 : — Conferre Lepsius, Denkmaler, 
Abth. iii. Bl. i., at Berlin. Lepsius (Let- 
ters, pp. 278, 381) calls her Amunoph's 
"mother, Aahmes-nufre-Ari" — "Ame- 
nophis I. and the black Queen Aahmes- 
nefruari." That she is painted black, 
as well as red, no one disputes ; but did 
the Negro-black pigment ever accom- 
pany such osteological structure ? 

124 Crania jEgypt. p. 47. 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



719 



No. (of Xotes, c&.) 

125 Wood-cuts, figs. 34, 35 — Lepsius, Denk- 

miiler, Altes Reich, Dyn. IV., Grab 75, 
Abth. ii. Bl. 8, 10. 

126 Wood-cut, fig. 36 — Bunsen, op. cit. ii. 

Frontispiece. 

127 Wood-cut, fia;. 37 — Afrique Ancienne, 

Cartilage, Univ. Fittor., from a coin. 

128 Wood-cut, fig. 38 — idem. 

129 Wood-cut. fig. 39 — Roseliini, M. R. pi. 

157 ; M. S. iv. p. 237 :— Osburn, Egyptls 
Testimony, pp. 114-6, fig. 1. 

130 Wood-cut, fig. 40 — M. R. 151, M. S. iv. 

p. 82: — Wilkinson, Man. and Cust. i. 
pi. 69, fig. 7: — Birch, Stat. Tablet, 
p. 34. 

131 Wood-cut, fig.41— M. R. 161, fig. 1 ; 159, 

fig. 3; M. S. iv. p. 120:— Morton, pi. 
xiv. fig. 20, p. 48. 

132 Rawlinson, Persian Cuneiform Inscrip. of 

Behislun, 1847, p. 270. 

133 Wood-cut, fig. 43 — Vau.\, Nineveh and 

Fersepolis, 1851, pp. 3,50-1. 

134 Letroime, Civilisation Egyptienne, 1845, 

pp. 30-43. 

135 Rawlinson, op. cit. p. .xxviii. 

136 Wood-cut, fig. 44 — Coste et Flandin, 

Perse Ancienne, pi. 18. 

137 Rawlinson, op. cit. p. 323. 

138 Wood-cut, fig. 45 — Perse Ancienne, pi. 

154. 

139 De Sacy, Antiquiles de la Perse, et me- 

dailles des rois Sassanides, Paris, 1793 ; 
pp. 12, 64 ; A, No. 3 — recopied in Perse 
Ancienne. 

140 Woodcut, fig. 46 — Perse Ancienne, pi. 

185 

141 Perse Ancienne, pi. 49, bas-relief A. 

142 Woodcut, fig. 47 — Perse Ancienne, pi. 51, 

bas-relief D. 

143 Layard, Monuments of Nineveh, 1849, 

folio plate ; Nineveh and its Remains, 
ii. pp. 329-31 : — well described by Bo- 
nonii, op. cit. pp. 287-95. 

144 Wood-cut, fig. 50 — Roseliini, M. R. pi. 

103, and 87 ; M. S. iii. part 2, p. 1.57:— 
Morton, Crania .jEgypt. p. 63. 

145 Pauthier, Chine, pp. 417. 427, 429. Ac- 

cording to Gallery and Yvan (L'lnsur- 
rection en Chine, depuis son origine 
jusqu'a la prise de Nankin, Paris, 
1853) the present Chinese insurgents let 
all their hair grow, as their ancestry did 
under the Mings, to distinguish them- 
selves from the Tartar usurpers. 

146 Lepsius, Chronologie, i. p. 379. Ibid., 

Discoveries, transl. Mackenzie, p. 381. 

147 De Sola, Lindenthal, and Raphall ; New 

Transl. of the Scriptures, London, pp. 
46-7 : — Genesis xi. 10-26. 

148 Monumenti Storici, ii. p. 461, seq. 

149 Apochrypha. xiv. 17. 

150 Wood-cuts. figs. 44 to 71— Roseliini, Mon- 

umenti Reali, pi. i. to xxiii. ; and Mon. 
Storici, ii., " Iconografia de' Faraoni." 
Our selections are arranged in accord- 
ance with the more recent improvements 
of Egyptian chronology. 

151 Prisse, Suite des Monumens de Cham- 

pollion, 1848, pi. x. : — but compare 
Lepsius. Denkmaler, Abth. iii. Bl. 100. 
Ibid., ^gyptischen Gotterkreis, 1851, 
pp. 40-5. Ibid., Briefe aus jEgypten, 
!852, pp. 89, 362. 

152 Morton, Cr. JEg. p. 44, pi. xiv. 3; from 

Roseliini. 



JVb. (of JVotes, <fc.) 

153 Colossus at Aboosimbel ; M. R. pi. vi. fig. 

22. 

154 Chron. der jEgypter, i. pp. 321-2, 358, 

379. 

155 Notes upon an Inscription in the Biblio- 

theque Nationale of Paris, Trans. R. 
Soc. Lit. 1852, iv. pp. 16, 17, 21. 

156 Gliddon, Chapters, p. 22; and Otia, p. 

134. 

157 Wood-cuts, fig. 71, bis— Roseliini, M. R. 

pi. 79. 

158 Ibid., M. R. pi. clx. Ixxx. ; M. S. iii. pp. 2, 

95, seq. ; iv. pp. 245-9 : — Morton, Cr. 
JEg. p. 55 : — Osburn, Test., p. 121 : — 
Birch, Tabl. of Karnac, pp. 14, 15-35. 

159 Morton's inedited MSS. — Letter to Mr. 

Gliddon, entitled, " Reflections'on Mr. 
G.'s Ethnological Charts," 1842 ; cor- 
rected by Dr. Morton's autographic 
notes, Philadelphia, 23d March, 1843. 
We shall refer to it as " Morton's MS. 
Letter." 

160 Wood-cut, fig. 74— Roseliini, M. R. civi. 

and Ix ; M. S. iii. pp. 1, 433, seq. ; iv. 
pp. 228-44 : — Lenormant, Cours d'His- 
toire Ancienne, 1838, pp. 322-36: — 
Champollion-le-Jeune,Lettr. d'Egypje, 
p. 250, seq. : — Champollion-Figeac, Eg. 
Anc. pp. 29-31, pi. i. ; — Wilkinson, 
Topog. Thebes, 1835, pp. 106-7: — 
Man. and Cust. i. pp. 364, 371, pi. 62, 
No. 4, fig. a : — Mod. Egypt, ii. p. 105 : 

— Osburn, 1'estimony, pp. 22-7, 114, 
143 :— Birch, Slat. Tab. Kar. p. 20. 

161 Wood-cut, fig. 75 — Lepsius, Denkmaler, 

Abth. iii. Bl. 136, fig. 37 a. 

162 Woodcut, fig. 76 — Roseliini, M. R. clxi. 

fig. 1 ; clix. fig. 3; M. S. iv. p. 150: — 
Morton, Cr. JEg. p. 48, pi. xiv. 20. 

163 Denkmaler, Abth. iii. Bl. 136, fig. d. 

164 Woodcut, fig. 78 — Roseliini, M. R. clxi; 

M. S. iv. pp. 91, 251 :— De Saulcy, Re- 
cherches, Inscrip. de Van, 1848, p. 26. 

165 Wood-cut, fig. 80— Roseliini, M. R. Ixix. ; 

M.S. iii. part. 2, p. 29: — Birch, Gal- 
lery, pp. 93, 97, pi. 38:— Morton, p. 46, 
pi. xiv. 24. It is moulded in colors at the 
British Museum. 

166 Wood-cut, fig. 81 — M. R. cli. ; M. S. iv. 

p. 82, seq. : — Wilkinson, M. and C. i. 
p. 384, pi. 69, fig. 7 ; — Osburn, p. 53 ; 

— Birch, Stat. Tab. p. 34. 

167 Wood-cut, fig. 82— Roseliini, M. R. clix. : 

— Champollion-Figeac, pp. 208-9, pi. 
62: — Hoskins, Ethiopia, p. 329, pi. i. 
ii. : — Morton, p. 41, pi. xiv. 22; — 
Wilkinson, M. and C. i. pi. iv. p. 379: 
—Birch, Gallery, p. 80 ; and Stat. Tab. 
p. 61 : — Prisse, Salle des Ancetres, Rev. 
Archeol. 1845, p. 11, and note. N. B. 
After this page was stereotyped, we 
received Mr. Birch's freshest paper (An- 
nals of Thotmes III., 1853) wherein he 
assigns these KeFa to the Island of 
Cyprus. Vide infra, pp. 479-480, voce 
"KTtlM." 

168 Wood-cut, fig. 83— Roseliini, M. R. clix; 

M. S. iii. p. 435 ; iv. p. 234 : —Birch, 
Gallery, pp. 88-9, 97, pi. 38: — Stat. 
Tab. pp. 13-14. 

169 Woodcuts, figs. 84, 85 — Roseliini, M. C. 

xxii. : — Wilkinson, i. pi. iv. : — Cham- 
pollion-Figeac, pp. 376-8: — Morion, 
p. 50; pi. xiv. 21 : — Osburn, Testimony, 
p. 52: — Hoskins, Ethiopia, plates, part 



720 



EEFEKENCES AND NOTES, 



No. (of Notes, (£c.) 

iii. first line, p. 332 :— Birch, Stat. Tab., 
pp. 18-9 : — Pickering, Races, p. 372 ; 
also, Geog. Distribution, 1854. 

170 References as above. 

171 Wood-cut, fig. 86— Kosellini, M. C.,xlix; 

M. C, ii. pp. 254-70: — Wilkinson, M. 
and C ii. p. 99: —Mod. Egypt, 1843, 
ii. p. 237: — Osburn, Antiquities, Relig. 
Tract Soc, 1841, pp. 220-1 : —Keith, 
Demonstrations of Christianity: — Tay- 
lor, Illustrations of the Bible, 1838, pp. 
79-84 :— Kitto, Cyclopaedia, i. pp. 353-4: 
— Morton, Cr. Ag., p. 47 : — Lepsius, 
Denkmaler, Abth. iii. Bl. 40 : compare 
ibid., Dyn. IV., Grab I., Abth. ii. Bl. 96 
for " chin sprouts." 

172 See references under Nos. 144, 145. 

173 Wood-cut, fig. 88— Rosellini, M.R., Ixiii.; 

M. S., iii. part ii. p. 12:— Morton, p. 48, 
pi. xiv. 19. 

174 Wood-cut, fig. 89— Rosellini, M.R., clvii.; 

M. S., iv. p. 237; — Osburn, Test., pp. 
114-6, plate, fig. 1. 

175 Wood-cut, fig. 90 — Lepsius, Denkmaler, 

Abth. iii. Bl. 116, fig. a. 

176 Wood-cut, fig. 91 — Rosellini, M. R., 

Ixxxiii; M. S., iii. part ii. p. 103: — 
Champollion-Figeac, pi. 79: — Morton's 
MS. letter. 

177 Wood-cut, fig. 92 — Rosellini, M. R., 

cxlxxx. fig. 7 ; M. S., iv. pp. 91-4. 

178 Wood-cut, fig. 93 — Rosellini, clviii ; M. 

S., pp. 234, 239:— Birch, Gallery, pp. 
89, 104:— Osburn, p. 27 :— Morion, p. 
46, pi. xiv. 23 : — Layard, Babylon, pp. 
142, 146, 628. 

179 Lepsius, Denkmaler, Dyn. XIX. a, Abth. 

iii. Bl. 136; compared with Rosellini, M. 
R., pi. civ. ; M. S., iv. pt. i. pp. 228-43. 
In common with Morton we were always 
at a loss to account for the presence of 
two white races in Rosellini's copy of 
this tableau. It turns out that an error of 
coloring on the part of the Tuscan artists 
was the unique cause of such perplexi- 
ties ; because they have tinted this figure 
light flesh-color, instead of tawny yellow. 

180 Wood-cuts, figs. 97, 98— Rosellini, M. R., 

Ixvii. ; M. S., iii. part ii. p. 126 : — Birch, 
Gallery, p. 99, pi. 38 : — Osburn, pp. 
77, 124. 

181 Wood-cuts, figs. 99, 100— Rosellini, M. 

R., clx. ; M. S., iv. p. 235 : — Cham- 
pollion-Figeac, pp. 30-1, pi. i. fig. 4: — 
Osburn, pp. 114, 142-3. 

182 Wood-cut, fig. 101 — Rosellini, M. R., 

cxiiii. fig. 9. 

183 Wood-cut, fig. 102 — Rosellini, M. R., 

cxiiii. fig. 5. 

184 Wood-cut, fig. 103 — Rosellini, M. R., 

cxiiii. fig. 10. 

185 Wood-cut, fig. 104 — Rosellini, M. B., 

cxiiii. fig. 3. 

186 Wood-cut, fig. 105 — Rosellini, M. R., 

cxiiii. fig. 8. 

187 Wood-cut, fig. 106 — Rosellini, M. R., 

Ixv. ; and Morton, p. 47. Compare with 
these heads, and with that one in M.R., 
cxiiii. fig. 11 ; M. S., iv. p. 96 (also Wil- 
kinson, M. and C, i. pp. 370-1 ; pi. 62, 
fig. 3, a, b, c :) what Layard (Babylon, 
p. 355) has written about the Shairetana 
of hieroglyphics contrasted with the 
Sharulinian in the cuneiform sculptures. 

188 Researches, ii., chap, x;, xi., pp. 193-205. 



No. (of Notes, <fe.) 

189 Ibid., op. cit., p. 220. How is it possible 

that Dr. Prichard, in 1837, could have 
known nothing of the triumphant mis- 
sions of France and Tuscany to Egypt 
of 1828-30 — when all Europe rang with 
applause ? 

190 Appendix to first edition to the Natural 

History of Man, London, 1845, pp. 570* 
583 ; quoted in Dr. Patterson's Memoir 
• of Morton, ubi supra. 

191 Sopra i Popoli Stranieri introdotti nelle 

Kappresentanze Storiche de'Monumenti 
Egiziani — Annali dell' Instit. di Corr. 
Archeol., Roma, 1836, pp. 333-50. 

192 ifegyple Pharaonique, Paris, 1846, ii. pp. 

352-4. 

193 Prisse, Trans. R. Soc. Lit., 1841 :— Glid- 

don. Appeal to the Antiquaries, London, 
1841, p. 53:— Wilkinson, Materia Hie- 
roglyphica, 1824, part ii. pi. 2 ; and Text, 
p. 118;— Top. of Thebes, 1835, p. 420, 
&c.:— Mod. Eg., 1843, ii. pp. 223-G :— 
Hand-book, 1857, pp. 306-7, 392-3 : — 
Leemans, Lettre a M. Salvolini, 1840, 
pp. 149-51: — L'Hote, Lettres, 1840, 
pp. 27, 93, 99, 131, 185, 198: — Perring, 
Trans. R. Soc. Lit. ; followed by Mor- 
ton, Cr. JEg., p. 54: — Hincks, On the 
Egyptian Stele, 1842, pp. 1, 18-9 ; Age 
of the XVIIIth Dynasty, 1843, p. 5 :— 
Bunsen, .ffigyptens Stelle, iii. p. 58. 
The Revue Archeologique contains the 
following — 1845, Prisse, Legendes Roy- 
ales, pp. 457-74 ; Lettre a M. Cham- 
pollion-Figeac, p. 730; 1847, Antiquites 
ifegyptiennes, pp. 693-723: — Leemans, 
Lettre a M. Witte, pp. 531-41 :— 1849, 
De Rouge, Lettre a M. A. Maury, pp. 
120-3 ;— 1851, Maury, Dynasties Egyp- 
tiennes, pp. 180-2: — Rosellini, Car- 
touches, Nos. 69, 69 bis : — For. Quart. 
Review, "Egyptian Hieroglyphics," 
Jan. 1842, p. 157 : — Pauthier, Sinico- 
-^gyP'-' 1842, Frontispiece : — Prisse, 
Suite des Monumens, 1847, Preface : — 
Birch, Tablet of Ramses II.. p. 24 : — 
Ampere, Recherches, Rev. des Deux 
Mondes, 1846-7: — Lepsius, jEgypti- 
schen Gotterkreis, 1851, pp. 37-46 : — 
Briefe, 1852, p. 368 : — Denkmaler, iii. 
111. 

194 Denkmaler, Abth. iii. Bl. 111. Even Lep- 

sius's copies slightly differ among them- 
selves — compare Bl. 99 with 100, 103, 
and 109. 

195 Crania iEgyptiaca, p. 54— from Perring's 

paper in Trans. R. Soc. Lit., London, 

1843, i. p. 140. 

196 Letters, transl. Mackenzie, p. 297. Conf. 

Denkmaler, Abth. iii. Bl. 113. 

197 Rosellini, M. R., xv. fig. 63. 

198 Lepsius, Auswahl; and Wilkinson's Tu- 

rin Papyrus. 

199 Wood-cut, fig. 110— Dyn. XII., Abth. ii. 

Bl. 141. 

200 Wood-cut, fig. 108 — Rosellini, M. R., 

xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. ; M. S., i. p. 189 ; iii. 
p. 48, seq. ; M. C, i. p. 56 : — Denk- 
maler, Altes Reich, Dyn. XIL, Abth. 
ii. Bl. 31. 

201 Stat. Tab. Karnac, p. 5. 

202 Hist. Tab. of Ramses IL, p. 28. 

203 Letter to M. Humboldt, "Korusko, Nov. 

20, 1843," London Athenaeum, 2 March, 

1844. Compare Briefe, 1852, p. 97-100. 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



721 



Ko. (of Notes, dc.) 

204 Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopia, and the 

Peninsula of Sinai,, in the years 1842- 
1845 ; London, 1852, pp. 108-10. 

205 Denkmaler, Abth. ii. Bl. 123-33. 

206 Geognostische Karte von .S;gypten,Wien, 

1842. 

207 Wood-cut, fig. Ill— Abth. ii. Bl. 107, 

Grab 2. 

208 Wood-cut, fig. 112 — Abth. ii. Bl. 109, 

Grab 2. 

209 and 210 Wood-cuts, figs. 113, 114— Abth. 

ii. Bl. 73, Grab 26. 
211 and 212 Wood-cuts, figs. 115, 116— Abth. 
ii. Bl. 10, " Pyr. v. Giseh," Grab 78. 

213 Wood-cut, fig. 117— Abth. ii. Bl. 8, "Pyr. 

v. Giseh," Grab 75. 

214 Woodcut, fi^. 118 — Abth. ii. Bl. 20, 22, 

" Pyr. V. Giseh," Grab 24; Briefe, pp. 
36-8. 

215 Wood-cut, fig. 119— Abth. ii. B1.2, "Wa- 

di Maghara." 

216 Abth. ii. Bl. 39/; and Briefe, p. 336. 

217 Researches, ii. p. 44. Where not referred 

to others, our citations are also taken 
from Prichard. 

218 Beke, Journal. R. Geog. Soc, xvii. ; and 

inGliddon, Hand-book, 1849, pp. 26-33. 

219 Ritter, Geog., transl. Buret, 1836, i. ; and 

Jomard, Notes pour un Voyage dans 
I'AfriqueCentrale, 1849, pp. 19-20. 

220 This fact is established by D'Eichthal 

(Hist, et Origine des Foulahs), by Hodg- 
son (Notes on the Sahara and Soudan), 
by Perron (Transl. of Voyage du Cheykh 
Mohammed- el- Tounsy), by Jomard 
(Observations sur leVoyage au Darfour, 
&c.), and by Ritter, i. pp. 432-7. 

221 Gliddon, Hand-book, p. 35. 

222 Beke, Sections, in Map of Journey ; Jour. 

R. Geog. Soc, xvii. 

223 See all authorities in D'Eichthal. 

224 Researches, ii. p. 97. 

225 Op. cit., ii. p. 343. 

226 Op. cit. 

227 Prichard, ii. p. 129 : — Beke, Jour. R. 

Geog. Soc. 

228 Op. cit., ii. p. 132 :— Harris, Highlands of 

Ethiopia, 1843 : — Fresnel, Mem. sur le 
Waday, 1848: — Beke, Essay on the 
Sources of the Nile, J 848 : — Origin of 
the Galias, 1848: — Observations sur la 
communication supposee enire le Niger 
et le Nil, 1850: — Jomard, Sur la pente 
du Nil Superieur, 1848. 

229 Beke; and Newman; Trans. Philological 

Soc, London, 1843-5, i. and ii. 

230 Larrey, Notice sur la conformation phy^- 

sique des ilgyptiens ; Descrip. de I'E- 
gypte, ii. 

231 Essai sur les Moeurs des habitants mo- 

deriiesde I'Egypte — id.,ii. part 2, p. 361. 
242 Prisse, Oriental Album, Madden, Lon- 
don, 1846, pi. 28, 29:— Pickering, Races, 
pi. xii. pp. 221-4. 

233 Cherubini, Nubie, pp. 50, 51. 

234 Gliddon, "Excursus on the Berbers," 

Otia, pp. 117-46. 

235 "Et-TuUak b'-et tellateh," or "triple 

divorce."— G. R. G. 

236 Cr. JEg., pp. 58-9: Giiddon, Otia, p. 119. 

237 Tablet of Ramses II., 1852, p. 21. 

238 Prichard, ii. p. 135. 

239 Travels in Nubia, p. 439. 

240 2 Chron. xii. 3. 

241 Wiseman, Lectures, p. 136. 

91 



A'b. (of Notes, rfc.) 

242 Nott, Unity of the Human Race (Reply 

to "C."), Southern Quart. Rev., Jan. 
1846, p. 24. 

243 Champollion,L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, 

1814, i. p. 255—" Coptic MS." :— Wil- 
kinson, Mod. Eg. and Thebes, 1843, ii. 
p. 312 — " Inscription of King Silco." 

244 Tribus des Ababdeh et des Bicharis, Ma- 

gazin Pittoresque, Paris, Nov. 1845, 
pp. 371-3. 

245 Gliddon, Otia, pp. 134-5. 

246 Compare Briefe aus jEgypten, pp. 220, 

251, 263. 

247 Griiberg de Hemso, Specchio geografico 

e statistico dell' Impero di Marocco, 
Genova, 1834, pp. 251-6. 

248 Notes on Northern Africa, the Sahara, 

and Soudan, New York, 1844, pp. 22- 
32: — also, Daumas, " Les Tuareg du 
Saharah," Revue d' Orient, Paris, Fev. 
1846, pp. 168-171. 

250 A Series of Chapters on Early Egyptian 

History, Archaeology, and other subjects 
connected with Hieroglyphical Litera- 
ture ; New York, 1843, p. 58. Conf. 
Jomard, ]fitudes sur I'Arabie, in Men- 
gin's Hist. d'Egypte sous Mohammed 
Ali; vol. iii., Paris, 1839: — Champol- 
lion-Figeac, Egypte Ancienne, Paris, 
1840, pp. 28,, 34, 417: — ChampoUion, 
Grammaire Egyptienne, p. xix. 

251 Burke's Ethnological Jour., London, 1848, 

pp. 367, 368 ; and Otia jEgyptiaca, 1849, 
pp. 77-79. 

252 Pettigrew, Encyc. jEgyp., 1841, pp. 2, 3. 

253 Filiations, &c., 1837, i. pp. 210-17. 

254 Asie Moyenne, 1839, i. p. 155. 

255 Voyage en Syrie, i. p. 75. 

256 Reflexions sur r Origine, &c., des Anciens 

Peuples, 1747, pp. 303, 383. 

257 Herodotus, lib. ii. § 105. 

258 Trans. R. Soc. Lit., iii. part i. ; 1836, pp. 

345-6. 

259 Gen. xlii. 23, 30, 33. 

260 Deut. xxiii. 7, 8. 

261 Gen. xii. 50-2. 

262 Crania jEgyp,, pp. 28-9: —Young, Dis- 

coveries in Hieroglyphical Literature, 
1823, p. 63, &c.: — ChampoUion-Figeac, 
Contrat de Ptolemais, p. 43 : — and 
John Pickering, Egyptian Jurispru- 
dence, Boston, 1840, p. 313. 

263 Wood-cuts, figs. 121, 122— ChampoUion, 

Monumens, ii. pi. 160, fig. 3. 

264 Wood-cut, fig. 123— Rosellini, M. C, pi. 

133, fig. 3. 

265 W^ood-cut, fig. 125 — Hoskins, Ethiopia, 

pi. xi. 

266 Cailiiaud, Meroe, pis. xvi-xx. 

267 Wood-cut, fig. 126 — Rosellini, M. C, 

pi. 133. 

268 Champollion-Figeac, Egypte Anc, p. 356. 

269 Wood-cul, fig. 128— 'Roselhni, M. C, 

pi. 97. 

270 Wood-cuts, figs. 129, 130, 131, 132— ibid., 

M. C, 126. 

271 Wood-cut, fig. 133— ibid., M. C, pi. 37. 

272 Wood-cut, fig. 134— ibid., vol. i. pi. 4. 

273 Wood-cut, fig. 135— ibid., M. C, pi. 86. 

274 Wood-cut, fig. 136— ibid., M. C, pi. 41. 

275 Wood-cut, fig. 137— ibid., M. C, pi. 29. 

276 Wood-cuts, figs. 138, 139 — ibid., M. C, 

pi. 132. 

277 Morton, p. 37: — Trans. R. Soc. Lit., 

1794, pi. 16, fig. 4:— Gliddon,Chs., p. 23. 



722 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



iVo. (of Notes, £&.) 

278 Rosellini, M. S., parte Ima, ii. 1833, pp- 

476-521 ; Portraits, M. R., pi. i.-vii. 

279 Vide infra, p. 688, "Chronology." 

280 These drawings were our "stamps" ; li- 

thographed, infra, pis. i.-iv. 

281 Humboldt, Cosmos, French ed. 1846, i. pp. 

430, 579 : on which see Dr. Patterson's 
commentary, supra, " Memoir." The 
heretical author of Vestiges of Creation 
(first Amer. ed., New York, 1845, pp. 
209-242), however inaccurate in other 
theories — and the very orthodox Guyot 
(Earth and Man, Boston, 1851, p. 253, 
seq.), however exact in other data — 
owing to similar philanthropic senti- 
mentalities, also break down when they 
discuss the Natural History of mankind. 

282 Vansleb, in Quatremere, Recherches sur 

la langue Copte. 

283 Mpnetho, apud Syncell. Chron., p. 40 :— 

Lepsius, " Lettre a M. le Prof. Hippo- 
lyte Rosellini," Annali dell' Institute di 
CorrispondenzaArcheologica, Roma, ix. 
1837, p. 18. 

284 Kenrick, Ancient Egypt under Pharaohs, 

London, 1850, i. p. 99. 

285 Op. cit., pp. 107-8. 

286 Op. cit., p. 131. 

287 Wood-cut, fig. 152— Rosellini, M.R., 155; 

M. S., iv. pp. 230, 241-2: — Osburn, 
Testimony, pp. 23-4. 

288 Lepsius, Denkmaler, Abth. ii. Bl. 19. 

289 Rosellini, M. R., 101, and 87. 

290 Wilkinson, Man. and Cus, ., i. p. 285 ; iii. 

pp. 141, 346 : — Henry, Egypte Pharao- 
nique, ii. pp. 274-89 : — Birch, Lettre a 
Letronne, Rev. Archeol. ; and De Saul- 
cy. Note, Rev. Archeol., 1847, p. 430. 

291 Testimony, pp. 23-4. 

292 Wood-cut, fig. 156— Resell., M. R., pi. 96. 

293 Wood-cut, fig. 157— ibid., M. C, pi. 13. 

294 Wood-cut, fig. 158— ibid. 

295 Wood-cuts, figs. 159,160— Morton's MSS. 

for 2d ed. of Cr. ^gyp. 

296 Wood-cut, fig. 161— ibid. 

297 Ampere, Revue des Deux Mondes, Aug. 

1846, p. 391. 

298 Gliddon, Hand-book, pp. 20—22. 

299 Denkm., Dyn. IV.- VL, Tombs at Berlin. 

300 Crania jEgyptiaca, pp. 26, 27. 

301 I was present in Dr. M's office when he 

opened it ; and so vivid is my remem- 
brance of the conversation its joint pe- 
rusal superinduced, that, although I had 
never seen the letter from 1844 to this 
Sept. 1853, I sought for and found it 
among my deceased friend's papers. — 
G. R. G. 

302 Pickering, Races of Men, 1848, p. 10. 

303 Grammaire Egyptienne, Introd., p. xix. 

304 Cosmos, ii. p. 147, French ed. 

305 Jerem. xiii. 23 : — Morton's notes for 2d ed. 

Crania Mg.; but vide infra, pp. 487-8. 

306 Institutiones adFundamenta Linguae Ara- 

bicae, Lipsias, 1818, pp. 38-9. 

307 Dubois, Voyage autour du Caucase, &c. ; 

cited hereinafter. 

308 Wood-cut, fig. 166 — Rosellini, M. R., 

142; M. S., iv. p. 292. 

309 Wood-cut, fig. J67— Nubie, p. 8:— Ros., 

M. R., 85 ; M. S., iii. part ii. p. 114 : — 
Osburn, Testimony, p. 32: — Champol- 
lion. Monuments, pi. xvi. 

310 Wood-cuts, figs. 168-170— Rosellini, M. 

R., pi. Ixxxv. 



No. (of Notes, dc.) 

311 Birch, Gallery, pp. 68, 86, 104:— Gliddon, 

Otia, p. 119. 

312 Madden's Oriental Album, pi. 25 ; "Nii 

bian Females, Kenoosee Tribe, Philae." 

313 Wood-cut, fig. 171 — Rosellini, M. R., 

156, 160; M. S., iv. pp. 231, 250. 

314 Wood-cut, fig. 172— Rosellini, M. R., 60; 

M. S., iii. part i. p. 407. 

315 Wood-cut, fig. 173 — Wilkinson, Man. and 

Oust., p. 404, No. 73. 

316 Otia, pp. 147-8. 

317 Nott, Bibl. and Phys. Hist., pp. 138-146 : 

— Gliddon, Otia, p. 147. James Cam, 
1480, was the first who sailed along 
Africa to a little beyondthe river Congo. 
Hottentot tribes were altogether un- 
known until after the voyage of Bar- 
tholomew Diaz in a.d. 1486 (Church- 
ill's Collection of Voyages). 

318 Anthon, Class. Diet., voce "Hanno." We 

have re-examined Heeren (Reflections 
on the Ancient Nations of Africa, i., 
chaps, ii., v., vi. — particularly pp. 214- 
241), and can find nothing but hypotheses 
to support Carthaginian possession of 
Negro slaves. The account of Hanno's 
voyage, &c., is given (op. cit., pp. 492- 
501). 

319 L' Armenia, la Perse, et la Mesopotamie, 

Paris, folio, 1842, pi. 113: — compare 
pi. 126. 

320 Botta et Flandin, Mon. de Ninive, folio, 

1847-50, pi. 88. 

321 Virgile,Moretum, "The Salad," Nisard's 

ed., Paris, 1843, p. 463. 

322 Wood-cuts, figs. 177, 178— Rosellini, M. 

R., xliv. bis, quater. 
343 Abth. iii. Bl. 120. 

324 Archaeologia, xxxiv. pp. 18-22. 

325 Compare Gliddon's assertions of the same 

fact in 1843, Chapters, pp. 47, 59 ; in 
1849, Otia, pp. 78-81 ; and Hand-book, 
p. 35. 

326 Hist. Tablet of Ramses IL, London, 1852, 

pp. 1822. 

327 Hincks, Hieroglyphical Alphabet, p. 16 ; 

pi. i. figs. 23, 26, 27: — Gliddon, Otia, 
p. 133. 

328 Wood-cut, fig. 181— Mon. Civ., pi. xxii. 

329 Travels, plate, part i. line 3. 

330 Man. and Oust., i. pi. iv. line 3. 

331 Egypte Ancienne, pi. 55. 

332 Wood-cut, fig. 182 — Rosellini, Hoskins, 

Wilkinson, and ChampoUion - Figeac, 
supra No. 331. 

333 Races, 1848, p. 224 — compare "Abyssi- 

nian," in plate xii. 

334 Gallery, pp. 94, 97 ; pi. 38. 

335 Topog. of Thebes, 1835, pp. 135, seq. : — 

Man. and Cust., i. pp. 58, 404; iii. 179: 
— ChampoUion, Monuments, pi. 158. 

336 Gliddon, Otia, p. 148. 

337 Gliddon's MS. Diary, "Thebes, February, 

1840": — Wilk., Materia Hieroglyphica, 
"Amuntuonch " : — Rosellini, Appen- 
dice. Oval No. 13: — Leemans, Lettre 
a Salvolini, p. 75. Compare Birch, Ta- 
blet of Ramses II., "Tomb of Hui, 
p. 24. 

338 Wood-cuts, figs. 183, 184 — Denkmaler, 

"Neues Reich," Dvn. XVIII., Abth. iii. 
Bl. 117. — N. B. The children some- 
times are red — see the same paternity 
exemplified in Hoskins, Ethiop., "Grand 
Procession," lowest line. 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



723 



\ 

No. (of Notes, <&.) 

339 As among the "wrestlers" at Benihas- 

san ^Cailleaud, Arts et Metiers, pi. 39) : 
— the "wine-pressers" at Thebes (ibid, 
pi. 34) — and other scenes. 

340 Willvinson, Man. and Customs, ii. p. 

26.5. 

341 Chev. Lepsius's private letters to Morton 

and to Gliddon. — Vide Chapters, 15th 
ed., Peterson, Phila., 1850, p. 68. 

342 Crania jEgvptiaca, p. 41. 

343 Wood-cut, fig. 187— Hoskins, pi. x. 

344 Wood-cut, fig. 188— ibid. 

345 Hanbury and Waddington, Travels in 

Ethiopia, pi. xiv. — compare Cailleaud, 
Voyage a Meroe ; and Hoskins, pi. 
xxix. 

346 Syncell. Chronograph., p. 120, ed. Venet. 

347 Crania jEgyptiaca, pp. 49-50: — Rosellini, 

M. S., ii. pp. 174, 238. 

348 Wood-cut, fig. 193, Crania .^gyptiaca, 

pi. xii., fig. 7 ; and p. 18 : — Catalogue, 
1849, No. 823. 

349 Letronne, Materiaux pour servir a 

I'histoire du Christianisme en Egypte. 

350 Crania JEgyp. p. 44: — Champ. Mons., I., 

pi. 1 ; Rosellini, pi. xxv. (eye wanting) 
— Cherubini, Nubie, pi. 10. p. 33. 

351 Gliddon's Otia, p. 144. 

352 Lepsius, Denkmaler, Part II., pi. 136 ; i, 

lines 1 and 2. 

353 Memoire sur quelques Phenomenes Ce- 

lestes ; Revue Archeol., 1853, p. 674, 
note 34. 

354 Arundale, Bonomi and Birch's Gallery of 

Antiquities, selected from Brit. Mus. — 
before cited. 

355 Champ. Mons. I., pi. Ixxi, Ixxii ; Rosellini, 

M. R., Ixxv. 

356 Crania jEgyptiaca, pp. 61-2: corrected 

by "standing," for "seated," in MSS. 
for 2d ed. 

357 "Parable" — It is well known that the 

earlier colonists of Barbadoes, Montser- 
rat, and some other W. Indian islands, 
were Irish exiles. Odd to relate, while a 
few of their Negro slaves actually speak 
Gaelic, many have acquired the 
" brogue !" An Hibernian, fresh from 
the green isle, arrived one day at the 
port of Bridgetown, and was hailed by 
two Negro boatmen who offered to 
take him ashore. Observing that their 
names were "Pat" and "Murphy," 
and that their brogue was uncommonly 
rich, the stranger (taking them to be 
Irishmen) asked — " and how long have 
ye been from the ould counthree?" 
Misunderstanding him, one of the dar- 
kies replied, "sex months, y're honor." 

" Sex months ! only sex months, 

and turned as black as me hat ! ! J — ! ! ! 
what a climate ! Row me back to the 
ship. I'm from Cork last — and I'll 
soon be from here !" 

Every one laughs at the verdant 
ignorance which believed that a Celt 
could be transmuted by climate into a 
Neijro in 6 months. All would smile 
at the notion of such a possibility within 
6, or even 60 years. Most readers 
will hesitate over 600 years. Anatomy, 
history, and the monuments prove that 
6(X)0 years have never metamorphosed 
one type of man into another. 



yb. (of yoies, tic.) 

358 Second Visit to the United States, Part 

II., p. 188. 

359 Tableaux of New Orleans, 1852, pp. 8- 

17: — also, Dickeson and Brown, Cypress 
Timber of the Mississippi, 1848, p. 3. 

360 Scottish Archaeologists, Dr. Wilson tells 

me, have found similar indications of 
early human existence in the Shetland 
Isles ; and he considers this criterion 
very valuable. — G. R. G. 

361 Morton, Crania Americana, p. 260. 

362 "Information respecting the History, Con- 

dition and Prospects of the Indian 
Tribes of the United States," vol. I. 

363 As Morton happily wrote — "The works 

of giants and the stature of pigmies" — 
MSS. for 2d ed. Cr. JEgyp. 

364 The Serpent Symbol, &c., in America, 

1851, pp. 26-7. 

365 Westminster Review — "The Greek of 

Homer a Living Language." So true 
is this, that one word will illustrate the 
fact : e. g., vcpo is now the name for 
water in ordinary Grecian parlance, just 
as it was in Homeric days, to the ex- 
clusion of vSoip which belongs to the 
classical ages intervening. — G. R. G. 

366 Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850, 

p. 31. 

367 Trans. Am. Ethnol. Soc, II. 

368 Bunsen, Life and Letters of B. S. Niebuhr, 

New York ed., 1852. 

369 Connection between Science and Revealed 

Religion. 

370 Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi 

Valley, 1848, p. 304. 

371 Wilson, Archaeology of Scotland. 

372 Op. cit., p. 168. 

373 Layard's Babylon abundantly establishes 

this fact ; but vide infra, p. 427, figs. 
263, 264. 

374 Morton, Cr. .ffigyp. pp. 5, 7, pi. i. 

375 Wood-cut, fig. 200 — Martin, Man and 

Monkeys, p. 298, "Bushman." 

376 Wood-cuts, figs. 201, 202 — Wilson's 

ArchiEology — vide infra, pp. 369-70. 

377 Hamilton Smith, Natural History of the 

Human Species, Edinb. ed., 1848, p. 93. 

378 Trans. Am. Ethnol. Soc, New York, i. 

p. 192. 

379 Rev. Dr. John Bachman, of Charleston, 

S. C, in a book on the Unity of the 
Races, did raise a question as to the 
American origin of maize, but Hum- 
boldt, Parmentier, Linneeus, and the 
best botanists are against him. 

380 Gallatin, Notes, op. cit., p. 57. 

381 Chronologic der .^gypter, i. pp. 131-3. 

382 Pauthier, Chine, p. 180. 

383 Gallatin, p. 58. 

384 Vetruvius, lib. vi., cap. 1. 

385 Kaimes, Sketches of the History of Man, 

2d ed., Edinb., 1778; i. pp. 50, 75-7. 

386 Layard, 2d Exped. Babylon, pp. 531-2. 

387 Morton was here somewhat misled by a 

hastily written passage in my Otia. 
(Burke's Ethnol. Journal, p. 310.) — 
G. R. G. 

388 This is by far too high a date for "castes" 

— sec further on, pp. 635-6. 

389 Also, and more probably, Pelubastes ; 

but the hieroglyphics reveal nothing for 
or against either supposition. — G. R. G. 

390 They came from the old Jewish burial- 



724 



REFEKENCES AND NOTES. 



No. (of Notes, <tc.) 

ground, behind Muss'r-el-Ateeka, on 
the desert toward Bussateen : and no 
Muslim is interred near a Jew. — G.R.G. 

391 Travels in Kordofan, London, 1844. 

392 Proceed. Acad. Nai. Sciences, Philada., 

September, 1850, p. 82. 

393 Canidae, i. p. 104. 

394 Want of space alone prevents the apposite 

citation of the corroborative statements 
of M. Hombron, " De 1' Homme dans 
ses rapports avec la Creation;" Voyage 
au Pole Sud ; Zoologie, i. pp. 80-92, 
110-7. 

395 This is what the Halicarnassian states — 

" I am surprised (for my narrative has 
from the commencement sought for 
digressions), that in the whole territory 
of Elis no mules are able to breed, 
though neither is the climate cold, nor 
is there any other visible cause. The 
Eleans themselves say, that mules do 
not breed with them in consequence 
of a curse ; therefore, when the mares' 
breeding approaches, they lead them to 
the neighboring districts, and there put 
the he-asses with them until they are in 
foal ; then they drive them home again." 
(Melpomene, iv. 30 — "A new and 
Literal Version, from the Text of 
Baehr"— by Henry Gary, M. A., Ox- 
ford—London, 1849, p. 247.) 

396 Columella, p. 135. 

397 Ham. Smith — Nat. Hist, of the Equidee, 

p. 154. 

398 Leidy ; in Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, 

Phila., Sept., 1847. 

399 Equidae, p. 183. 

400 Ibid., p. 120. 

401 Morton's posthumous papers. 

402 Ibid. — Replies to the Rev. J. Bachman, 

&c., 1850-51. 

403 BufTon, Quadrupedes, xxii. p. 400; xxx. 

p. 230. 

404 Chevreul, in Journal des Savans, Juin, 

1846; p. 357. It was my good fortune 
to have marked, for Dr. Morton, that 
' passage in Chevreul's skilful paper 
which Dr.Bachman so queerly ascribed to 
" old and musty" authorities. — G. R. G. 

405 Karl Ritter's Geography of Asia ; viii. 

Division 1st. — pp. 655, 659. Compare 
Frazer, Mesopotamia and Assyria, 
pp. 366-7 ; for " Turkoman Camel." 

406 Canidae, p. 19. 

407 Sonnini's BufTon, Quad, xxxiii. p. 321, 

supp. 

408 Pennant's Arctic Zoology, i. p. 42. 

409 Fauna Boreale-Americana, Mamm., p. 61. 

410 First Voyage, Supp., p. 186. 

411 Fauna, p. 65. 

412 Idem, pp. 74, 79. 

413 American Edition, p. 365, 

414 Martin, Nat. Hist, of the Dog, p. 30. 

415 Hamilton Smith, CanidaB, ii. p. 123. 

416 Nat. Hist, of Paraguay, p. 151. 

417 Rural Sports, p. 16. 

418 Lyell, Principles, ch. 38. 

419 Wood-cut, fig. 235— Champollion, Gram- 

maire, pp. 51, 173 ; Diciionnaire, pp. 
117, 127: — Bunsen, Egypt's Place, i. p. 
514, figs. 248, 249:— Wilkinson M. and 
C, iii. p. 32: — Lepsius, Denkmaler, 
IVth, Vth, and Vlth, dynasty, passim. 

420 Wood-cut, fig. 237— Denkmaler, Abth. ii. 

Bl. 9. 



No. {of Notes, ttc.) 

421 Wood-cut, fig. 238— Denkmaler, Abth. iL 

Bl. 96. 

422 Wood-cut, fig. 239— Denkmaler, Abth. ii. 

Bl. 11: — See varieties in Cailleaud, 
Arts et Metiers des Anc, j6g., pi. 37. 

423 Wood-cut, fig. 240 — Denkmaler, Abth. ii. 

Bl. 20. 

424 Wood -cut, fig. 241 — Rosellini, M. C, 

xvii., fig. 3. 

425 Wood-cut, fig. 242— Martin, Nat. Hist, of 

the Dog, p. 138. 

426 Oriental Album, pi. 41. 

427 Martin, op. cil., p. 53. 

428 Wood-cut, fig. 243— Ibid., p. 50 :— Denk- 

maler, Abth. ii. Bl. 132. 
439 Wood-cut, fig. 244— Denkmaler, Abth. ii. 
Bl. 131. 

430 Wood-cut, fig. 245 — Rosellini, M. C, 

No. 5. 

431 Wood-cut, fig. 246 — Wilkinson, M. and 

C. iii. p. 13. 

432 Wood-cut, fig. 247— Ibid., op. cit., p. 32. 

433 Hoskins, Ethiopia, Plate i., line 3. 

434 Bennett, Tower Menagerie, p. 83. 

435 Wood-cut, fig. 248 — Wilkinson, M. and 

C. iii. p. 12: — Lepsius, Denkmaler, ii.' 
131. 

436 Wood-cut, fig. 249 — Denkmaler, ii. 134. 

437 The head resembles the skulls of Egyp- 

tian mummied-dogs now in the Acade- 
my, Philadelphia. 

438 Wood-cut, fig. 250— Denkmiiler, ii. 96. 
439, and 440 Wood-cut, fig. 251-^Layard, 

Babylon, p. 526: — Vaux, Nineveh, p. 
198 ; discovered by Rawlinson. "Cte- 
sias (says Photius in his Excerpta), in 
his description of India, speaks of the 
gigantic dogs of that country." — Indica, 
cap. 5; apud Heeren, Hist. Res.; Lon- 
don, 1846 ; i. p. 35. 

441 Morton, Additional Observations on Hy- 

bridity, Oct., 1850, p. 26. 

442 Lepsius, Denkmaler, Abth. ii. Bl. 131 , 

and Passalacqua, Catalogue, 1826, pp. 
231-3. 

443 Zoologie, ii. p. 79: — Another, not less 

curious, arrived too late for us to use in 
our studies ; viz : Courtet de I'lsle, 
" Tableau Ethnographique du Genre 
Humain," Paris, 1849. We shall revert 
to it elsewhere. 

444 October, 1849: — Amer. Jour, of Med. 

Sciences, Jan., 1850. 

445 Thoughts on the Original Unity of the 

Human Races, New York, 1830. 

446 Zoologie, ii. p. 109. 

447 Op. cit., p. 107. 

448 Lyell, Principles, chap, xxxvii. 

449 South. Quar. Rev., Charleston, S. C, 

Jan., 1846. 

450 Second Visit to the United States, i. p. 105. 

451 Hist, of Napoleon Buonaparte. 

452 Notes to Azara's Quadrupeds, i. p. 24. 

453 Amcr. ed.. No. ccciv, July, 1853. p. 55. 

454 Genesis v. 4. 

4.55 Etudes sur I'Algerie, p. 148. 

456 Cahen's Hebrew Text, i. p. 8 : Genesis 

ii. 20. 

457 Layard, Babylon, p. 623. 

458 Pauthier, Chine, p. 24 : — Livres Sacres 

de rOrient, " 'I'emps anterieures au 
Chou-king," p. 33. 

459 De la Domestication du Llama et de la 

Vigogne ; " Projet d'une Menagerie 
Nationale d'Acclimatation," 1848. 



REFERENCES AND NOTES, 



725 



J^o. (of Notes, <k.) 

460 The Black Man, "Comparative Anatomy 

and Psychology of the African Negro" 
— transl. Friedlander and Tomes, New 
York, 1853, pp. 11-12. 

461 Crania ^Egyptiaca, 1844. p. 1. 

462 Observations on a Second Series of 

Ancient Egyptian Crania ; Proceed. 
Acad. Nat. Sc, Phila., Oct. 1844, pp. 
8-10. 

463 Catalogue of Skulls, 3d ed., 1849: to 

which ought to be added those crania 
presented to him in 1851 by Mr. Glid- 
don ; and, in 1851-2, the two shipments 
received from Mr. A. C. Harris of 
Alexandria, Egypt. 

464 Cr. iEgyp., p. 3. 

465 Gliddon's Otia, pp. 74-5, 80. 

466 jEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte, 

ii. pp. 166-70. 

467 Crania ^gyp., p. 19. 

468 Observations, &c. Proceed. Acad. Nat. 

Sciences, Phila., Oct. 1844 : — Lepsius, 
Briet'e, p. 33. 

469 Crania jEgypt., p. 20. 

470 E.\odus xii. 38; Cahen's Hebrew Text, 

ii. p. 50. 

471 ChampoUion, L'!6gyptesous les Pharaons, 

1814, ii. p. 5. seq. : and Quatremere, 
Recherches sur la Langue et la Litlera- 
ture des Copies. 

472 Abeken, Rapport a la Societe Egyptienne 

du Kaire ; in Bulletin de la Soc. de 
Geog., Paris, Sept., 1845 ; pp. 171-2. 

473 Lepsius, Auswahl, pi. xx. ; as well as in 

Briefe, pp. 105-6. 

474 Cr. JEayp., pi. ii. fig. 1. 

475 Cr. ^gyp., pi. ii. fig. 2. 

476 Cr. JEgvp., pi. ii. fig. 3. 

477 Cr. JEg'yp., pi. x. fig. 8. 

478 Cr. jEgvp., pi. viii. fig. i. 

479 Cr. ^gyp., pi. xi. fig. 1 

480 Cr. ^gyp., pi. x. fig. 1. 

481 Cr. iEgyp., pi. x. fig. 4. 

482 Cr. iEgyp., pi. x. Us. 5. Note to Wood- 

cuts, figs. 263, 264; "Ancient Assyri- 
an" (supra, pp. 426-7). After my re- 
marks were stereotyped, I had the 
pleasure to receive another letter from 
Mr. J. B. Davis (dated, Shelion. Nov. 
15, 1853), which afibrds the following, 
arnong other particulars, corroborative 
of the authenticity of this cranium : — 
* * "The skull is the veritable 
skull of an ancient Assyrian. It was 
found with the fragments of others, and 
a great many other bones and armor, 
in a chamber of the North-west palace 
at Nimroud, to which there was an en- 
trance but no exit. This is marked in 
Mr. Layard's Nineveh, Vol. I., p. 62; 
Plan III., Chamber I. It was supposed 
to be the one to which the defenders of 
the palace had retreated. ***** 
The skull is undoubtedly allied to Mor- 
ton's Pelasgic group, but, yet, I think 
possesses a distinct character which at 
once strikes my eye, as belonging to the 
people of the sculptures. The full, 
rounded, equable form like the ancient 
Greek, only decidedly larger and fuller, 
is striking." — J. C. N. 

483 Egypte Ancieiine, pi. 2. p. 261. 

484 Gliddon, Appeal to the Antiquaries of 

Europe on the destruction of the Monu- 
ments of Egypt, 1841 ; pp. 125-129. 



No. (of Notes, <£c.) 

485 Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Philadel., 

Dec. 24,1850. On the "leathern straps," 
cf. Birch in Gliddon's Otia, p. 85 ; and 
Osburn's paper on the Leed's Mummy, 
1828, pp. 4, 33-4, pi. ii. 

486 Promenade en Amerique, Revue des 

Deux Mondes, Juin, 1853. 

487 Martin, Man and Monks., p. 298, fig. 233. 

488 Op. cit., p. 298. 

489 Prichard, Phys. Hist. i. p. 297. 

490 Ibid., op. cit. p. 290. " Fulah" means 

"white:" Cf. Beecham, Ashantee, or 
the Gold Coast: p. 161, note. 

491 Ibid., op. cit. ; and Latham, Varieties of 

Man, p. 6. 

492 Morton, Cr. ^g., pi. xii. fig. 7. 

493 Virey, Histoire Nalurelle du Genre Hu- 

main, i, p. 240 ; pi. 2 : drawn in colors, 
on a folio scale, by Geoffroy and Cuvier, 
Mammiferes, 1829: i. pi. 1 and 2; and 
described in pp. 1-7. 

494 Morton, Cr. JEg., p. 16. 

495 Prichard, Researches, v. p. 3. Thus 

amply confirmed by Crawfurd — " There 
are 15 varieties of Oriental Negroes. 
* * * * There is no evidence, there- 
fore, to justify the conclusion that the 
Oriental Negro, wherever found, is of 
one and the same race." (Edin. New 
Philos. Jour., 1853. p. 78.— " Negroes 
of the Ind. Archip.") 

496 Churchill's Collection of Voyages, i. ; 

"History of Navigation, supposed to 
have been written by the celebrated 
Locke." This information may be 
relied on, as it was furnished me by Dr. 
Charles Pickering.— G. R. G. 

497 Anthropologie, p. 348. 

498 Op. cit. ; from " Voyage de I'Uranie." 

499 Morton, Catalogue, 1849, No. 1327. 

500 Prichard, Researches, i. p. 298, fig. 7. 

501 Dumoutier, Atlas, pi. 35, fig. 6. 

502 Ibid., pi. 37, fig. 2. 

503 Martin, Man and Monkeys, p. 310, fig. 

227. 

504 Dumoutier, Atlas, pi. 36, fig. 4 — " Van 

Diemen." 

505 Prichard, Researches, i. p. 297, fig. 6. 

506 Dumoutier, Atlas, pi. 36, fig. 2 — "Van 

Diemen." 

507 Op. cit., pi. 34. 

508 Martin, Man and Monkeys, p. 312, fig. 

229. There is nothing herein stated 
about the almost inconceivable animal- 
ity of Papuans, Ahetas (Ajetas) or 
Negritos, Arruans, Al Foers, which the 
reader cannot find in a new work — 
"Ethnographical Library, Conducted 
by Edwin Norris, Esq., Vol. I. The 
Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, 
by George Windsor Earl," London, 
1853. 

509 Observations faites pendant le 2me voy- 

age de Cook, p. 208. 

510 Moerenhout, , ii. p. 248; cited by 

D'Eichthal, " Races Oceaniennes ct 
Americaines," 1845. 

511 Polynesian Researches, ii. p. 13. 

512 Dumoutier, pi. 26, fig. 6 — " Cavernes 

sepulchrales — Teneriffe." 

513 Ibid., pi. 29, fig. 4— "Marquesas." 

514 Ibid., pi. 30, fig. 4 — " Caverne ossuaire — 

Taiti." 

515 Ibid., pi. 31. fig. 4 — "Sepultures aban- 

donnees — Isle Vavao." 



726 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



JVb. {of Notes, <£c.) 

516 Martin, Man and Monkeys, p. 310. 

517 Dumoutier, pi. 32, fig. 2—" Isle Mawi." 
r.l8 Philadelphia, 3d ed., 1844; pp. 4, 5. 

519 Mr. Strain's letter to Dr. Morton, " Rio 

Janeiro, 7th Decern., 1843" — Proceed. 
Acad. Nat. Sciences., Phila., Dec, 1844. 

520 Putnam's American edition, New York, 

1853, p. 36. 

521 Ethnography and Archseology ; American 

Journ. of Science and Art, ii. 2d series ; 
New Haven, 1846 ; tirage a part, pp. 
67, 117-9. 

522 Crania Americana, p. 145. 

523 Rivero and Tschudi (pp. 39-40) doubt the 

possession by Dr. Morton of crania of 
the royal Inca family : but the note of 
the translator (p. 41) may be passed 
over as inconsequent. 

524 The Creole Negro; supra, No. 49]. 

525 Cr. Americana, p. 130 ; pi. xi. C. 

526 Op. cit., p. 131 ; xi. D. 

527 Peruvian Antiquities, pp. 39-40. 

528 Cr. Americana, p. 152 ; pi. xvi. 

529 Op. cit., p. 155 ; pi. xviii. 

530 Op. cit., p. 166; pi. xxii. 

531 Op. cit., p. 198; pi. xxxix. 
.532 Op. cit., p. 220 ; pi. lii. 

533 Op. cit., p. 224 ; pi. Iv. 

534 Op. cit., p. 259. 

535 Op. cit., p. 257. 

536 Anthropologic, pp. 229-30, 233. 

537 Martin, Man and Monkeys, p. 373. 

538 Ibid., p. 273. 

539 Chine, d'apres les documents Chinois, p.l. 

540 Wood-cut, fig. 329 — Paravey, Documents, 

&c., sur le Deluge de Noe, Paris, 1838, 
pp. 11, 56: — Pauthier, Chou-king, Part 
II., chap. i. p. 62 ; Part IV., chap, xxvii., 
p. 131 : — Ibid., Chine, pp. 55-7. 
.^41 Pauthier, Chine, pi. 22; pp. 120-1. 

542 Ibid., pi. 51, fig. 4 ; pp. 246-8. 

543 Ibid., pi. 12; pp. 57-8. 

544 Ibid., pp. 4:2-4. 

545 Revolutions des Peuples de I'Asie Moy- 

enne, Paris, 1839 ; ii. p. 432. 

546 Catalogue, 3d ed., 1849; Intro., pp. 1-2. 

547 Nat. Hist, of Human Species ; Edinb., 

1848, p. 157. 

548 Bremer, Homes of the New World, Am. 

ed., 1853, ii. pp. 162-3. [Note, 24 Jan., 
1854. Let me confirm my colleague's 
accuracy by two additional extracts — 
1st, as regards crosses between Ameri- 
can Indians and white men. All readers 
are aware with what gusto a superior 
civilization has been attributed to the 
Mandans ; and how sundry instances 
of fair complexion, light hair and blue 
eyes, among individuals of that tribe, 
have also led to surmises that they 
might even be of Welsh descent ! 
Major John Le Conte pointed out to 
me a solution in the fact that Lewis and 
Clark wintered among them with a 
party of 43 able-bodied men. As a 
specimen, read the following account 
of one orgie, on Saturday night, Jan. 
5, 1805 — " Unus nostrum sodalium 
multum alacrior et potentior juventute, 
hac nocte honorem quatuor maritorum 
custodivit." (Lewis and Clark, Travels 
to the source of the Missouri river ; 
1804-6; London ed., 1814; ch. vi., pp. 
109-111.) — 2d, As respects crosses be- 



Nb. (of Notes, dv.) 

tween Negroes, Indians, and white 
persons, on the Panama Isthmus ; a 
passage which was indicated to me by 
Mr. Conrad : — 

" The character of the half-castes is, 
if possible, worse than that of the 
Negroes. These people have all the 
vices and none of the virtues of their 
parents. They are weak in body, and 
are more liable to disease than either 
the whites or other races. It seems 
that as long as pure blood is added to 
the half-castes proper, when they inter- 
marry only with their own colour, 
they have many children, but these do 
not live to grow up ; while in families 
of unmixed blood the offspring are 
fewer, but of longer lives. As the 
physical circumstances under which 
both are placed are the same, there 
must really be a specific distinction 
between the races, and their intermix- 
ture be considered as an infringement 
of the law of Nature." — Berthold See- 
mann, F.L.S. — Narrative of the Voyage 
of H. M. S. Herald, 1845-51 : London, 
1853,1., p. 302. — G. R. G.] 

549 Martin, Man and Monkeys, p. 310, fig. 

180. 

550 Ibid. — fig. 181. 

551 Ibid.— fig. 182. 

552 Savage and Wyman, Troglodytes Gorilte; 

Boston, Jour, of Nat. Hist., 1847, p. 27. 

553 Martin, op. cit., p. 228. 

554 Ibid., p. 280. 

555 Ibid., p. 384. 

556 Ibid., p. 223. 

557 Prichard, Researches, i. p. 290, fig. 3. 

558 Martin, op. cit., p. 367. 
5.59 Virey, Hist. Nat., ii. p. 42. 
560 Martin, op. cit., p. 254. 

561-562 Wood-cuts, figs. 346, 348 — Illus- 
trated London News, 1851 — "drawn 
by an English officer at the Cape." 

563 Amaryllidaceae, pp. 338, 339. 

564 Races of Men, p. 12. 

565 American Jour, of Science and Art, Vol. 

xxxviii.. No. 2. 

566 Anatomic comparee, tome ii. 



PART II. 

567 GeographisB Sacrse Pars prior; Cadomi, 

fob, 1651 — (Loganian Library, Phila.) 

568 Spicilegium Geographiae Hebraeor. exterae, 

post Bochart., vol. ii., 1769-80. 

569 Gliddon, Otia, London, 1849, pp. 16, 134. 

570 Rev. Dr. Eadie, Early Oriental History — 

Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, London, 
1852, p. 2. 

571 Rev. Dr. Hales, Analysis of Chronology ; 

2d ed., 1830; Preface, p. 21, and i. p. 
352. 

572 Pauthier, Livres Sacres de 1' Orient, Paris, 

Intro., p. 1. 

573 Cahen, La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, 

Paris, 1831 ; i. pp. 26-8. 

574 Avec un Atlas geographique, pittoresque, 

archeologique, geologique, &c. — " Ou- 
vrage qui a reniporte le prix de la Societe 
de Geographic de Paris, en 1838;" 
Paris. 6 vol. Text, 8vo., 1839-43. 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



727 



No. (of Notes, (fe.) 

575 Bulletins de rAcademie royale de Brux- 

elles, vi. ; and Notions elementaires de 
Statistique, Paris, 1840. 

576 Voyage dans les steps d' Astrakhan et du 

Caucase ; and Histoire Primitive des 
Peuples qui ont habite anciennement 
ces conirees. 

577 GoMeR. Bochart, pp. 194-6. — Homer, 

Odyss. xi. 14. — Diodor., v. 32. — Herod., 
iv. 100. — Josephus, Aniiq. i. G. — Raw- 
linson, Commentary, 1850, p. 68. — Du- 
bois ; i. 61, iv. 321, 327, 350, 391; v. 
22, 35, 44. 

578 MaGUG. Bochart, pp. 212-19. — Rev. 

Moses Stuart, Interpretation of Pro- 
phecy, Andover, 1842, p. 123. — De 
Welte, transl., Parker, i. p. 95-7, &c. 

— Kur'an, Ch. xviii., v. 93, 96; xxi. 95, 
&c. — Pauthier. Liv. Sac. de 1' Orient, 
p. 495 : Lane, Selections, p. 140. — Bar- 
thelemy, Anciennes Religions des 
Gaules; Rev. Archeol., 1851, p. 338, 
note.— Dubois, iv. 321, 345; 363-407.— 
Josephus, Ant., i. 6. — Hieronymus, 
Comm. in Ezek. xxxviii, 2. — Lenor- 
mant, Cours d'Hist. Ancien., Paris, 
1837, p. 289.— Emelin, 1774, and Porter 
(Travels, ii. 520), 1819 — " wall of Gog 
and Magog at Derbend." — Anthon, 
Classic. Diet., 1843; voce " Asi," p. 
218. " Scythic" is here used in the 
sense proposed by Rawlinson (Com- 
mentary, pp. 68, 75: and Cuneiform 
Inscriptions, 1847, pp. 20, 34-7,) and 
adopted by Norris, (Memoir on the 
Scythic Version of the Behistun inscrip- 
tion ; Jour. R. Asiat. Soc, 1853; xv.. 
Part 1, p. 2. — Sir W. Jones, 6ih Dis- 
course, on Persians; Asiatic Researches, 
1799, ii. p. 64. — Gliddon, Otia, p. 124. 

— Westergaard, Median Species of 
Arrowheaded writing : Antiq. du Nord, 
1844 ; pp. 273-8, 289.— Hincks, Perse- 
politan Writing, 1846, p. 18. — D'Oma- 
lius d'Halloy, Races Humaines, ou 
elements d"elhnographie, 1845, " Osse- 
tes," p. 79. 

579 MeDT. Bochart, pp. 219-25.— Herod., vii. 

— De Saulcy, Recherches sur I'Ecriture 
cuneiforme Assyrienne ; Paris, 1848, 
p. 26. — Layard, Babylon, p. 628. — De 
Longperier, Lettre a M. Lowenstern; 
Rev. Archeol., J 847, p. 505. — Rawlin- 
son, Tabietof Behistun.— Birch, Tablet 
of Karnac, pp. 14-5. — Dubois, iv. 321, 
339. 

580 lUN. Bochart, pp. 174-6.— Aristophanes, 

In Acharnuni ; Act i., scene 3.— Homer., 
Iliad, xiii, 685. — Pausanias, Achaic, p. 
397. — Herodotus, viii. 44. — Rosetta 
Stone, in Lepsius's Auswahl ; or in 
Birch's Gallery, pp. 114-17, pi. 49: — 
also,Lenormant,Essaisur leTexte Grec, 
1840; pp. 10, 11; lines No. 54; and p. 
45. — Hincks (True date of the Rosetta 
Stone, Dublin, 1842, pp. 6, 8,) claims 
"March, 197, B.C.," as dale of this 
decree; but a Letronne would first 
have determined the year of "C.:" vide 
infra, pp. 665-7. — Champollion, Gram- 
maire Egyptienne, pp. 151, 175; Diet., 
p. 66. — " Ouinin," in conquests of 
Seti-Meneptha, and of Ramses II.— De 
Saulcy, Recherches, p. 26; Inscriptions 



No. (of Notes, (Cc.) 

trouvees a Khorsabad, Rev. Archeol., 
1850, pp. 769-72.— Rawlinson, Behis- 
ttin, pp. 1. xxvii. — I-ayard, Babylon, p. 
628. Pauthier's Manou, lib. x., v. 44. 
— Wilford, Asiatic Researches, 1799; 
iii. p. 358. — Sykes, Jour. R. Asiat. Soc, 
1841., vol. vi. ; Art. xiv. pp. 434-6. — 
"J. P. S." (in Kitto, Biblical Encyclo- 
paedia, ii., p. 393-400) omits any expla- 
nation of Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras, 
in his "sons of Japheih" (p. 397)! 
There are numerous similar oversights 
in Kitto, no less than in Robinson's 
Calmet. — Dubois, iv. 321. 334. 

581 T^uBaL. Bochart, pp. 204-13. — Munk, 

Palestine, p. 420. —De VVette, ii. 366. 
seq. — Strabo, ii. 129. — Herod., vii. 78. 
Rawlinson, Commentary, pp. 63-4. — 
Layard, Babylon, p. 628. — Dubois, iv. 
321, 388. 

582 MeS/icK. Bochart, pp. 204-13.— Herod., 

iii., 94; vii. 78. — Rawlinson, Com- 
mentary, pp. 63^. — Birch, Stat. Tablet 
of Karnac, pp. 14-5. — Hincks, Report 
of Syro-jEgyptian Soc, 1846. — Dubois, 
ii. 17; iv. 321, 336, 347. 

583 TelRaS. Bochart, p. 172-3. For hiero- 

glyphical mention of " Thraces," in 
Egyptian conquests, see Champollion 
(Lettres) and Rosellini (MS., iv. 288) : 
for classical, the " Inscrip. of Adulis" 
— ChampoUion-Figeac, Eg. Anc, p. 67. 
—Dubois, iv. 321, 324. 

584 ASAKeNaZ. Bochart, pp. 196-8.— Pliny, 

iv. 24. — Kitto, ii. p. 397. — Rawlinson, 
Commentary, p. 46; " Nimroud Obe- 
lisk." — Ibid., London Lit. Gazette, 
Aug., 1851.— Dubois, iv. 321, 330, 391. 

585 RIPaTt. Bochart, pp. 198-9. — Strabo, 

vii. 341. — Pliny, iv. 24. — Dubois, iv. 
321 330. 

586 TioGaRMaH. Bochart, pp. 200-4.— 

Moses Choren., Hist, of Arm., p. 24. — 
St. Martin, Memoires sur I'Armenie, 
1818; i. pp. 205, 271-8.— Strabo, xii.— 
Josephus, Ant., i. 1, 6. — Lowenstern, 
Lettre a M. de Saulcy, Rev. Archeol., 
1849, p. 494. — Dubois, ii., p. 9; iv. pp. 
332-3. — Jardot, Revolutions, ii. p. 6. 

587 ALISaH. Bochart, pp. 176-8.— Homer, 

II., ii. 617. — Grote, Hist, of Greece, i. 
p. 487.— Herod, i. § 146, &c 

588 Wood-cut, fig. 355 — Layard, folio Monu- 

ments ; and Babylon, pp. 343, 350. — De 
],ongperier. Rev. Archeol., 1844, pp. 
224-5; 1847, p. 297. — Stuart, Crit. 
Hist, and Def., pp. 113, 114, 120. — De 
Wette, ii. pp. 452-6. — Cahen, Notes on 
Jonah, vol. xii. — " Berosiana," in Bun- 
sen's Eg. PI., i. pp. 704-19. — Munk, 
Palestine, pp. 451-2. — On "Sibylline 
verses" see Letronne, Examen Arche- 
ologique, Croix Ansee, 1846, pp. 33-4. 

589 TiaRSlS. Acts, xxii. 3. — Lanci, Parali- 

pomeni, i. pp. 150-5. — Gesenius, in 
Parker's De VVette, i. p. 455, note. — 
Munk, Pal., p. 29. — Gliddon, Otia, p. 
50. — Pickering, Races, p. 373. — Pau- 
thier, Sinico-jEgyptiaca, p. 10. — Bo- 
chart, pp. 188-94. — London Lit. Gaz., 
May, 1852. 

590 KiT«IM. Bochart, pp. 178-83. — Birch, 

Ivory ornaments found at Nimroud, pp. 
174-5 ; and Annals of Thotmes III., pp. 



728 



EEFERENCES AND NOTES, 



No. (fif Notes, <fe.) 

157-60. — Boeckh, Corpus Inscrip. 
GrcEC, i. p. 523. — Ptolemy, lib. v. 14. — 
Josephus.Antiq., i.6. 1. — Rev.ArcheoL, 
1846, pp. 114-15 ; and 1847, p. 448. 

591 DoDaNIM. Bochart, pp. 183-8. —Wise- 

man, Connection between Sci. andRev. 
Rel., 1836 : ii. pp. 168-9.— Champollion- 
Figeac, Dissert, s. I'^tymologie, p. 8. 
— Herod., ii., § 53. 

592 Wood-cut, fig. 356.— ChampoUion, Gram- 

maire, pp. 150, 151, 195, 407; Dic- 
tionnaire, p. 409. — Hincks, Hierog. Al- 
phabet, p. 16 ; pi. i., figs. 23, 26, 27. 

593 Letronne, Opinions cosniographiques des 

Peres de I'Eglise ; Uev. des deux 
Mondes, 1837, pp. 601-33: and Recueil 
des Inscrip., ii. p. 37, seq. — Raoul- 
Rochette, Archeologie comparee, 1848; 
Part ii. p. 190, seq. — Lenormant, Cours 
d'Hist. Anc, p. 228. 

594 KUSA. Bochart, p. 238, and 241.— Mar- 

tin, Etudes sur le Timee de Platon, 
Paris, 1841 ; " Atlantide," i. p. 332.— 
Walton, Bibl. Polygl. ; Proleg., xv. pp. 
97-9.— De Wette, i. pp. 228-31.— Wells, 
Hist. Geog. of O. and N. Test., 1804, 
pp. 103-105. — Lanci, Paralip., ii. p. 45. 
Nott, Bibl. and Phys. Hist., p. 143.— 
Forster, Geog. of Arabia, 1844. i. pp. 
26-7, 28, 29.-^Burckhardt, Travels in 
Arab., ii. p. 385. — Rosellini, Monument! 
Civili, ii. pp, 394-403.— Gliddon, Otia, 
p. 133. — Forster, op. cit., i. 14-6. — Le- 
tronne, Mem. et Docum., Rev. ArcheoL, 
1849, p. 85. — Cahen, Bible, v.; avant 
propos, p. 13. — Quatremere, Recher., 
Copies. — De Wette, i. pp. 202-6.— Pey- 
ron, Coptic Lexicon, voce Ethosh. — Par- 
they, Vocabularium Copticum, p. 549. 
Wilkinson, Topog. of Thebes, p. 487 ; 
Mod. Eg. and Theb., ii. p. 317.— Birch, 
Stat. Tab!. Karnac, p. 47. — Anthon, 
Class, Diet. ; and Syst. of Anc. Geog. ; 
voce "Asia." — Remusat, in Pauthier's 
Chine, p. 259.— Kitto, Bibl. Cyclop., i. 
p. 238. 

595 Volney, Recherches Nouvelles, Paris, 

1822, iv. — Lenormant, Cours d'Hist. 
Anc, 1838, pp. 24, 129. — Jomard, 
Arable ; in Mengin, 1839, iii. p. 327-9, 
and passim. — Fresnel, " Histoire des 
Arabes avant I'Isianisme," in Jour. 
Asiat., "4me Leitre" Djeddah, Jan., 
1838. — Sale's Introd. to the Kur'an, 
Liv. Sac. d'Or., p. 467. — Lane, Selec- 
tions, p. 17. — Forster, Geog., i. p. 20. 

— Gesenius, in De Wette, i. pp. 433-4. 

— Hyde, Hisi. rel. veter. Persarum, p. 
37. — Kitto, " Cush," i. p. 503.— Asse- 
mani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, iii., part 
2, p. 568, seq. — Turner, " Himyarite 
Inscriptions," Trans. Amer. Ethnol. 
Soc, New York, 1845, art. iv. — Fresnel, 
Recherches sur las Inscrip. Himya- 
riques, 1845; Jour. Asiatique, No. 11; 
also, Lettres, Feb., March, April, May, 
1845. — Gesenius, Geschichte der Heb. 
Sprache und Schrift, 1815. — Forster, 
Geog. of Arabia, i. pp. 24-76, 94-102. 

596 Syncellii "Chronographeion," p. 51. — 

Letronne, in Biotas Recherches sur 
I'Annee vague des Egyptiens, 1831, pp. 
25-7. — Biot, Memoirs sur divers points 
de r Astron. Anc, 1846, p. 37.— Matter, 



No. {of Notes, (£c.) 

Hist, de r^ficole d'AIexandrie, 1844; ii. 
pp. 190-1. — Barucchi, Discorsi Critici, 
Torino, 1844; pp. 14, 15.— Bockh, 
Manetho und die Hundstern-periode, 
Berlin, 1848; p. 40. — Bunsen, jEgyp- 
tens Stelle, 1845; i. pp. 256-63.— 
Raoul-Ro'chette, Jour, des Savans,1846; 
pp. 141, 241-2. — Lepsius, Chron. der 
jEgypter, i. p. 446. — Kenrick, Egypt 
under the Pharaohs, 1851. — Maury, in 
Rev. Archeol., Juin, 1851 ; pp. 160-3. 

597 Mi'l'sRIM. Grotefend's "Analyse de 

Sanconiathon," trad. Lebas, Paris, 1839; 
Introduction, pp. 79-85. — ChampoUion, 
L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, 1814; i. 
Chap. 2. — Parthey, Vocab. Copt., pp. 
511-2. — Rawlinson, Behistun, 1846, pp. 

I, 27.— Commentary, 1850, pp. 60-7.— 
De Saulcy, Rev. Archeol., 1850, pp. 
768-9, 771; pi. 133, No. 19; and Re- 
cherches, Inscrip. de Van, 1848, p. 27. 
Nash, on the term Copt, and the name 
of Egypt ; Burke's Ethnol. Jour., No. 

II, 1849, p. 496. — Hincks, Hierog. 
Alph. ; p. 28, pi. i. fig. 78. — Gliddon, 
Chapters, p. 41. — Eosellini, Mon. ,Stor., 
i. p. 58. — Portal, Symboles des Egyp- 
tiens, pp. 51, 73. — Lanci, Lettre a M. 
Prisse, 1847, pp. 99-103. —Lenormant, 
Cours, p. 233. — Birch, " Merter," in 
Annals of Thotmes III., p. 138 ; Eg. 
Inscrip. in Bibliotheque Nat., p. 12; also, 
on "Kam, the black country," as found 
in the Ritual, in Chaeremon on Hiero- 
glvphics, p. 11. — Bochart, p. 292. 

598 PAUT. Bochart, pp. 333-9. — Gliddon, 

Otia, p. 127. — D'Eichthal, Foulahs, pp. 
1, 8, 150. — Jerome, Commentary on 
Isaiah, Ixvi. 19. — Ptolemy, lib. iii. 1. — 
Pliny, Hist. Nat., v. — Josephus, Antiq., 
i. 6, 2. — Graberg de Hemso, Specchio, 
p. 291, seq. — Cervantes de Marmol, 
Descripcion general de Africa, Grenada, 
1573; i. fol. 31, seq. — ChampoUion, 
Diet., pp. 339-40. — D'Avezac, Afrique 
Anc, p. 31. — Lenormant, Cours, pp. 
233-6. — Hengstenberg, Eg. and Books 
of Moses; transl. Robbins, p 211. — De 
Saulcy, Rev. Archeol., 1850, pp. 769, 
772.— Birch, Eg. Inscrip., p. 13. 

599 KNAaN. Cahen, Genese, i. p. 25. — 

Procopius, De bello Vandalico, ii. cap. 
20. — St. Augustin, Expos. Epist. Rom. ; 
cited in De Wette, i. p. 431. — Lanci, 
Bassorilievo Fenicio di Carpentrasso ; 
Roma, 1824, p. 126. — Munk, Inscrip. 
Phoenicienne de Marseilles ; Journal 
Asiat., 1847, pp. 473, 483, 526; and 
Palestine, pp. .87-8, 192. — Gesenius, 
Geschichte der Heb. Sprache, 1815, pp. 
8, 9. — De Saulcy, Mem. sur une Inscrip. 
Phoenicienne, 1847, passim. — Josephus, 
Cont. Apion., i, 22. —Kitto, i. p. 823, 
"Hebrew Language." — Eusebius, Prae- 
par. Evang., i. cap. 10. — Lenormant, 
Cours. p. 236.— Bochart, pp. 339-42. 

600 ScBA. Volney, Recherches, iv. p. 232. 

— Josephus, Antiq. viii. 6. 5. — Ludolph. 
Hist. .SIthiopica, ii. cap. 3. — Forster, 
Geog., i. p. 157, seq. — Wathen, Arts, 
Antiq. and Chron. of Egypt, 1842, pp. 
69-70. — Hoskins, Ethiopia, p. 339 [not 
directly, I find, but inferentially. — G. 
R. G.]. — Fresnel, 4me Lettre, Jan., 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



729 



No. (of Notes, <fc.) 

1838, pp. 71-7; and Inscriptions Him- 
yariques, pp. 34, 67-9. — Pauthier, 
Chine, pp. 94-100, notes. — D'Herbelot, 
Bihliotheque Orientale, voce "Salo- 
mon," and •' Thahamurath. " — De 
Wette, ii. pp. 248-(i5. — Forster, Geog., 
i. pp. 33-8, and Maps. — Bochart, pp. 
146-56. 

601 KAUILaH. Bochart, pp. 161-3.— Forster, 

i. pp. 9. 38, 54. 

602 SaBT/aH. Lenormant, Cours, pp. 237-8. 

— Sirabo, xvi. p. 771, Fr. Transl. — 
Jomard, Arable, pp. 373, 389-90.— 
Pliny, vl. 32. — Volney, iv. p. 232.— 
Fresnel, Inscrip. Himyar., pp. 51-2. — 
Forster, Geog., i. pp. 57-8. — Bochart, 
pp. 252-4. 

603 RAoMaH. Volney, iv. p. 235.— Forster, 

i. pp. 59-76; ii. 223-7. — Fresnel, 4me 
et 5me Lettres, 1838.— Wellsted, Trav. 
in Arabia, 1838, ii. p. 430 — Burck- 
hardt, Arabia, ii. p. 385. — Bochart, p. 
247. 

604 SaBT<eKA. References as above, No. 

603. 

605 SseBA. Munk,' Palesline, p. 438, on 

"Ezra." — De Wetie, ii. pp. 47-8. — 
Forster, ii. pp. 323-4 ; and i. pp. 71-3. 

— Bochart, pp. 249-51. 

606 DeDaN. Bochart, p. 248.— Forster, i. 38; 

and Maps. — Letronne, " Venus Ange- 
rone," Mem. et Doc, Rev. Archeol., 
1849, p. 277.— Glaire, Les Livres Saints 
venges, Paris, 1845, passim. — Rev. 
Sidney Smith, Elementary Sketches of 
Moral Philos., New York ed., 1850; p. 
254. — Strauss, Vie de Jesus, trad. Littre, 
Paris, 1839; Preface, p. 8. 

607 Ni.MRoD. Vide W. W.'s profound articles 

'"Scripture," and "Verse," in Kitto, 
ii. pp. 717, 910. — [For hallucinations 
on " Nimrod," see Anc. Univ. Hist., 
i. p. 275, seq.; Faber, Origin of Pagan 
Idolatry, and Bryant, Anc. Mythology, 
passim ; Hales, Analysis of Chron., i. 
pp. 358-9, and ii.] "Nimrod, a Dis- 
course on certain passages of History 
and Fable." London, 1829. printed for 
Richard Priestley. — Higgins. Anaca 
lypsis, London, 1836, i. p. 6. — Wiseman 
Lectures, i. p. 37. — Birch, Two Egypt 
Cartouches, 1846, pp. 168-70.— Lepsius 
Chron. der JEgyp., i. p. 223. — Bunsen 
.iEgyptens Stelle, iii. p. 133. — Sharpe 
in Bonomi's Nineveh, 1852, pp. 69-78 
— Rawlinson, Commentary, pp. 4, 6, 7, 
22.— Layard, Babylon, pp. 33, 123. — De 
Saulcy, Dead Sea, ii. p 544. — D'Herbe 
lot, voce "Nimrod;" and Ouseley 
Oriental Collections, ii. p. 375. — Jose 
phus, Antiq. i. 4, 21. 

608-609 De Sola, Lindenthal, and Raphall 
Scriptures in Heb. and English; Lon- 
don, 1846; p. 40, notes. — Glaire, Liv 
Sts. venges, i. pp. 313-20.— Rawlinson 
Commentary, p. 14:— Lanci, Paralipo 
meni, ii. parte 8va. — Gesenius, in De 
Wette, i. p. 435. — Meyer, Hebraisches 
Wurzel-VVortcrbuch ; cited bv Bunsen, 
Disc, on Ethnol., 1847, p. 273.— D' Olivet, 
Langue Hebraique restituee, 1815; pp. 
281, 343. — Bochart. 256-60. 

610 Gliddon, MS. "Remarks on the Intro- 
duction of Camels and Dromedaries, 

92 



No. (of Notes, (&.) 

for Army-Transportation, Carriage of 
Mails, and Military Field-service, into 
the States and Territories lying south 
and west of the Mississippi, between 
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts — pre- 
sented to the War-department, Wash- 
ington, Oct. 1851." As I intend to pub- 
lish an entire account of this affair for 
public edification ere long, it is sufficient 
now to determine the very recent intro- 
duction of the Arabian camel into 
Africa by quoting Humboldt (Aspects 
of Nature, p. 71); Ritter (Das Kaineel, 
in Asien, viii. pp. 755-9) ; Procopius 
(Bello Vandalico, i. 8; ii. 11); Corippus 
(iv. 598-9); and Bodichon, ^fitudes sur 
I'Algerie, pp. 62-3.— G. R. G. 

611 LUDIM. Bochart, pp. 299-310. — Gra- 

berg de Hemso, Marocco, pp. 69, 246, 
251, seq. — Castiglione, Recherches sur 
les Berberes Atlantiques, Milan, 1846 ; 
pp. 89, 100-1. — Lacroix, Numidie, p. 4. 

— D'Avezac, Afrique Anc, p. 28. — 
Yanoski, L'Afrique Byzantine, pp. 93, 
99. — Ebn-Khaledoon, "Fee ahbar el- 
Berber," 3d book; transl. Schulz, in 
Jour. Asiat., 1828; pp. 140-1. — Asiatic 
Miscellany, p. 148. — Marmol, op. cit., 
trad. Perrot, 1667, i. p. 68. — Leo Afri- 
canus (Hassan ebn Mohammed el 
Gharnatee) Africae Descriptione, 1556, p. 
5. — Bertholet, Guanches, Mem. Soc. 
Ethnol., Paris, 1841 ; Part i., pp. 130-46. 
Agassiz, Diversity of Origin of Human 
Races; Christian Examiner, Boston, 
July, 1850, p. 16.— Dureau de la Malle, 
Carthage, pp. 1-3, 13. — Gibbon, Mil- 
man's, viii., pp. 227-8. — Bodichon, 
fitudes, pp. 32, 64, 103, 109. — Quatre- 
mere, 1st art. on Hitzig's Philistaer; 
Jour, des Savans, 1846, May ; pp. 260, 
266: — [That these views upon the 
" Ludim" are new, the reader can per- 
ceive by opening Munk (Palestine, p. 
432) ; Lenormant (Cours, p. 244); Cahen 
(Genese i. pp. 27, 184); Kitto (Cyclop., 
pp. 397-8) ; and all English commen- 
tators.] 

612 AaNaMIM. Forster, i. pp. 56-9. — De 

Saulcy, Dead Sea, 1853; i. p. 64; ii. p. 
837. — Birch, Hieratic Canon of Turin, 
p. 6. — Anthon, Class. Diet., p. 872. — 
Bochart, p. 322. 

613 LeHaBIM. Bochart, p. 316. — Anthon, 

Anc. and Mod. Geog., pp. 708, 749.— 
D'Avezac, Afrique, pp. 4, 28, 64-9. — 
ChampoUion, jfig. s. 1. Phar., ii. p. 363. 

— Parthey, Vocab. Copt., pp. 497, 530. 

— Gliddon, Oiia, p. 131. 

614 NiP/iaiaTtuKAIM. Bochart, pp. 317-21. 

Otia, pp. 9, 16, 133, 136.— Nott, Bibl. 
and Phys. Hist., pp. 144-5. — Champol- 
lion, op. cit., i. p. 55; ii. pp. 5, 31, 144, 
seq. — Parthey, pp. 110, 506, 530. — 
Herod., ii., ^ 18. — ChampoUion, Lettres, 
p. 124 ; and the hieroglyphics in Gram., 
pp. 169, 363. 406; Diet., pp. 339, 341. 

— Peyron, Gram. Ling. Copticae, pp. 
30, 36-8. — Hengstenberg, p. 211 ; and 
Gliddon, Chapters, p. 41. — Lenormant, 
Cours, pp. 235, 244-5. — Brugsch, Scrip- 
tura .^gyptiorum Demotica, p 25. — De 
Saulcy, Lettre a M. Guigniaut, p. 18. — 
Lepsius, Lettre a M. Rosellini, p. 66. — 



730 



EEFEEENCES AND NOTES. 



iVo. (of Notes, d-c.) 

Bunsen, E?. PI., i. pp. 285, 471.— 
Schulz's Ebu Khaledoon, p. 122.— 
Castiglione, Berberes, p. 1()4. — Quatre- 
mere, Mem. Geog. sur I'Egypte, i. p. 
37; and in Jour, des Savans, 1846, p. 
266. 

615 P7(eT(uRiSIM. Most of the above refer- 

ences here apply. These are special — 
Peyron, Papyr. Graec, Part ii. p. 27. — 
Parthey, pp. 56, 291, 500, 539.— Wil- 
kinson, Mod. Eg. and Theb., ii. p. 137. 
D'Avezac, Afrique, p. 27. — Champ., 
Gram. pp. 98, 169, 327; Diet., p. 81.— 
De Hemso, p. 296, seq. — Lacroix, Nu- 
midie, p. 6. — Anthon, Anc. Geog., p. 
749. — Quatremere, loc. cit., p. 266. 

616 KS/iiLuK/ilM. Bochart, pp. 323-9.— De 

Sola, Genesis, p. 42. — Cahen, i. p. 27. 
Glaire and Franck's Bible, i. p. 50. — 
Munk, Palestine, pp. 82. 432.— Kitto. i. 
pp. 399, 388; ii. 398.— Hales, Analysis, 
i. p. 355. — Ritter, Vorhalle, p. 35, seq. 
— Morton, Cr. JEg., pp. 23-27, on 
" Herodotus." —Eadie, Early Orient. 
Hist. — Mignot, " 3me Mem. sur les 
Phoenicians;" Acad. R. d. Inscrip., 
Paris, xxxiv. 1770, p. 146. — Marmol, 
Ira parte, foi. 31. — Lepsius, Lettre. pp. 
14, 18, 44: PI. A, No. I, 12.— Birch, in 
Otia, p. 115. — De Longperier, Rev. 
Aroheol., 1850, p. 450. — Botta, ]<;crit. 
cuneiforme Assyr., pp. 6, 93, 192. — 
Rawlinson, Commentary, pp. 10-14. — 
De Hemso, p. 2-16. — Hitzig.Urgeschichte 
und Myihologie der Philistaer, 1845; 
reviewed by Quatremere, loc. cit, p. 
266. — Koenig, apud Jomard, Recueil 
des Voyages, 1829; iv. p. 130, seq. — 
Hodgson, Sahara, pp. 33-5 : — and, for 
" Oases," Wilkinson, Mod. Eg., ii. pp. 
353-79. 

617 PAiLiST^IM. Wilford, Asiat. Res.; iii. 

1799, pp. 317-20, 322. — Hales, i. pp. 
368, 380; after a disclaimer, p. 198.— 
[On " Col. Wilford," vifho is the cause 
of all (hose Hindostanic stupidities still 
current among English hagiographers, 
conf. Klaproth ; in the Journal Asiat., 
Paris, XXV. p. 13, note ; and Vans Ken- 
nedy, Hindu Mythology, London, 1831; 
Appendix A, pp. 406-22.] ChampoUion, 
Gram., p. 180. — Osburn, Testimony, 
pp. 137-41, 155.— Mignot, op. cit, p. 148, 
seq. — Quatremere (op. cit., pp. 258-69, 
411-24, 497-510,) dispenses with more 
than reference to Kitto, ii. pp. 521-4. — 
Raoul-Rocheite, Archeologie comparee, 
i. pp. 190-2. 373-4. — De Saulcy, Dead 
Sea, i. pp. 27-9. 55-6. 

618 KaPAT(oRIM. Bochart, pp. 329-33.— 

Volney, iv. p. 229. — Quatremere. loc. cit. 

619 TsIDoN. Bochart, p. 342.— Homer, II. 

xxiii. 743; Odys., xv. 425. — Justin, 
Ixviii. 3. — De Saulcy, Dead Sea, i. 52, 
57-9. — Quatremere, on Mover's " Pho- 
nizier," op. cit., p. 503.— Gliddon, Otia, 
p. 136. — Eadie, Early Or. Hist., pp. 
425-6.— Lay ard, Babylon, p. 627. 

620 KheTt. Bochart, p. 344-8, for this and 

the following names. — Lanci, Paralipo- 
meni, i. pp. 13, 144. — Munk, Palestine, 
p. 78. — Birch, Archseologia, xxxv. 1853. 
— Layard, Babylon, pp. 142, 354, 633. 

621 IBUSL Osburn, Testimony, pp. 37-43, 



No. (of Notes, dc.) 

123-5, 154. — Champolliori, Lettres, pp. 
76-7.^De Saulcy, Inscriptions de Van, 
p. 26. 

622 AMoRL On " Ncphilim," cf. the Para- 

lipomeni. — Talmud, apud Rabbi Ben- 
Ouziel; Cahen, iv. p. 107, note. — 
Gliddon, Otia, p. 137.— Rosellini, Mon. 
Stor., iii. part 1, pp. 368-70; iv. pp. 94, 
237-9.— Birch, Gallery,, part i. p. 86.— 
Hincks, Hierog. Alph., p. 13 ; pi. i. fig. 
17.— Osburn, Test., 65, 128-9, 154.— 
Birch, Stat. Tab. Kar., pp. 20-3. —De 
Saulcy, Dead Sea, i. p. 347. 

623 GiRGaSL Munk, Palestine, pp. 69, 79. 

624 K/(UI. Hieronymus, Epist. ad Dardanum, 

129. — Kitto, Cyclop., voce '• Hivite." — 
Vico, Scienza Nuova, transl. Paris, 
1844, p. 288. 

625 A«RKL Vaux, Nineveh, pp. 459, 468, 

478. — Gliddon, Otia, pp. 137-8. — An- 
thon, Class. Diet., pp. 1049-53. 

626 SINL Otia, p. 130. — Munk, p. 78.— 

Osburn's error of " Sinim" for SIN- 
KAR (Test., p. 158, No. 30), was cor- 
rected hy Birch, Stat. Tab. Kar., p. 37. 

627 ARUaDI. Osburn, pp. 52, 58, 69, 80, 

118, 156. —Vaux, Nineveh, pp. 459, 
468, 478. — Layard, Babylon, p. 627. 

628 TsiMRI. Otia, p. 137.— Bochart, p. 347. 

629 KAaMaTd. Rawlinson, in Vaux, p. 462, 

seq. — De Saulcy, Rev. Archeol., 1850, 
pp. 767-8. — Layard, Babylon, p. 627. — 
Osburn, pp. 98, 101, 142, 155.— " Vico, 
et ses CEuvres," Introd., p. 1. 

630 AoILaM. Ainsworth, Assyria, &c., pp. 

108, 196-216.- Rawlinson, March from 
Zohab to Khusistan, 1836 ; R. Geog. 
Soc, ix. p. 47.— Dubeux, Perse, pp. 1, 
9, 13, 31. — Frazer, Mesopotamia, p. 22. 
— Polybius, V. 44. — Strabo, xvi. p. 744. 
— Layard, Khuzistan ; R. Geog. Soc, 
xvi. pp. 61-84. — Tychsen, De Cuneatis 
Inscrip., 1798, pp. 10, 13. — Ouseley, 
Travels, 1819, p. 325. — Lowenstern, 
Remarques; Eev. Archeol., 1850, pp. 
687-723. — De Saulcy, Inscrip. trouveea 
a Khorsabad ; Rev. Archeol., 1850, pp.' 
767-70.— Layard, Babylon, pp. 212, 353, 
628. 
631-632 ASUR. De Sola, Genesis, note, p. 
41. — De Longperier, Rev. Archeol., 
1850, pp. 429-32.— Rich's Narrative of 
a Journey to Nineveh; London, 1839; 
Introd., note, p. xvii. — The Friend of 
Moses, New York, 1852; pp. 181, 185, 
200, 215-6, 220.— Rawlinson, Commen- 
tary, pp. 26-7. — Birch, in Layard's 
Nineveh and its Hemains, ii., p. 340, 
note. — Layard, Babylon, pp. 212, 530, 
629. 

633 ARP/ia-KaSD. Kitto, Cyclop., i. p. 229 ; 

but see ii, p. 398. — Volney, iv. pp. 249- 
50. — Lenormant, Cours, p. 203. — Bo- 
chart, p. 83.— Michaelis, Spicileg. Geog. 
Heb., ii., p. 75. — Dubois, Caucase, iii. 
pp. 421, 434, 488; iv. p. 342-3. — St. 
Martin, Memoires, i. p. 205. — Ritter, 
Asien, vii. p. 320, seq. — Ainsworih, 
Assyria, pp. 152-156; and " An Even- 
ing at Diarbekir," Ainsworth's Mag., 
1843, iv. pp. 221-6. — Loflus, in Rev. 
Archeol., 1850, p. 126.— Layard, Baby- 
lon, p. 628. 

634 LUD. Herod., i. 7; vii. 74. — Grote, 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



731 



A'o- («/ Notes, rfc.) 

Greece, i. pp. 127-30, 20G, 320. 4(52, 
618. — Raoul-Rochetie, Arciipolosie 
Comparee, i. pp. 3S. 20G-227, 271-277, 
284. — Champollion,Dict..p. 80. — Prisse, 
Salle des Ancetres de Thotmes III., pp. 
11-12. — Osburn, Test., pp. 27, 30, 44. 
— Tacitus, Annal. ii. 60, 4. — Birch, 
Annals of Thotmes III., pp. 158-60. 

635 ARaM. Quatremcre, Jour, des Sav., 

1846, pp. 503-4. — Bochart, pp. 83-5.— 
Volney, iv. pp. 246-8. — Munk, Pales- 
tine, p. 435. — Champollion, Gram., pp. 
500-1.— De Rouge, on Statue of Out'a- 
horsoun. Rev. Archeol., 7me Annee, p. 
15. — Judas, in op. cit., 1847, p. 622. — 
Layard. Babylon, p. 628. 

636 aUT«. DeWette, ii. pp. 554-70.— Bochart, 

pp. 90, 91. — Forsrer, " Sinaic Inscrip- 
tions," 1851, pp. 12-68; compared with 
Kircher, CEdipus iEsrvpiiacus, Am.'ster- 
dam, 1652; ii. pp. 103'-'13.— Hunt, Him- 
yaric Inscriptions, 1848 ; pp. 46. — Fres- 
nel, Recherches, p. 23. — See also the 
" Asmonean," New York, 1852, March 
and April. 

637 KAUL. Bochart, pp. 91-2. — Grotius, 

Annot., lib. i. de V. R. C. 

638 GeTfeR. Bochart, pp. 92-3.— Pauthier 

Liv. Sac. de 1' Orient, p. 465 ; and Kasi 
tnirski's "Koran," xxv. 40, 41. — Lane 
Selections, p. 12-15. — Volney, iv. pp 
235, 249.— Pliny, iv. 36.— Solinus, c.23 

639 MaSA. De Wette, ii. pp. 253-316.— Bo 

chart, pp. 93-4. Forster, Geog., i, p 
284-5. 

640 SaLaK/i. Bochart. pp. 100-4. 

641 eiBeR. Gliddon, Chapters, pp. 18, 19. — 

Lane, Modern Egyptians, Pref. — Gese- 
nius, in DeWette, i. pp. 433-4. — Munk, 
Palestine, p. 102. — Lenormant, Cours, 
p. 203.— Fresnel, " Lettre a M. Mohl," 
Jour. Asiat., 1845, pp. 63-65. 

642 PeLeG. "Hebrew Language;" see Ge- 

senius, in De Wette, i. p. 459 ; and 
Bunsen, Eg. PL, i. p. 270.— Athenaeum 
Fran^ais, No. 1; Juillet, 1852, p. 7. — 
Lenormant, Cours, p. 214. 

643 loKTaN. Bochart, 109-12. — Fresnel, 

Arabes avant I'lslamisme, 1836, 1838. — 
Jomard, Arable, in Mengin, iii. pp. 330, 
346, 389-91. Forster, Geog., i. pp. 
77-107. 

644 ALMUDaD. Bochart, p. 112. — Volney, 

iv. p. 252. — Forster, i. pp. 107-11. 

645 SeLePA. Same references. 

646 KAaTsRaMUT*. Add to the above,— 

Plate, Province of Hadramaut, Syro- 
Eg. Soc, 1845, pp. 112-23 ; and Jomard, 
op. cit., p. 349. 

647 leRaKA. Bochart, 124-7. — Forster, i. p. 

115, 137-43. — Fresnel, 4me Lettre, 
"Djeddah, Jan. 1838." 

648 HaDURaM. Bochart, pp. 128-30.— Sale's 

Introd. to Koran, Liv. Sac. d'Or., pp. 
465-" — Pococke. Specimen Hist. Ara- 
biim. p. 41. — Volney, iv. p. 252. 

649 AUZnL. Bochart, p. 130-4. — Rosen- 

miiller, Bibl. Geog., iii. p. 171. — Lane, 
Selections, p. 3. — Volney, iv. p. 253. — 
Forster, i. p. 145-7. 

650 DiKLeH. Bochart, pp. 134-9.— Forster, 

i. pp. 147-8. 

651 aUBaL. References as above. 

652 ABIMAL. Idem. 



Ko. (of Notes, <&.) 

653 SeBA. Bochart, pp. 146-56.— Forster, i. 

pp. 154-7. 

654 AUP/iiR. Munk, Palestine, p. 294.— 

Volney, iv. pp. 255-76. — Bochart, pp. 
156-61. — Michaelis, Quaestiones, No. 
39. — Forster, i. pp. 165-71. 

g6nJBaB.'''1Sameatuhonties. 



657 Prichard, Researches, iii. p. 348. 

658 Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme ; 

Ibid. 

659 Strauss, Vie de Jesus; Littre's transl., 

Paris, 1839; i. pp.434, 436-7. 

660 Oxlee, Letters to Archbishop of Cant., 

2d series, London, 1845, p. 37. 

661 Hennell, Origin of Christ., p. 299. 

662 Vide Fresnel (Arabes avant I'lslamisme, 

1836, p. 61), for a marvellous effort in 
Arabic by the Sheykh Abbas-el-Ya- 
maneetee. 

663 So read De Sola, Lindenthal, and Raphall, 

Genesis, p. 44. 

664 Birch, Stat. Tabl. of Karnac, pp. 36-7.— 

Gliddon, Otia, p. 75. 

665 Layard, Babylon, pp. 496, 506, 529, 543. 

666 Lacour, iELOiM, i. pp. 115, 129, 144-6. 

667 De Sola's Bible, Genesis, p. 44. 

668 Josephus, Antiq. Jud., lib. x. 11, 7 

669, 670 N. B. These numbers are inadver- 
tently omitted. 

671 Cahen, Genese, i. p. 188. 

672 Ethnological Journal, London, 1848, pp. 

197-226. 

673 Introd. to the Canon. Scrip, of the Old 

Test.; Parker's transl., Boston, 1843; 
ii. pp. *8-82. 

674 Account of the worship of Priapus, at 

Isermia, Naples ; London, 1786. 

675 Stromata, v. § 42. 

676 Apuleius,Metamorph.; apud R. P. Knight, 

Symbolical Language of Anc. Art, &c. ; 
Soc. of Dilettanti, 1835. 

677 Humboldt, Cosmos, III., pp. 122-6. 

678 See remains of Orpheus, Hesiod, Aristo- 

phanes, Damascius, &c., in Cory's 
Ancient Fragments, pp. 291-300; and 
Gliddon, Otia, pp. 55-6. on " Ereb." 

679 Civilisation Primitive, 1845, p. 45 — "Quia 

non supplices humi Mutino procumbi- 
mus atque Tutuno, ad interitum res 
lapsas, atque ipsum dicitis mundum 
leges suas et constituta mutasse ?" 
(Arnobius, lib. iv. p. 133.) 

680 Sama Veda, Kena-Oupanishad; Pauthier, 

Liv. Sac, Introd. p. 18. 

681 Academical Lectures, Boston, 1840 ; ii. 

pp. 18-30. ^ 

682 Cahen, Genese, i. p. 5, note. — Munk, 

Palestine, pp. 423, 445. 

683 Peri-Archon, lib. iv. c.2; Huet, Orige- 

niana, p. 167. 

684 Homil. vii. in Levit. — Franck, Kabbale, 

p. 166.. 

685 Strom., iii. 42; Righellini, Franc-Ma5on- 

nerie, i. p. 33. 

686 Recognit., x. 30; Ibid., Mosaisme et 

Christianisme, iii. p. 499. 

687 Ibid,, i. p. 29. 

688 De Gen. contr. Manicheos, i. 1 ; Ibid., 

Ma5onnerie, i. p. 33. 

689 Epist. ad Helvet., iii.; Lenormant, Cours, 

p. 122. 

690 Cf. Mosheim, i. p. 186. 



732 



REFERENCES AND NOTES. 



No. (of Notes, dc.) 

691 Hist, of Egrpt, p. 574. 

692 Hist, de I'iOcole d'AIexandrie, ii. p. 69, 

seq. ; and Biot, Astronomie Ancienne, 
p. 87, seq. 

693 Chron. der jEgypter, i. pp. 125-48. — De 

Rouge, Rev. Archeol., 1853. pp. 671-86. 

694 Cosmas-.iEgyptius, Alexandrinus, Indico- 

pieustes, wrote under Justinian, about 
535, A. D. His " Topographia Christi- 
ana" was printed from MSS. by IVIont- 
faucon, in the " Collectio Nova Patrum 
et Scriptorum Graecorum ;" Paris, 1706 ; 
fol., Tom. II. — Montfaucon's Latin ver- 
sion, pp. 190-1 ; Pi. ii. fig. 2. 

695 Praefatio in Cosmae, p. 4 : with extracts 

from St. Augustine, Lactantius, Chry- 
sostom, Severianus, " Beda ; multique 
alii, quos recensere supervacaneum 

696, 697, aiid 698 Franck, Kabbale, pp. 102, 
136-7. 

699 Montfaucon's translation. 

700 Cahen, xv. p. 172. — Noyes's Job, pp. 71, 

194, note 18. 

701 Harwood, German Anti-Supernaturalism, 

London, 1841. 



No. (of Notes, tfe.) 

702 Mankind in Europe during the Xlllth 

century. 

703 Lanci, La Sagra Scrittura Illustrata ; 

Roma, 1827; cap. ix. 5; xi. 7. — Ibid., 
Paralipomeni all'illustrazione della Sa- 
gra Scrittura; Parigi, 1845; "Aleph- 
tau," parts ii. iii. and viii. 

P. S. 1st Feb., 1854. To-day's mail has 
brought me the first number (Jan. 1,) 
of a " New Series" of the Ethnolof[ical 
Journal, edited by Luke Burke, Esq. 
(John Chapman, publisher, London). 
I have only space to express my hearty 
satisfaction at the re-appearance of this 
much-needed vehicle for free and manly 
thought; and to state that my colleagues, 
Dr. J. C. Nott, Dr. Henry S. Patterson, 
and the Hon. E. Geo. Squier, while 
vouching with myself for the great 
erudition, clear intellect, and high moral 
worth of its editor, have no hesitation 
in recommending it as an exponent 
of, as well as an admirable medium for, 
the most advanced views in Ethnology. 
— G. R. G. 



APPENDIX II. 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS TO TYPES OF MANKIND. 



E. S. Adrich, M. D., San Francisco, Cala. 

Prof. Louis Agassiz, Cambridge, Mass. 

John O. Aikin, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

J. H. Alexander, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Thomas S. Alexander, Esq., " 

Chilton Allan, Esq., Lexington, Ky. 

Mrs. S. G. Allan, Richmond, Ta. 

Hon. Philip Allen, Providence, R. L 

Philip Allen, Jr., Esq., " 

S. Austin AlUbone, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Col. J. S. Allison, Lexington, Ky. 

S. Ames, M. D., Montgomery, Ala. 

Thomas C. Amory, Jr., Esq., Boston, Mass. 

0. G. Anderson, Esq., Mew Orleans, La. 

L. H. Anderson, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

S. H. Anderson, M. D., Sumterrille, Ala. 

Alfred A. Andrews, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

0. G. Andrews, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Kich'd Angell, M. D., Huntsville, Ala. 

Hon. H. B. Anthony, Providence, R. I. 

Nathan Appleton, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Samuel Appleton, Esq., " (2 copies.; 

Rob't B. Armistead, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Capt. Jos. J. Armstrong, " 

Hon. Samuel G. Arnold, Providence, K. I. 

Richard D. Arnold, M. D., Savannah, Ga, 

J. H. Ashbridge, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Athenaeum Library, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Washington L. Atlee, M. D. " 

W. P. Aubrey, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

C. Au26, Esq., himself and friends, Mobile, Ala. (22.) 

Franklin Bache, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

G. Bailey, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

Munro Banister, M. D., Richmond, Va. 

Geo. C. Barber, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Milton Barlow, Esq., Lexington, Ky. 

Edward Bamett, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Henry Barnewall, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Godfrey Bamsley, Esq., New Orleans, La., (2 copies.) 

Dr. Barry, U. S. N., Washington, D. C. 

Hon. J. R. Bartlett, Providence, R. I. 

E. H. Barton, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Judge Bates, San Francisco, Cala. 

Hon. James A. Bayard, Wilmington, Del. 

R. Bean, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

C. Beard, M. D., " 

E. Begouen, E.^q., Mobile, Ala. 

Isaac Bell, Esq., " 

N. B. Benedict, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Henry C. Berrie, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Thos. F. Betton, M. D., Germantown, Pa. 



J. G. Bibby, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Clement C. Biddle, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Henry J. Bigelow, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

Samuel Birch, Esq., Briti.sh Museum, London. 

James Bimey, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Geo. S. Blanchard, Esq., for Merc. Lib., Boston, Mass. 

Col. W. W. S. Bliss, TJ. S. A., New Orleans, La. 

G. W. Blunt, Esq., New York. 

Henry S. Boardman, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Geo. Boldin, Esq., " 

S. M. Bond, Esq., Savannah, 6a. 

James Bordley, M. D., Baltimore, Md. 

Henry I. Bowditch, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

W. B. Bowman, Esq., Mansfield, 0. 

M. BouUemet, Bookseller, Mobile, Ala., (10 copies.) 

Thos. J. Bouve, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Burwell Boykin, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

E. M. Boykin, M.D., Camden, S. C. 

J. F. Boynton, Esq., Syracuse, N. Y. 

A. P. Bradbury, Esq., Bangor, Me. 

Charles F. Bradford, Esq., Roxbury, Mass. 

Dr. Brierly, San Francisco, Cala. 

M. Bright, Jr., Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Geo. Brinley, Esq., Hartford, Conn. 

Jno. M. Broomal, Jr., Esq., Chester, Pa. 

A. Brother, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Geo. L. Brown, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

N. H. Brown, Esq. " 

Jno. Brown, Esq., " 

Peter A. Browne, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jos. Bryan, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

George S. Bryant, M. D., Aberdeen, Mi. 

G. S. Bryant, Newbcrn, Ala. 

Jos. Brummel, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

Sam. D. Buck, Bookseller, Hopkinsville, Ky., (10 cop.) 

Thos. C. Buckley, Esq., N. Y. 

W. Gaston Bullock, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Capt. Owen Burns, Wilmington, N. C. 

M. Burton, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

W. M. Burwell, Esq., Lynchburg, Va. 

Dr. Geo. Bush, New York. 

W. A. Butters, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

U. L. Byrd, M. D., Savannah, Ga. 

D. J. Cain, M.D., Charleston, S.C. 

James Campbell, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Edwin Canter, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Geo. W. Carpenter, Esq., Germantown, Pa. 

Jesse Carter, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

A. H. Cenas, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Paul Chaudron, Esq., Mobile, Ala., (15 copies.) 

Chas. M. Cheves, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

(733) 



734 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 



Langdon Cheves, Jr., Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

Julian J. Chisolm, M. D., " 

Samuel Cboppin, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

N. T. Christian, Esq., Georgetown, Ga. 

Rev. Dr. J. D. Choules, Newport, R. I. 

Jno. C. Claiborne, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

A. Clapp, M. D., New Albany, la. 

W. R. Clapp, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa., (2 copies.) 

Jas. M. Clark, Esq., Providence, R. I, 

Major M. Lewis Clark, St. Louis, Mo., (2 copies.) 

C. Cleaveland, Esq., Yazoo City, Miss. 

J. Breckenridge Clemens, M. D., Easton, Pa. 

G. B. B. Clitherall, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Stephen Colwell, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Col. M. I. Cohen, Baltimore, Md. 

Octavus Cohen, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Henry A. Coit, Esq., New York. 

A. Comstock, Esq., " 

A. Comstock, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Timothy Conrad, Esq., " 

Miss Anna S. Coolidge, Boston, Mass. 

W. C. Cooper, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Corbet, Esq., Brit. Legation, Washington, D. C. 

W. W. Corcoran, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

Chas. S. Coxe, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jno. C. Cresson, Esq., " 

John Crickard, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Charles P. Curtis, Esq., Boston, Mass., (2 copies). 

Thos. B. Curtis, Esq., " 

Hermann Curtius, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Theod. Cuyler, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Mrs. R. P. Dana, New York. 

W. H. Dandridge, Esq., Gainesville, Ala. 

Hon. John M. Daniel, Richmond, Ta. 

W. C. Daniell, M. D., Savannah, Ga. 

John Darrington, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Isaac Davenport, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

Chas. Davis, Esq., New York. 

Jos Barnard Davis, F. S. A., Shelton, England. 

Major Geo. Deas, TJ. S. A., Mobile, Ala. 

Henry Deas, Esq., " 

W. C. Deas, Esq., « 

Zach. Deas, Esq., " 

G. P. Delaplaine, Esq., Madison, Wis. 

A. B. Deloach, M.D., Livingston, Ala. 
John Devereux, Esq., Raleigh, N. C. 
Joseph Devilin, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 
Rev. Henry M. Dexter, Boston, Mass. 
Thos. Dexter, Esq., Mohile, Ala., (4 copies.) 
Chas D. Dickey, Esq., " 

Prof. S. Henry Dickson, Charleston, S. C. 

L. Poulson Dobson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Geo. W. Dorr, Esq., New York. 

Jas. Augustus Dorr, Esq., " 

Geo. Douglass, Esq., Goshen Hill, S. C. 

Sam'l R. Dubbs, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

B. F. Duncan, Esq., Jackson, Ala. 
W. B. Duncan, Esq., New York. 
Hon. James Dunlop, Pittburg, Pa. 
E. Durand, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A. M. Eastman, Esq., New York. 

Chas. J. M. Eaton, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Geo. N. Eaton, Esq., " 

Jno. H. Ecky, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Dr. Ege, San Francisco, Cala. 

Jno. A. Elkinton, M.D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Albert T. Elliott, Esq., Providence, R. I. 

W. N. Ellis, P. M., Lippican, Mass. 

David F. Emery, Esq., West Newbury, Mass. 



Moses H. Emery, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Robert D. England, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

T. C. English, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Richard Esterbrook, Esq., New Orleans, La., (2 cop.) 

F. A. Eustis, Esq., Milton, Conn. 

Alexander Everett, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

C. C. Everett, Esq., Brunswick, Me. 

Hon. E. Everett, for Lib. State Dep., Washington. 

Hon. Edward Everett, Boston, Mass. 

John Fagan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Prof. J. E. Farman, Georgetown, Ky. 

C. C. S. Farrar, Esq., New Orleans, La. 
J. Farrell, M. D., « 

Daniel Fearing, Esq., New York. 

E. D. Fenner, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Chas. W. Fisher, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Redwood Fisher, Esq., " 

Dr. Fonerden, for Md. Hospital, Baltimore, Md. 

E. G. Forshey, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Geo. Fort, M. D., Milledgeville, Ga. 

B. W. Fosdick, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 
Wm. B. Fosdick, Esq., Boston, Mass. 
Hillary Foster, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

W. Parker Fouike, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Prof. Jno. F. Frazer, " 

J. B. Futch, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Charles Ganahl, M. D., Savannah, Ga. 
P. C. Gaillard, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 
A. Gaines, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

E. B. Gardette, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 
James Gardiner, Esq,, San Francisco, Cala. 
John L. Gardiner, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

J. R. Gardner, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

L. M. Gaylord, M. D., Sodus, N. Y. 

David Geiger, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

R. W. Gibbes, M. D., Columbia, S. C. 

Mrs. M. A. E. Gibson, Richmond, Va. 

Jno. Gibson, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

David Gilbert, M. D., PhUadelphia, Pa. 

Hon. Henry D. Gilpin, " (2 copies.) 

Thomas Gilpin, Esq. " 

F. E. Gordon, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 
Theo. Gordon, Esq., " 

W. M. Guilford, M. D., Lehanon,Pa. 

Wm. Graddy, Esq., Georgetown, Ga. 

Calvin Graddy, Esq., " 

Edmund A. Grattan, Esq., H. B. M. Cons., Boston. 

Jno. Gravely, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

Hon. John C. Gray, Boston, Mass. 

Charles Green, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

A. J. Green, M. D., Columbia, S. C. 

J. Green, M. D., Washington, D. C. 

J. Green, Esq., for Merc. Lib. Co., Baltimore, Md. 

D. S. Greenough, Esq., Boston, Mass. 
W. W. Greenough, Esq., " 
John Grigg, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

James Grignon, Esq., H, B. M. Cons., Portland, Me. 
Edmund Grundy, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

.Tohn Haig, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

R. K. Haight, Esq., New York, (5 copies.) 

Jno. S. Haines, Esq., Germantown, Pa. 

C. S. Hale, Esq., Burlington, N. J. 
Rev. A. 0. Halsey, Richborough, Pa. 
John Halsey, Esq., New York, (."i copies.) 
Hon. J. H. Hammond, Charleston, S. C. 
M. C. M. Hammond, Esq., " 

P. T. Hammond, Lancaster, S. C. 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCKIBEKS. 



735 



C. F. nampton, Esq., Columbia, S. C. 

W. Hampton, Esq , " 

W. Hampton, Jr., Esq., " 

Geo. S. Ilarding, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

General Jos. Harlan, Philadelphia, Pa. 

S. N. Harris, M. D., Savannah, Ga. 

Jas. B. Harrison, Esq., Georgetown, Ga. 

Samuel T. Harrison, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

Thos. Willis Hartley, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

John H!;,stings, M. D., San Francisco, Cala. 

Judfe Hastings, " 

Elias S. Hawley, Esq., Buffalo, N. Y. 

W. G. Hay, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Geo. Hay ward, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

E. H. Hazard, Esq., Providence, &. I. 

Isaac P. Hazard, Esq, " 

Thos. R. Hazard, Esq., " 

Kev. G. \V. Heacock, Buffalo, N. Y. 

Dr. G. C. Hebhe, Washington, D. C. 

Alfred Hennen, Esq., New Orleans, La, 

Geo. M. Heroman, Bookseller, Baton Rouge, La. (4) 

W. C. Henzey, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

T. Higham, Jr., Esq., S. C. 

C. W. Hill, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

Geo. S. Hilliard, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

W. L. Hodge, Esq., for Lib. Trs. Dep., Washington. 

W. B. Hodgson, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Judge Ogden Hoffman, San Francisco, Cala. 

J. E. Uolbronk, M. D., Charleston, S.C. 

Geo. Holly, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Prof. Francis S. Holmes, Charleston, S. C. 

0. W. Holmes, M.D., Boston, Ma.ss. ^= i., 

Thos. F. Hoppin, Esq., Providence, B. L, (2 copies.) 

Daniel Horlbeck, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

Henry Horlbeck, Esq., " 

Mrs. Lavinia E. A. Howard, Daphne, Mobile Bay, Ala. 

Kev. Geo. Howe, D. D., Columbia, S. C. 

Dudley Hubbard, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Benj. F. Huddy, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. A. Huger, Esq. Charleston, S. C. 

K. W. Hughes, Esq. Richmond, Ta. 

Thos. Hunt, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

A. J. Huntington, Esq., " 

Albert Hurd, Esq., Galesburg, 111. 

Henry J. Hyams, Esq., New Orleans, La. 



Col. Irving, San Francisco, Cala. 



SamT Jackson, M. D.,Philadelphia, Pa. 

Henry Jacobs, Esq., Providence, R. I. 

Robert James, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

N. R. Jennings, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

W. E. .Jennings, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Dr. J. C. Jennings, Bonn, Prussia. 

Jas. P. Jervey, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

Gen. Thos. S. Jesup, U. S. A., Washington, D C. 

Gov. David Johnson, Limestone Springs, S. C. 

W. E. Johnson, Esq., Camden, S. C. 

T. A. Johnston, Esq., Livingston, Ala. 

E. F. Johnstone, Esq., Detroit, Mich. 

Allen C. Jones, Esq., Mobile, Ala., (2 copies.) 

Edw'd E. Jones, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

James Jones, Esq., " 

James Jones, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

W. Cary Jones, Esq., San Francisco, Cala, 

Wm. Jones, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

Wm. Jones, Jr., Esq., " 

Messrs. Jordan & Bro., Philadelphia, Pa. 

W. J. Joynes, Esq., Petersburg, Ta. 



Hon. J. P. Kennedy, for Lib. Navy Dep., Washingtoil. 

Hon. John P. Kennedy, Baltimore, Md. 

James Kennedy, M. D., New York. 

L. C. Kennedy, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

P. M. Kent, Esq., New Albany, Ind. 

Edward M. Kern, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Geo. Kern, Esq., " 

Jno. Kern, Jr., Esq., " 

Richard H. Kern, Esq., " 

Elisha W. Kcyes, Esq., Madison, Wis. 

E. H. Kimbark, M. D., New York. 

A. C. Kingsland, Esq., " 

Robert L. Kirk, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

S. D. Kirk, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

James Kitchen, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jno. Kitchenmann, Esq., " 

W. H. Klapp, M. D., " 

Sam'l Kneeland, M. D., for Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 

S. Kneeland, Jr., M. D., Boston, Mass. 

E. G. Knight & Co., Booksellers, Cleveland, 0., (10 c.) 

G. Kursheedt, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

John De Lacey, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

John Lambert, Esq., " 

I. A. Lapbam, Esq., Milwaukie, Wis. 

Prof. C. W. Lane, Milledgeville, Ga. 

W. Langermann, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. 

Henry Laurence, Esq., Yazoo City, Miss. 

Hon. Abbott Lawrence, Boston, Mass. 

James Lawrence, Esq., " 

Wm. Beach Lawrence, Esq., Newport, R. I. 

Jno. Laurence, Esq., Mt. Upton, Chenango Co., N. Y, 

Edw'd Lawton, M. D., Boonville, Mo. 

D. Leadbetter, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 
Yr. Lecesne, Esq., " 

Robert Lebby, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

Joseph Leidy, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Col. Opt. H. Leja, Mobile, Ala. 

J. C. Levy, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

S. Yates Levy, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

K. H. Lewis, Esq., Tarboro, N. C. 

Levi Lewis, Spread Eagle, Pa. 

Mifflin Lewis, Esq., Spread Eagle, Pa. 

Richard H. Lewis, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Saunders Lewis, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Winslow Lewis, M. D. Boston, Mass. 

Library of South Carolina College, Columbia, S. C. 

Library Company of Easton, Pa. 

Library of Young Men's Association, Buffalo, N. T. 

Jacob Little, Esq., New York. 

Jack Littlejohn, Esq., Spartanburg, S. C. 

Wm. Littlejohn, Esq., « 

Chas. A. Locke, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

J. L. Locke, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Rev. S. K. Lothrop, D. D., Boston, Mass. 

Robert Lovett, .Tr., Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Andrew Low, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Henry A. Lowe, Esq., Mobile, Ala., (2 copies.) 

Francis C. Lowell, Esq., Boston, Mass., (5 copies.) 

John A. Lowell, Esq., " 

E. H. Ludlow, Esq., New York. 

R. M. Lusher, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Rev. Geo. Macaulay, Milledgeville, Ga. 
Wm. Maekay, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 
Charles Magarge, Esq., Germantown, Pa. 
Jas. Magee, Esq. New Orleans, La, 
C. T. Mann, Esq., Yazoo City, Miss. 
Peter Marcy, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 
James B. Markham, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 
J. H. Markland, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 



736 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 



Trancis Markoe, Ebij., Washington, D. C, 

B. F. Marshall, Esq.,Mobile, Ala. 
Chas. H. Marshall, Esq., New York. 
E. Mason, M. D., Wetumka, Ala. 

C. H. Mastin, M. B-, Mohile, Ala. 

H. B. Mattison, Esq.,Washington, D. C. 

Joseph Mauran, M. D., PrOTidence, R. I. 

B. Mayer, Esq., for Md. Hist. Soc, Baltimore, Md. 

W. E. Mayhew, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Hon. Theo. H. McCaleb, New Orleans, La. 

Jas. McClean, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. H. B. McClellan, M. D., " 

Thos. MoConnell, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

J. H. McCuUoh, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

E. H. McDonald, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

T. F. McDow, M. D., Liberty Hill, S. C. 

Wm. McGuigan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Messrs. McKee & Kobertson, Hagerstown, Md. 

P. B. McKelvey, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Andrew McLaughlin, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Mrs. McPherson, Baltimore, Md. 

M. Megonegal, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa., (2 copies.) 

Charles D. Meigs, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. Aitken Meigs, M. D., " 

J. Forsyth Meigs, M. D., " 

Thos. Mellon, Esq., " 

N. L. Merriweather, Esq., Montgomery, Ala., (5 cop.) 

M. H. Messchert, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

John G. Michener, Esq., " 

Francis T. Miles, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

Clark Mills, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

Charles Millspaugh, M. D., Richmond, Ta. 

J. F. G. Mittag, Esq., Lancaster, S. C. 

E. J. Mollet, Esq., New York, 

James Moncreif, Esq., New York. 

Cyrus C. Moore, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Comm. E. W. Moore, Texan N., Washington, D. C. 

S. Mordecai, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

James W. Morgan, Esq., Lynchburg, Va. 

Israel Morris, Esq.. Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jacob G. Morris, Esq., " 

John S. Morris, Esq., Phoenixville, Pa. 

T. H. Morris, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

B. M. Moss, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

E. L. Moss, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Valentine Mott, M. D., New York. 

James Moultrie, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

John Munro, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. 

Wm. M. Murray, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 

G. A. Myers, Richmond, Va. 

M. H. Nace, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

T. C. Newbold, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Thos. A. Newhall, Esq., Germantown, Pa. 

H. Newman, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

J. B. Newman, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

Jos. Newton, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

New York Society Library, N. Y. 

W. M. Nicholls, Esq., Chesterville, S. C. 

B. M. Norman, Bookseller, New Orleans, La., (25 cop.) 

Gustavus A. Nott, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

James Nott, M. D. San Francisco, Cala. 

Jno. R. Nunemacher, Esq., New Albany, Ind. (2 cop.) 

Rob't W. Ogden, Esq., New Orleans, La. 
J. W. Osgood, Esq., Saxonville, Mass. 
J. W. Orr, Esq., New York, (5 copies.) 
Rev. S. Oswald, York, Pa. 

Edward Padelford, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 
B. R. Palmer, M. D., Pittsburg, Pa. 



John S. Palmer, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

Alexander Pantoleon, A. M. Smyrna, Turkey. 

Comm. F. A. Parker, U. S. N., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Henry T. Parker, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Capt. James Parker, Mobile, Ala. 

Socrates Parker, Esq., Livingston, Ala, 

S. Parkman, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

Henry S. Patterson, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Morris Patterson, Esq., " 

Joseph Patterson, Esq., " (5 copies.) 

Louis L. Pauly, Esq., " 

Abraham Payne, Esq., Providence, R. I. 

W. I. Peale, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Miss Mary Pearsall, " 

Davis Pearson, Esq., " 

John Penington, Esq. " 

Amos Pennebaker, M. D., " 

J. A. Pennypacker, M. D., " 

Granville J. Penn, Esq., Penn Castle, England. 

I. Pennington, Esq., Baltimore,Md., (2 copies.) 

Mrs. C. W. Pennock, Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. W. Perard, Jr., Esq., New York. 

Chas. T. Percival, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

0. H. Perry, Esq., for Vig. Lib. Assoc, Baltimore, Md. 

Rob't E. Peterson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jesse E. Peyton, Esq., " 

Philadelphia Library Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jona. Phillips, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

John Phillips, M. D., Bristol, Pa. 

Hon. P. Phillips, Mobile, Ala. 

Charles Pickering, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

J. C. Pickett, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

E. B. Pierson, M. D., Salem, Mass. 

Henry L. Pierson, Esq., New York. 

Hon. Albert Pike, Little Rock, Arkansas. 

Wm. M. Pippen, Esq., Tarboro, N. C. 

J. N. Piatt, Esq., New York. 

George Poe, Esq., Washington, D. C. 

J. G. Poindexter, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Prof. F. A. Porchcr, Charleston, S.C. 

George Porteus, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

John Potts, Esq., Chihuahua, Mexico. 

L Pratt, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Wm. Pratt, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Wm. H. Pratt, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

J. H. Prentice, Esq., New York. 

J. S. Preston, Columbia, S. C. 

H. C. Price, Esq., Chester, Pa. 

Isaac Pugh, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jno. M. Pugh, M. D., West Philadelphia, Pa. 

G. P. Putnam & Co., Publishers, New York, (10 cop.) 

B. Howard Rand, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jno. Randall, Esq., New York. 

R C. Randolph, M. D., Greensboro, Ala. 

Edmund Ravenal, M. D., Charleston, S. C. 

Edward Rawle, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Daniel T. Rea, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

J. B. Read, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Wm. Reed, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

J. J. Reese, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

John R. Reid, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

D. Elliott Reynolds, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Col. James Rice, San Francisco, Cala. 

W. Bordman Richards, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

W. W. Richards, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Maurice Richardson, Esq., Great Valley, Pa. 

J. L. Riddell, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Mrs. G. W. Riggs, Baltimore, Md. 

J. H. Riley & Co.. Booksellers, Columbus, 0., (5 cop.) 

Thomas Ritchie, Esq., Washington, D. C. 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 



737 



Col. George Rivers, Providence, K. I 

J. A. Roberts, Greensville, Pa. 

W. Lea Roberts, Esq., New York. 

F. M. Robertson, M. D., Charleston, S. C 

Jobn Blount Robertson, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Col. W. S. Rockwell, Milledgeville, Ga. 

Prof. Henry D. Rogers, Boston, Mass. 

Chas. H. Rogers, Valley Forge, Pa. 

Hon. Molton J. Rogers, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jno. S. Rohrer, M. D., " 

0. A. Roorback, Bookseller, New York, (16 copies.) 

Wm. Ropes, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

A. H. Rosenheim, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Jiunes S. Rowe, Esq., Bangor, Me. 
Samuel Rutttn, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

E. H. Rugbee, Esq., Providence, R. I. 

James Rush, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Mrs. Rush, " 

John Russell, Bookseller, Charleston, S. C, (3 copies.) 

Charles Ryan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Rev. Dr. Ryerson, Toronto, Canada, (2 copies.) 

B. J. Sage, Esq., New Orleans, La. 
Richard G. Sager, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 
Hon. James Savage, Boston, Mass. 
W. H. De Saussure, Charleston, S. C. 
J. P. Scriven, M. D., Savannah, Ga. 
Chas. Scott, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
John Scoville, Esq., Salisbury, Conn. 
E. M. Seabrook, Esq., Charleston, S. C. 
Hon. Benjamin Seaver, Boston, Mass. 
P. T. Seibel, M. D., Savannah, Ga. 

S. E. Scwall, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

George C. Shattuck, Esq., Boston, Mass., (2 copies.) 

Lemuel Shattuck, Esq., " 

Quincy A. Shaw, Esq., " 

Robert G. Shaw, Esq., " (2 copies.) 

R. 0. Shaw, M. D., Mobile, Ala. 

W. W. Shearer, Esq., Livingston, Ala. 

Shepherd, Esq., Cairo, Egypt. 

John H. Sherard, Esq., Livingston, Ala. 

W. Sherman, Esq., New York. 

Nath. B. Shurtleff, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

Origen Sibley, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Hon. Chas. Sitgreaves, New Jersey. 

H. N. Skinner, Esq., New York. 

J. R. Slack & Co., Booksellers, Steubenville, 0., (3 c.) 

Jno. Sloan, M. D., New Albany, Ind. 

A. A. Smets, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

F. Gurney Smith, Jr., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Howard Smith, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Jacob Smith, Esq., Georgetown, Ga. 

J. Broom Smith, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. 

Jno. Jay Smith, Esq., Germantown Pa. 

Joseph P. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. E. J. Smith, Esq., Georgetown, Ga. 

John T. Smith, Esq., Livingston, Ala. 

Samuel Smith, Esq., New York. 

J. A. Spencer, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Truman & Spo£ford, Booksellers, Cincinnati, 0., (5 e.) 

Hon. E. Geo. Squier, New York. 

Wm. H. Squire, M. D., Germantown, Pa. 

W. E. Stacke, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

W. H. Stark, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Albert Stein, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Jacob Steiner, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. P. Steiner, Esq., " 

Claudius C. Stewart, Esq., Florida. 

Wm. Stevenson, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

D. D. Stewart, M. D., « 

F. Stewart, Esq., MobUe, Ala. 

93 



Scott Stewart, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Wm. Stewart, Esq., Hagerstown, Md., (2 copies.) 

John Stoddard, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

Prof. I. M. Stone, Hanover, Ind. 

Warren Stone, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Lt. Isaac G. Strain, U. S. N., Philmlelphia, Pa. 

Wm. Strickland, Bookseller, Mobile, Ala., (10 copies.) 

Col. C. B. Strode, San Francisco, Cala., (10 copies.) 

Hon. A. H. H. Stuart, for Lib. Dep. Int., Washington. 

Albert Sumner, Esq., Newport, R. I. 

Hon. Charles Sumner, Washington, D. C. 

Chas. G. Swartz, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jos. Swift, Esq., " 

Samuel Swett, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Mrs. T. A. Swett, « 

T. A. Tankusley, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Benjamin Tanner, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Rev. S. K. Talmage, LL. D., Milledgeville, Ga. 

Henry W. Taylor, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Wm. Taylor, Esq., Richmond, Va. 

J. K. Tetft, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

J. S. Teft, Bookseller, Houston, Texas, (10 copies.) 

Carlisle Terry, M. D., Georgetown, Ga. 

Charles L. Tew, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Richard H. Thomas, M. D., Baltimore, Md. 

Edwin Thompson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

John Tbome, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Col. James J. Thornton, Mobile, Ala. 

B. C. Ticknor, Esq., Mansfield, 0. 

Osmond Tiffany, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Howard Tilden, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

J. Tisdale, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Dr. Toland, San Francisco. Cala. 

Gen. Joseph Totten, U. S. A., Washington, D. C. 

Henry Toulmin, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

Morton Toulmin, Esq., " 

Elisha Townsend, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Robert Trueman, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

David H. Tucker, M. D., Richmond, Va. 

J. W. Tucker, Esq., Spartanburg, S. C. 

Wm. E. Tucker, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Pred'k Tudor, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Alexander Turnbull, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

T. I. Turner, M. D., V. S. N., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Prof. M. Tuomey, Tuscaloosa, Ala. 

J. W. Tuthill, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

J. A. Tyler, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

J. E. Uhlhom, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Aaron Vail, Esq., New York. 

Jacob B. Vandever, Esq., Wilmington, Del. 

Col. Henry Vaughan, Yazoo City, Mi. 

W. S. Vaux, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A. L. Vegus, Mobile, Ala. 

Henry VoUmer, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Henry Wadsworth, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

George H. Walker, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Isaac R. Walker, M. D., Spread Eagle, Pa. 

Rev. J. B. Walker, Mansfield, 0. 

J. J. Walker, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

S. J. Walker, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

James P. Walker, Esq., Lowell, Mass.- 

John N. Walthall, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

J. J. V. Wanroy, Esq., " 

J. C. Warren, M. D., Boston, Mass. 

J. Mason Warren, M. D., " 

Jas. S. Waters, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 



738 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCEIBEES. 



Col. John G. Watmough, Germantown, Pa. 

Thomas H. Webb, M. D., Providence, K. I. 

Nicholas Weeks, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 

A. J. Wedderburn, M. D., New Orleans, La. 

Plowden C. J. Weston, Esq., Hagley, S. C. 

T. M. Wetherill, Esq., Laurel Hill, La. 

\\m. Wetherill, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

W. West, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Chas. M. Wheatley, Esq., Phoenixville, Pa., (4 copies.) 

Wm. Augustus White, Esq., N. York. 

Benjamin A. White, M. D., MilledgeTille, Ga. 

Eli White, Esq., New York. 

Hon. W. H. Witte, Philadelphia, Pa., (2 copies.) 

Re-F. R. S. Whitehall, New Orleans, La. 

E. D. Whitehead, Esq., Hayanna, Green Co., Ala. 
W. C. Wilde, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Capt. Charles Wilkes, U. S. N., Washington, D. C 

John Williams, Esq., Lancaster, S. C. 

W. C. Williams, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Hon. W. Thorne Williams, Savannah, Qa. 

W. Williamson, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A. P. Willis, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Chas. Wilson, Esq., Savannah, Ga. 

T. McK. Wilson, Esq., Caunonsburg, Pa. 

Rev. W. D. Wilson, D. D., Geneva, N. T. 

Hubbard Winslow, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

John Wiltbauk, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Philip Winfree, Jr., Esq., New Orleans, La. 

James W. Winter, Esq., New York. 

C. J. Wister, Esq., Germantown, Pa. 

James H. Witherspoon, Esq., Lancaster, S. C. 

Thomas R. Wolfe, Esq., New Orleans, La. 

Wm. B. Wolfe, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A. Wolle, Esq., Bethlehem, Pa. 

F. Wolgamuth, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Messrs. Wood & Conner, Carlisle, Pa. 
A. T. Wood, Esq., New Orleans, La. 
George B. Wood, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Rev. W. D. Wood, D. D., Geneva, N. Y. 
Mrs. Woodbury, New York. 

H. A. Wright, Esq., Madison, Wis. 
■ Wm. Wright, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 



Jacob Wyand, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Wm. W. Wyatt, Esq., " 

Messrs. Wylie, Mobley & Strait, Lancaster, S. C. 

Samuel G. Wyman, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Thomas K. Wynne, Esq., Richmond, Ta. 

Gregory Yale, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. 
Jno. C. Yeager, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
Philip Yeiser, M. D., New Orleans, La. 
Harry M. Young, Baltimore, Md. 
J. A. Young, Esq., Camden, S. C, 
John B. Young, Esq., Richmond, Va. 



ADDITIONAL NAMES, 
RECEIVED SINCE THE ABOVE VST WAS MABE OBT. 

G. W. Ball, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A. Billings, Esq., Nashville, Tenn. 

Beriah Brown, Esq., Madison, Wis. 

Wm. H. Van Buren, M. D., New York. 

Stacy B. Collins, Esq., " 

John Le Coute, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jno. Le Conte, Jr., Esq., " 

T. J. Crowen, Bookseller, New York, (2 copies.) 

Gov. Nelson Dewey, Lancaster, Wis. 

John Evans, Esq., West Haverford, Pa, 

W. Wayne Evans, Esq., Paoli, Pa, 

Felix B. Gaudet, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

A. T. Gray, Esq., Madison, Wis. 
Prof. S. S. Haldeman, Columbia, Pa. 
Charles H. Hall, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 
E. H. Janssen, Esq., Madison, Wis. 
Jno. McBride, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. 

B. Meyer, Esq., Baltimore, Md. 

Joshua Moss, Esq., Birmingham, England, (2 copies.) 

J. West Nevins, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Jo. S. Pender, Esq., Tarboro, N. C. 

Library of Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa. 

D. T. Pratt, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. 



y"^ 



THE END. 



j^22 74 1Si4 



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